Abstract
Background and Aims
Dispensing of prescription stimulants to adults has risen dramatically over the past decade. Examining trends in nonprescribed use of prescription stimulants can inform public health responses. Most studies in the United States (U.S.) have faced challenges in assessing trends over time due to changes in survey methodologies and variation in populations assessed. We examined data from the Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health (PATH) Study to assess changes in nonprescribed use of prescription stimulants in the U.S. from 2013 to 2022.
Design
The PATH Study is an ongoing longitudinal study of U.S. youth and adults, representative of the civilian noninstitutionalized population. Repeated cross‐sectional estimates at each wave were used (8 total waves). Trends from Wave (W) 1 (September 2013–December 2014) to W7 (January 2022–April 2023) were assessed. Full‐sample and replicate weights were used; joinpoint analyses and wave‐to‐wave comparisons were applied to test trends.
Setting
Civilian noninstitutionalized U.S. youth and adults.
Participants/Cases
Youth aged 12–17 and adults aged 18 + were assessed, with a total of 45 727 participants at wave 1 (Ns vary by wave).
Measurements
Past 12‐month (P12M) prevalence of nonprescribed use of Ritalin or Adderall was assessed. Nonprescribed use of stimulants was assessed across subgroups according to age (12–17, 18–24, 25–39, ≥40) and sex (male, female).
Findings
While wave‐to‐wave comparisons showed fluctuations across certain waves, overall, there were no statistically significant changes in P12M prevalence of Ritalin or Adderall nonprescribed use (1.3% at W1 and 1.5% at W7) across the study period. However, statistically significant differences in trends existed across age groups. Among 12–17 year‐olds, nonprescribed use prevalence remained stable (1.4% in W1 and 1.5% in W7). Nonprescribed use prevalence also remained stable for 18–24‐year‐olds from W1 to W3, but then significantly declined (p = 0.016) from W3 (5.3%) to W7 (2.6%). There were no significant changes in nonprescribed use prevalence among 25–39‐year‐olds (1.7% in W1 and 2.4% in W7) and those aged ≥40 (0.3% in W1 and 0.9% in W7). Across most waves, young adults aged 18–24 had a statistically significantly higher prevalence of nonprescribed use. Neither sex had significant trends in P12M nonprescribed use prevalence.
Conclusions
Despite an increase in dispensing of prescription stimulant medications in the United States, the prevalence of nonprescribed Ritalin or Adderall use does not appear to have increased, as assessed in the nationally representative Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health (PATH) Study. The prevalence of nonprescribed Ritalin or Adderall use among young adults aged 18–24, the age group with the highest nonprescribed use prevalence, declined 2013 to 2022.
Keywords: Adderall, population assessment of tobacco and health study, Ritalin, stimulant misuse, stimulant misuse trends, stimulant prescription
INTRODUCTION
Dispensing of prescription stimulants to adults, and especially females [1], has risen dramatically over the past decade in the United States (US). This increase has been one of the factors contributing to the current shortages of this medication class [2], which is seen as a first‐line treatment for attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder [3, 4]. The Drug Enforcement Agency in the United States classifies prescription stimulants in schedule II under the Controlled Substance Act, indicating that they have ‘a high potential for abuse, with use potentially leading to severe psychological or physical dependence.’ [5].
Given this increase in prescribed stimulants, examining trends in prescription stimulant misuse will inform public health response. Most studies in the United States, including the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) [6] and Monitoring the Future (MTF) [7, 8], have found misuse prevalence to be stable or declining, although there are challenges in assessing trends over time because of changes in survey methodologies and variation in populations assessed. In particular, there have been different approaches to defining prescription simulant misuse (herein, non‐prescribed use).
To explore this issue further, we examined data from the Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health (PATH) Study to assess changes in the non‐prescribed use of prescription stimulants among people age 12 years or older in the United States during 2013 to 2022.
METHODS
Data
The PATH Study is an ongoing longitudinal cohort study of youth and adults in the United States, and it is representative of the civilian noninstitutionalized population (CNP). At interview wave (W) 1 (September 2013–December 2014), the PATH Study used a stratified address‐based, area‐probability sampling design to recruit respondents. In addition to repeated assessments of the baseline respondents at each subsequent wave, respondents 12 years old were added at each wave from household rosters assessed at baseline (i.e. youth under 12 years old were recruited and then incorporated into the study after they turned 12); at W4 (December 2016–January 2018), and W7 (January 2022–April 2023), probability replenishment samples were added to allow more robust representative samples for these and subsequent assessments. Each replenishment sample allowed the respective waves to be nationally representative of the CNP at the time of each respective replenishment wave.
Youth 12–17 years old and adults age 18+ were assessed at all waves and analyzed using a repeated cross‐sectional approach at W1, W2 (October 2014–October 2015), W3 (October 2015–October 2016), W4, W5 (December 2018–November 2019), W5.5/PATH‐Adult Telephone Survey (ATS) (July 2020–December 2020), W6 (March 2021–November 2021) and W7. W5.5 youth were between 13 to 17 years old, and W6 youth were between 14 to 17 years old. Unweighted sample sizes for each wave and subgroup were presented in Table S1.
The study was conducted by Westat and approved by the Westat Institutional Review Board. All respondents ≥18 years old provided informed consent, youth provided assent and had parental consent. Interview response rates varied for each main wave from 55.2% to 86.4% for adults, and 64.6% to 87.3% for youth. For additional details, see previous publications [9, 10] and the PATH Study Restricted Use Files User Guide [11].
Past 12‐month non‐prescribed stimulant use prevalence
Our primary measure was past 12‐month non‐prescribed use of Ritalin or Adderall. See Table 1 for the relevant questionnaire items. Non‐prescribed stimulant use was also assessed across subgroups according to age in years [using a four‐category ordinal measure (12–17, 18–24, 25–39, ≥40)] and sex (male, female).
TABLE 1.
Weighted prevalence of past 12‐month non‐prescribed use of Ritalin or Adderall, PATH study 2013–2022 (waves 1–7).
| 2013/2014 (wave 1)a | 2014/2015 (wave 2)b | 2015/2016 (wave 3)b | 2016/2018 (wave 4)b | 2018/2019 (wave 5)b | 2020 (wave 5.5b/PATH‐ATS)b | 2021 (wave 6)b | 2022/2023 (wave 7)b | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Weighted prevalence | (95% CI) | Weighted prevalence | (95% CI) | Weighted prevalence | (95% CI) | Weighted prevalence | (95% CI) | Weighted prevalence | (95% CI) | Weighted prevalence | (95% CI) | Weighted prevalence | (95% CI) | Weighted prevalence | (95% CI) | |
| Total population | 1.3 | (1.2–1.4) | 1.6 | (1.5–1.8) | 1.7 | (1.5–1.8) | 1.6 | (1.4–1.8) | 1.5 | (1.4–1.7) | 0.7 | (0.6–0.9) | 0.9 | (0.8–1.1) | 1.5 | (1.3–1.6) |
| Age, years | ||||||||||||||||
| 12–17 | 1.4 | (1.2–1.6) | 1.8 | (1.5–2.1) | 1.9 | (1.6–2.2) | 1.6 | (1.4–1.8) | 1.5 | (1.3–1.8) | 0.4 | (0.3–0.7) | 1.1 | (0.8–1.5) | 1.5 | (1.3–1.8) |
| 18–24 | 5.2 | (4.6–5.8) | 5.0 | (4.5–5.6) | 5.3 | (4.7–6.0) | 4.4 | (3.9–4.9) | 3.7 | (3.2–4.2) | 2.6 | (2.1–3.3) | 2.3 | (1.9–2.7) | 2.6 | (2.2–3.0) |
| 25–39 | 1.7 | (1.4–2.0) | 2.0 | (1.7–2.3) | 2.3 | (1.9–2.8) | 2.4 | (2.1–2.8) | 2.5 | (2.1–3.0) | 1.3 | (0.9–2.0) | 1.8 | (1.4–2.1) | 2.4 | (2.1–2.8) |
| 40+ | 0.3 | (0.3–0.5) | 0.7 | (0.6–0.9) | 0.6 | (0.5–0.8) | 0.7 | (0.5–0.8) | 0.7 | (0.5–0.8) | 0.1 | (0.0–0.3) | 0.4 | (0.3–0.5) | 0.9 | (0.7–1.1) |
| Sex | ||||||||||||||||
| Male | 1.5 | (1.4–1.7) | 1.8 | (1.7–2.0) | 2.0 | (1.8–2.2) | 1.9 | (1.7–2.1) | 1.7 | (1.5–2.0) | 0.9 | (0.6–1.2) | 1.0 | (0.9–1.2) | 1.5 | (1.4–1.7) |
| Female | 1.1 | (1.0–1.3) | 1.4 | (1.2–1.6) | 1.4 | (1.1–1.6) | 1.3 | (1.1–1.5) | 1.3 | (1.1–1.5) | 0.5 | (0.4–0.7) | 0.8 | (0.7–1.0) | 1.4 | (1.2–1.6) |
Abbreviations: COVID‐19, coronavirus disease 2019; PATH, Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health; PATH‐ATS, PATH‐Adult Telephone Survey; W, wave.
At W1, respondents were asked, ‘Have you ever used any of the following prescription drugs that were not prescribed for you or that you took only for the experience or feeling they caused?’; we used response option: ‘Ritalin or Adderall’. For those who reported non‐prescribed use, a follow‐up question asked, ‘How long has it been since you last used Ritalin or Adderall?’ Response options ‘within the past 30 days’ and ‘more than 30 days ago, but within the past year’ captured past 12‐month estimates.
At W2–W7, respondents were asked, ‘In the past 12 months, have you used any of the following prescription drugs that were not prescribed for you or that you took only for the experience or feeling they caused?’; response option ‘Ritalin or Adderall’ was used to generate past 12‐month estimates. W1–W5 data were collected in person via ACASI, W5.5/PATH‐ATS data were collected by telephone, W6 data were collected either by telephone or in‐person and W7 data were collected by telephone, in‐person or the web.
PATH‐ATS was conducted to assess policy and regulatory changes in 2020, substance use in relation to the COVID‐19 pandemic, and provide up‐to‐date, nationally representative data on substance use. The PATH‐ATS was conducted solely by telephone (September 2020–December 2020). Only a stratified random subsample of participants was interviewed for PATH‐ATS, and participants were eligible if they were 20 or older, in the W4 Cohort, and had responded to W5 survey. PATH 5.5 was also conducted by telephone, but included all youth and young adults under age 20.
Statistical analyses
Repeated cross‐sectional estimates for the total population and subpopulations at each wave were used. Full‐sample and replicate weights accounted for complex sample design and non‐response to obtain statistically valid estimates. Weights also accounted for the potential correlation in responses for respondents included in multiple waves.
Joinpoint regression was used to examine changes in past‐12‐month non‐prescribed use prevalence (Table 2). Change in estimates should be interpreted as between‐wave percentage change.
TABLE 2.
Weighted average between‐wave percent change in prevalence of past 12‐month non‐prescribed use of Ritalin or Adderall, PATH study 2013–2022 (waves 1–7).
| Trend | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Avg. between‐wave % change | P‐value | Between‐wave % change | P‐value | |
| Total population | −2.34 (wave 1 to wave 7) | P = 0.258 | NA | NA |
| Age, years | ||||
| 12–17 | −2.78 (wave 1 to wave 7) | P = 0.316 | NA | NA |
| 18–24 | −8.67 (wave 1 to wave 7) | P < 0.001 | −0.88 (wave 1 to wave 3); −10.78 (wave 3 to wave 7) | P = 0.608; P = 0.016 |
| 25–39 | 1.52 (wave 1 to wave 7) | P = 0.639 | NA | NA |
| 40+ | 1.69 (wave 1 to wave 7) | P = 0.772 | NA | NA |
| Sex | ||||
| Male | −2.84 (wave 1 to wave 7) | P = 0.128 | NA | NA |
| Female | −1.72 (wave 1 to wave 7) | P = 0.500 | NA | NA |
Abbreviations: Avg., average; PATH, Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health.
Joinpoint was used as the primary analysis to test whether there were any changes in past‐12‐month non‐prescribed use prevalence. The software assesses the statistical significance of trends and fits the best model based on the data. We started with the minimum number of joinpoints (no change in slope with 0 joinpoints) and tested whether adding 1 joinpoint was statistically significant (and should be retained in the model). Significance tests were based on Monte Carlo permutations. We incorporated estimated variation for each point estimate; and change in estimates should be interpreted as between‐wave percentage rate change. We report the model with the best fit based on joinpoint results for the total population and for each subgroup. If there are two change scores (only for 18–24 group) reported in the right column, this indicates the program found 1 joinpoint. If only the avg. between‐wave % change is reported in the left side, this indicates the program found zero joinpoints.
To test whether past 12‐month non‐prescribed use prevalence differed across age groups and sex, weighted cross‐tabulations were conducted within each wave using design‐based F‐tests (Table S2). Weighted logistic regression analyses were also conducted to determine whether trends in non‐prescribed stimulant use varied by age and sex.
In addition to joinpoint regression analyses, following previous PATH Study methods, secondary analyses examined changes between consecutive waves (i.e. wave‐to‐wave comparisons over time).
Analyses used Stata v.16 to account for the PATH Study's complex sample design and sample weights. Statistical significance was determined using the P < 0.05 threshold in all analyses, but Bonferroni correction was used for the four pair‐wise age comparisons.
The analyses were not pre‐registered, and therefore, results should be considered exploratory.
RESULTS
Prevalence of past 12‐month non‐prescribed use of Ritalin or Adderall
Joinpoint regression results showed that there were no significant changes in past 12‐month non‐prescribed use prevalence of Ritalin or Adderall (1.3% at W1 and 1.5% at W7) across the entire study period for the overall population (Table 1).
Wave‐to‐wave comparisons showed that there were four statistically significant changes in prevalence: there was a significant increase from W1 to W2 (0.3%, 95% CI = 0.1%–0.5%), a significant decline from W5 to W5.5/PATH ATS (−0.8%, 95% CI = −1.0% to −0.6%), and then significant increases from W5.5/PATH ATS to W6 (0.2%, 95% CI = 0.1%–0.4%) and from W6 to W7 (0.5%, 95% CI = 0.4%–0.7%).
Age
Logistic regression results showed that changes in past 12‐month non‐prescribed use prevalence differed significantly according to age (design‐adjusted joint F‐test for interaction effect = 18.64, P < 0.001).
Moreover, joinpoint regression results showed that (see Table 2) there were no significant changes in prevalence of past 12‐month non‐prescribed use of Ritalin or Adderall among those 12–17 years old (1.4% in W1 and 1.5% in W7) (Figure 1). Non‐prescribed use prevalence remained stable for the 18‐ to 24‐year‐old age group from W1 to W3, but then significantly declined from 5.3% in W3 to 2.6% in W7. There were no significant changes in prevalence of past 12‐month non‐prescribed use among those 25–39 years old (1.7% in W1 and 2.4% in W7) or those 40 years and older (0.3% in W1 and 0.9% in W7).
FIGURE 1.
Weighted prevalence of past‐year non‐prescribed Ritalin or Adderall use across age: Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health (PATH) Study, 2013/2014 to 2022/2023. Notes: Wave (W)1 through W5 data were collected in person via ACASI, W5.5/PATH‐ATS data were collected by telephone, W6 data were collected either by telephone or in‐person and W7 data were collected by telephone, in‐person or the web. W6 also only included youth between ages 14–17. PATH‐adult telephone survey (ATS) was conducted to assess policy and regulatory changes in 2020, substance use in relation to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) pandemic and provide up‐to‐date, nationally representative data on substance use. The PATH‐ATS was conducted solely by telephone (September 2020–December 2020). Only a stratified random subsample of participants was interviewed for PATH‐ATS, and participants were eligible if they were 20 or older, in the W4 cohort, and had responded to W5 survey. W5.5 was also conducted by telephone, but included all youth and young adults under age 20. W5.5 also only included youth between ages 13 and 17. Two variables at W1, and one variable from W2–W7, were used. At W1, respondents were asked, ‘Have you ever used any of the following prescription drugs that were not prescribed for you or that you took only for the experience or feeling they caused?’; we used response option: ‘Ritalin or Adderall’. For those who reported non‐prescribed use, a follow‐up question asked, ‘How long has it been since you last used Ritalin or Adderall?’ response options ‘within the past 30 days’ and ‘more than 30 days ago, but within the past year’ captured past 12‐month estimates. W2–W7 respondents were asked, ‘In the past 12 months, have you used any of the following prescription drugs that were not prescribed for you or that you took only for the experience or feeling they caused?’; response option ‘Ritalin or Adderall’ was used to generate past 12‐month estimates. *Change in percentage from previous wave is statistically significant at P < 0.05. **Change in percentage from previous wave is statistically significant at P < 0.01. ***Change in percentage from previous wave is statistically significant at P < 0.001.
In wave‐to‐wave comparisons, there was a significant increase from W1 to W2 among those 12–17 years old (0.4%, 95% CI = 0.1%–0.7%) and 40+ years old (0.4%, 95% CI = 0.2%–0.6%). There were significant decreases from W3 to W4 (−0.9%, 95% CI = −1.6% to −0.2%) and from W4 to W5 (−0.7%, 95% CI = −1.3% to −0.1%) among those 18–24 years old. All age groups showed a significant decrease in non‐prescribed use prevalence from W5 to W5.5/PATH‐ATS (see Table 1 note and Figure 1), the latter of which was conducted during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) public health emergency. There were then significant increases from W5.5/PATH‐ATS to W6 for those 12–17 years old (0.6%, 95% CI = 0.3%–0.9%) and those ≥40 years old (0.2%, 95% CI = 0.1%–0.3%). From W6 to W7 there was another significant increase for those 25–39 years old (0.7%, 95% CI = 0.3%–1.0%) and ≥40 years old (0.5%, 95% CI = 0.3%–0.7%).
Across most waves, young adults 18–24 years old had a significantly higher prevalence of non‐prescribed Ritalin or Adderall use in the past 12 months than other age groups. However, the difference between the 18‐ to 24‐year‐olds and the 25‐ to 39‐year‐olds became non‐significant in W6 and W7 (Table S2).
Sex
Logistic regression results showed no interaction between changes in past 12‐month non‐prescribed use prevalence and sex (design‐adjusted joint F‐test for interaction effect = 1.33, P = 0.24). Although there were no significant trends in past 12‐month non‐prescribed use for either sex, males were more likely than females to engage in non‐prescribed use of Ritalin or Adderall in the past 12 months from W1 to W5. For example, in W5, 1.7% of males versus 1.3% of females engaged in non‐prescribed Ritalin or Adderall use (P = 0.006). Differences in non‐prescribed use prevalence were not statistically significant after W5 (Table S2).
DISCUSSION
Although the dispensing of prescription stimulants has been increasing over the last decade among adults, especially adult females, this study did not find any increase in past 12‐month prevalence of non‐prescribed Adderall or Ritalin use among females, males or any of the age groups during 2013 to 2022 from our joinpoint regression analyses. The most striking trend was among young adults age 18 to 24, the group with the highest prevalence of non‐prescribed Ritalin or Adderall use. In this group, past 12‐month non‐prescribed use of Ritalin or Adderall declined during 2013 to 2022. Wave‐to‐wave comparisons showed that there were both significant increases and decreases in prevalence overall and among different age groups, particularly during the COVID‐19 pandemic; however, our joinpoint analyses showed that these fluctuations did not result in significant trends during 2013 to 2022, except the decline observed among those ages 18 to 24.
Similar to what has been found with other substances [12], non‐prescribed use of prescription stimulants declined during the COVID‐19 pandemic. For most age groups, levels of misuse in W7 (post‐pandemic) rebounded to levels seen in W5 (pre‐pandemic). The exception was among those 18–24 years old, where non‐prescribed use levels continued to be lower than before the pandemic.
Limitations
The PATH Study asks about the non‐prescribed use of Ritalin or Adderall, but not other prescription stimulants. Although these are the most commonly used prescription stimulants [13], people may misuse other prescription stimulants or do not know the name of the medication that they are misusing. Therefore, our results may underestimate the prevalence of non‐prescribed use of prescription stimulants.
The definition of ‘non‐prescribed use’ can markedly affect the rates that are determined. For instance, PATH Study's question about non‐prescribed use of Ritalin or Adderall has a narrower focus than the questions asked by NSDUH and MTF, which preclude making direct comparisons of the results. The PATH Study asks about use of Ritalin or Adderall that was ‘not your own prescription’, or use ‘only for the experience or feeling it caused’. In contrast, NSDUH asks about use of a medication in a way ‘other than as it was prescribed’ and MTF asks about use ‘without a doctor's orders’ [14, 15]. Individuals may use stimulants prescribed to them for the feeling they cause and may develop problems without reporting extra‐medical use. For example, a recent study found that among adults reporting solely using their own prescribed stimulants, 7.8% had prescription stimulant use disorder [14]. However, the PATH Study does not ask participants about whether they have a prescription for Ritalin or Adderall, and therefore, it was not possible to determine whether participants were misusing their own prescription.
Additionally, because of the structure of the PATH Study over time, ages for youth were slightly different at Wave 5.5 and 6, which did not allow all wave‐to‐wave comparisons to be completely identical in terms of youth ages. However, sensitivity analyses that limited the sample to a consistent age for youth (≥14 years old) showed that conclusions did not change.
CONCLUSIONS
The increase in the dispensing of prescription stimulant medications among adults has not been associated with an increase in the prevalence of non‐prescribed use of Ritalin or Adderall as assessed in the nationally representative PATH study. Additionally, the prevalence of non‐prescribed Ritalin or Adderall use among young adults 18–24 years old, the age group that engaged in non‐prescribed use of these medications at the highest rate, declined across the past decade. Additional research is needed to understand the clinical appropriateness of prescription stimulant prescribing and associated short‐ and long‐term harms.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Joshua P. Rising: Conceptualization; investigation; validation; writing—original draft; writing —review and editing. Michael J. Parks: Data curation; formal analysis; methodology; validation; visualization; writing—review and editing. Beth Han: Methodology; validation; visualization; writing—review and editing. Rose Radin: Validation; resources; writing—review and editing. Celeste Mallama: Validation; resources; writing—review and editing. Heather L. Kimmel: Project administration; supervision; investigation; funding acquisition; validation; writing—review and editing. MeLisa R. Creamer: Project administration; supervision; validation; visualization; writing—review and editing. Wilson M. Compton: Conceptualization; investigation; supervision; validation; funding acquisition; methodology; writing—review and editing.
DECLARATION OF INTERESTS
W.M.C. reports long‐term stock holdings in General Electric Company, 3 M Company and Pfizer, unrelated to this article. The other authors have no conflicts of interest.
Supporting information
Table S1. Unweighted Sample Sizes for Analyses on Prevalence of Past 12‐month Nonprescribed Use of Ritalin or Adderall, PATH Study Waves 1–7 (2013–2022).
Table S2. Tests for Within‐wave, Between‐group Differences in Weighted Prevalence of Past 12‐month Nonprescribed Use of Ritalin or Adderall, PATH Study 2013–2022 (Waves 1–7)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
M.P. had full access to all the data in the study and takes responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis. The findings and conclusions in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position of the US Department of Health and Human Services or any of its affiliated institutions or agencies. This article reflects the views of the authors and should not be construed to represent US Food and Drug Administration's views or policies.
Rising JP, Parks MJ, Han B, Radin R, Mallama C, Kimmel HL, et al. United States trends in non‐prescribed use of Adderall and Ritalin: Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health (PATH) Study estimates from 2013 to 2022. Addiction. 2025;120(11):2348–2354. 10.1111/add.70123
Funding information This PATH Study is supported with Federal funds from the Center for Tobacco Products (CTP), Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Department of Health and Human Services, through an interagency agreement between the FDA CTP and the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH) and a collaboration between NIDA and the National Cancer Institute, the National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities, the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, the Office of Behavioral and Social Sciences Research, the Office of Disease Prevention, the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, and the National Library of Medicine. The PATH Study is supported with Federal funds from NIH NIDA and FDA CTP, under contract to Westat (HHSN271201100027C and HHSN271201600001C). H.L.K. and W.M.C. were substantially involved in providing scientific expertise and providing scientific management for HHSN271201100027C and HHSN271201600001C.
[Correction added on 9 July 2025, after first online publication: The affiliation of MeLisa R. Creamer and Wilson M. Compton has been corrected in this version.]
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
PATH Study data are publicly available.
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Associated Data
This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.
Supplementary Materials
Table S1. Unweighted Sample Sizes for Analyses on Prevalence of Past 12‐month Nonprescribed Use of Ritalin or Adderall, PATH Study Waves 1–7 (2013–2022).
Table S2. Tests for Within‐wave, Between‐group Differences in Weighted Prevalence of Past 12‐month Nonprescribed Use of Ritalin or Adderall, PATH Study 2013–2022 (Waves 1–7)
Data Availability Statement
PATH Study data are publicly available.