The impact of a 12-Week yoga intervention on attentional performance in school-aged children: a randomized controlled trial in Western China

Abstract

Background

Attention exerts a significant influence on the cognitive processes and behavioral performance of children. The incorporation of yoga as a component of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) has been demonstrated to be an effective strategy for enhancing attention. Nevertheless, the efficacy of this approach in promoting attention among school-aged children warrants further investigation. The present study was conducted with the objective of conducting an evaluation of the effect of Yoga sessions on the attention of children.

Method

The present study was conducted as a masked, parallel-group, randomized controlled trial. A total of 131 children with normal intelligence and vision, and no personal or family history of mental illness, were randomly assigned by grade block using a computer to the Yoga group(n = 41), the physical education group(n = 41), or the control group(n = 45).)The randomization was generated by block randomization. The Yoga group attended a 40-minute Yoga class twice a week for 12 weeks, the physical education class group attended a 40-minute traditional physical education class twice a week for 12 weeks, and the control group did not participate in any physical activity. At 12 weeks prior (T0), 6 weeks (T6), and 12 weeks (T12), all participants completed attention tests, and teachers assessed children’s attention using an attention rating scale. Both the coaches administering the intervention to participants and the teachers conducting the attention assessments were blinded. Repeated measures ANOVA and simple effect analysis were performed to ascertain any differences between the groups, as well as to identify any changes that occurred prior to and following the intervention.

Results

At baseline, no significant differences were observed between the groups. Subsequent analysis, employing a repeated measures ANOVA, revealed a significant positive impact of Yoga on children’s attention, in comparison to physical activity and the control group. Furthermore, Yoga was found to have a significant positive effect on attention allocation, attention shifts, attention span, and attention stability in comparison to physical education classes.

Conclusion

The results of the study demonstrated that Yoga had a significant positive effect on children’s attention, and that the 12-week Yoga intervention led to improvements in their concentration.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-025-25060-6.

Introduction

Young children acquire cognitive skills through attentional networks, and in preschoolers the attentional system supports the process of self-regulation of cognitive and emotional responses to the environment. Thus, attention is critical for a child’s development and school readiness [1]. The neural basis of executive function is the frontal lobe, where the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is responsible for selective attention, working memory, cognitive flexibility, and planning [2]. As a result, children with attention disorders (ADHD) exhibit deficits in executive functioning, which seriously affects a range of cognitive processes in their decision-making, planning, and action, hindering the individual’s ability to initiate behavior, regulate goals, direct behavior, avoid distractions, and adapt flexibly to different conditions, leading to a decline in their ability to solve new and complex problems [3]. It is accompanied by mental decline [4], behavioral disorders, learning disabilities, and ADHD, and may persist into adulthood [5]. Given the considerable impact of attention and executive function on cognitive processes, behavioural performance, emotional regulation, and academic performance in children and adolescents, there is a growing focus on identifying strategies to enhance attention promotion in this age group.

Recent years have seen a significant evolution in intervention methods for attention problems in children and adolescents, particularly those diagnosed with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). These methods can be broadly categorised into three distinct approaches: pharmacological treatments, behavioural interventions, and cognitive training. Pharmacological interventions, which include stimulant drugs such as methylphenidate and amphetamines and non-stimulant drugs such as atomoxetine, are designed to enhance concentration and reduce hyperactivity and impulsivity. However, concerns regarding drug side effects have been expressed [6]. Behavioural interventions, on the other hand, are based on reinforcement strategies to modify specific behaviours. These include antecedent-based techniques (modifying the environment to prevent problem behaviours from occurring) and consequential-based techniques (reinforcing desired behaviours through rewards or consequences), which have been found to be particularly effective for children with impaired cognitive control and emotional functioning [7]. Cognitive training, on the other hand, aims to enhance specific cognitive skills related to attention, such as working memory and executive function, designed to improve cognitive flexibility, inhibition, and attention control. For instance, interventions such as working memory training have demonstrated efficacy in enhancing attention and reducing impulsivity in children diagnosed with ADHD [8]. However, these training programs frequently encompass computer-based tasks, which can present certain limitations for children. Mindfulness practice has garnered attention as a non-pharmacological intervention, often comprising the instruction of mindfulness techniques to enhance an individual’s capacity to focus, self-awareness, and emotion regulation. Studies have demonstrated that mindfulness practice can enhance concentration and reduce hyperactivity and impulsivity [9]. Furthermore, there exist methods such as neurofeedback and biofeedback. For instance, Amini utilised mindfulness programmes and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) to intervene in the cognitive performance of children diagnosed with ADHD. The results of the study indicated that the DLPFC stimulation group demonstrated a marked enhancement in cognitive flexibility and working memory [3]. However, it is important to note that the application of these methods is limited to a specific range of children. The application of a broad range of interventions to non-clinical children is challenging.

Research shows that sensory-motor training in children can lead to a reduction in symptoms related to hyperactivity, anxiety, depression, and aggression, as well as a decrease in behavioural problems [10], and such training can also contribute to the enhancement of cognitive functions, along with an improvement in behaviour and mood [11]. A review of the extant literature revealed that acute physical activity exerts a positive effect on attention in young prepubertal students (6–12 years), while sustained long-term physical activity has been shown to have a positive effect on executive function, attention, and academic performance [12]. Nevertheless, certain scholars have expressed a degree of caution when conducting the relevant assessment, arguing that the impact of physical activity on key variables in children diagnosed with attention deficits is limited [5].

However, alternative intervention strategies that integrate psychology and physiology, such as mindfulness, yoga and tai chi, have been shown to be effective in promoting attention [13]. The utilisation of mindfulness as a component of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) enables practitioners to direct their attention towards the present moment, thereby diminishing distractions and escapes. It is evident that yoga, tai chi and other such activities promote relaxation, reduce stress levels and improve concentration through physical activities that include breathing exercises and attention control. Yoga practice incorporates elements such as stretching, breathing exercises, and meditation, and it is hypothesised that this may enhance attention control and inhibition skills, a benefit that is particularly relevant for young children, who often experience difficulties in maintaining concentration during class.The conscious breathing techniques employed in Yoga have the potential to activate the parasympathetic nervous system, promote relaxation, and enhance concentration in classroom activities [14]. A study evaluating the effects of a 12-week Yoga session on 5-year-olds showed significant improvements in children’s visual attention and visuomotor precision, as well as reductions in inattention and hyperactivity-related behaviours [15]. Consequently, Yoga is endorsed as an efficacious sensory-motor training modality for children, with the capacity to ameliorate behavioural and emotional challenges while concomitantly enhancing cognitive functions, thereby potentially culminating in enhanced academic performance [16].

Consequently, Yoga not only enhances concentration but also fosters cognitive functions, including memory and problem-solving skills, which are pivotal for academic success [15, 17]. However, school-based Yoga interventions were found to vary in terms of duration, session length, and curricula. The methodological quality of these studies was found to be low to moderate. The outcomes of these interventions were found to be mixed, with both positive and negative results, and the usefulness of school-based Yoga remains uncertain [18, 19].

A plethora of studies have hitherto been conducted on children with a clinical diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Conversely, studies focusing on attention facilitation in non-clinical children have yielded a paucity of findings. The present study, therefore, aims to analyse the effect of Yoga practice on the attentional cognitive performance of children in comparison with that of a control group receiving general physical education (PE) or no physical activity. It is hypothesised that the Yoga group will demonstrate significant improvements in the four aspects of children’s attention allocation, attention shift, attention span and attention stability when compared with the control group receiving general PE and the non-exercise group.

Methods

Sample size

The sample size was calculated with G*Power 3.1.9.7. A priori analysis was made by F-test (ANOVA) with the following input parameters: alpha = 0.05, power 1-beta = 0.80, effect size f = 0.25 [20], resulting in a total sample size of 66 participants, with 33 participants per group [21]. To allow for loss to follow-up and poor attendance, 135 participants were recruited as the initial sample.

Participants

The present study was conducted in a primary school located in a mid-sized city in Western China. This study employed a school–based approach and applied a Masking label, parallel-group, three-arm (1:1:1) randomized controlled trial (RCT) design. A total of 135 children were recruited for the study. All of the children were primary school students in Years 4 to 6 from middle-income families. They have normal intellectual and visual abilities, are right-handed, and have no personal or family history of mental illness. The inclusion criteria comprised the following: the subjects had not participated in Yoga, Tai Chi, Baduanjin or other cognitive training programmes prior to the commencement of the study; and they had not received any medication within the previous week. All participants were right-handed, had normal vision, and had no reported psychiatric disorders. Detailed written information regarding the study design, including potential risks and benefits, was provided to all participants and their legal guardians. Thereafter, the parents or legal guardians of the children provided written consent for participation. Participants had the right to withdraw from the study at any time without any adverse consequences. The study procedures were approved by the Institutional Review Board of the host university, and all aspects of the study were carried out in strict adherence to the principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki.

Procedure

The randomization was generated by block randomization. The participants in this study were drawn from grades 4 to 6 of an elementary school. Each grade level was treated as a randomized block, and within each block, participants were assigned to groups by computer-generated randomization lists by the registration staff. The 135 participants were assigned to the Yoga group, physical education group and the control group. However, two students from each of the yoga and sports groups withdrew midway through the study after failing to complete the second attention test.

The experiment employed a double-blind method, wherein the classes of the Yoga group were integrated into multiple Yoga classes, and the Yoga instructor was unaware of the group’s designation as the intervention group. The physical education curriculum was also incorporated into multiple PE groups, with the PE coach being unaware of this. The 45 students in the Yoga group performed a total of 24 Yoga classes during the school’s normal hours over a 12-week period (two 40-minute Yoga classes per week). The 45 students in the Physical Education group undertook a general physical education course (24 lessons, two 40-minute lessons per week). The control group did not engage in any physical activity in the sports category during this period. At the conclusion of the baseline phase (T0), the sixth week (T6), and the twelfth week (T12) sessions prior to the commencement of the course, all participants completed the attention test. This test, administered on a paper questionnaire, was completed by several students with a master’s degree in psychology, and the instructor was unaware of the grouping of participants. The objective of the study and the nature and content of the two distinct interventions were also not fully comprehended. The post-intervention evaluation was conducted 72 h after the final scheduled Yoga and PE session (see Fig. 1).

Fig. 1.

Overview of the study protocols with pre- and post-tests

The interventions

Yoga intervention exercises are carried out according to the “Fitness Yoga Asana Standards”, which is a standard issued by the Social Sports Guidance Center of the General Administration of Sports of China and the National Fitness Yoga Steering Committee, aiming to standardize the practice methods and technical requirements of fitness Yoga asanas and ensure the safety and health of practitioners. In this study, yoga asanas are selected from the 7 basic poses of the “Fitness Yoga Asana Standards”, such as: Mountain Pose, Surya Namaskar, Vajrasana, Supine Pose, etc. These movements are nationally certified and have the lowest level of difficulty, and do not require a great deal of strength and flexibility for children to practice. The instructors of the yoga course have passed the official qualification examination in China and received a professional certificate. At the same time, the yoga postures and curriculum were discussed by the Three experts in children’s education to ensure it was safe and feasible for children.

In this experiment, various asanas with certain impact on attention were selected as the exercise content, and 35 min of basic part teaching in physical education class was designed, including 10 min of regular teaching, 25 min of Yoga exercise experimental teaching, a total of one set of movements during the experiment, the experimental group did 2 times a week, each time for 25 min, and 5 min of relaxation, and the control group only did ordinary physical education teaching.(Please refer to Appendix 1 for detailed description of Yoga asanas).

The Yoga group did 24 fitness Yoga classes (two 40-minute Yoga sessions per week), and the programme was adapted to meet the child’s level and research goals. The Yoga classes were conducted by certified Yoga teachers, and during the 12-week intervention, each class was a 40-minute Yoga session in the gym of the School. Each class starts with a 3–5 min warm-up, where the children get their hearts pumping with fun activities like jogging and jumping. This is followed by a special stretching and relaxation session, where they learn to unwind and prepare for the main part of the class. For the next 30–35 min, the children get to explore a variety of Yoga poses (Asana), like standing, sitting, lying down, and everything in between. To top it off, they end with a 3–5 min breathing session, where they learn to slow down and focus on their breath. Then, to help them breathe more easily, they did breathing exercises (Pranayama), like forced and passive inhalation, rapid inhalation and exhalation, and slow and rhythmic nostril breathing. At the end of each session, they played fun Yoga games that helped with memory, awareness, and creativity. During the session, they also listened to a story to keep them motivated. The difficulty level of the Yoga classes goes up every week, so that the children can gradually get used to it. The PE group had the most amazing time in their 24 regular PE classes (40 min, twice a week, at moderate intensity) where they got to play lots of fun games like basketball, soccer, handball, and relay races. The classes were run by some super friendly teachers (who had all been trained as undergraduates) in the school’s gymnasium. The control group didn’t do any kind of physical exercise during the study, but they still had a great time.

Attention measurement

Attention is a complex and multidimensional construct. it is linked to multiple sources of information from the environment and to complex motor, emotional, and motivational systems [22]. Despite the extensive coverage of attention in the literature, the extant consensus among researchers is that there are several components to attention. Attention allocation, attention shifting, attentional breadth, and attentional stabilization are considered to be its fundamental elements.

Subsequent research by Chinese scholars [23]resulted in the compilation of a set of Attention Tests for the purpose of measuring attention allocation, attention shift, attention span, and attention stability. It is designed to measure the overall level of attention in athletes and can also be used in children’s attention tests [24]. These include the Pattern Discrimination Test (which requires the subject to identify two target shapes among 16 similar shapes and mark them, thus assessing the attention allocation), and the Choice Circle Test (which involves the subject marking a figure with a number of four dots in a square with a different number of dots, thereby evaluating the span of attention), the Visual Tracking Test (which involves visually identifying the end point of a coiled line and is used to assess the stability of attention), and the Addition and Subtraction Test (which involves scoring between “addition” and “subtraction” and writing the results in the middle of the two numbers, and is used to test the shifts of attention).

The test was administered by three experts from the Master of Psychology programme. These experts first explained the requirements of the test and then guided the participants through the practice phase. Once the participants had understood the meaning of the questions, they were formally tested on a paper quality chart. The time was meticulously controlled in accordance with the stipulated requirements. The attention test was administered in three phases: prior to the commencement of the experiment (T0), at week 6 (T6), and at week 12 (T12).

Statistical analysis

Statistical analysis was conducted utilising SPSS software for Windows version 29 (IBM, Armonk, NY, United States). The mean and standard deviation (SD) values were calculated for each variable. The required sample size was calculated using G*power software [25]. The values for α were set at 0.05 and the power at 0.80. The effect size was estimated to be 0.7 (medium effect). The total required sample size was thus determined to be 55 participants. However, due to considerations such as practicality and resource availability, each group comprised 45 children. However, two students from each of the yoga and sports groups withdrew midway through the study after failing to complete the second attention test, resulting in a total sample size of 131.

Two Trained data entry clerks double entered and verified all data in SPSS 29. The Shapiro-Wilk test was then employed to ascertain the distribution of the data. This revealed that the Shapiro-Wilk values of T0, T6 and T12 were all greater than 0.05, and that all the data in the Normal Q-Q and Detrended Normal Q-Q plots were normally distributed. The homogeneity of variance (Levene test) was confirmed without the need for transformation. Repeated measures ANOVA was performed, corrected by the Greenhouse-Geisser method in a post-hoc analysis. In instances where the interaction was deemed to be statistically significant, a simple effect analysis was conducted. Statistical significance was considered to be present when P < 0.05. The true correlation was estimated by calculating the effect size (partial eta squared, η²_p) [26]. According to [27], values of ≥ 0.01 were considered as small, ≥ 0.06 as moderate, and ≥ 0.14 as large.

Results

Physical characteristics of the participant at baseline

The initial sample comprised 135 children with a mean age of 10.63 years (± 0.93 years); 79 of whom were female and 56 males. The children were randomly divided into three groups. The participants were randomly divided into three groups. The randomization was performed by block. Four children did not complete all the tests, so the number of people entering the final statistical analysis was Yoga Group (n = 43), Physical Education Group (n = 43), and Control Group (n = 45). At the outset of the study, a comparison was made of the age, height, weight, and BMI of the three groups. No statistically significant differences were observed between them, which can be considered homogeneous (See Table 1).

Table 1.

Characteristics of children in the yoga and PE groups at the beginning of the study

	Yoga group(N = 43)	PE group(N = 43)	Control group(N = 45)	F	p-value	η2p
	Mean(SD)	Mean(SD)	Mean(SD)
age	10.63(0.92)	10.63(0.92)	10.640.95)	0.005	0.995	0.000
height	141.35(8.83)	141.04(8.12)	140.63(8.37)	0.079	0.924	−0.016
weight	37.00(11.94)	36.07(9.92)	34.57(6.78)	0.701	0.498	−0.005
BMI	18.22(4.10)	17.89(3.17)	17.35(2.18)	0.825	0.441	−0.003

Note: Mean estimated mean, SD standard deviation,η²_p partial eta squared, BMI body mass index

Gender differences in attention

Independent samples t-tests revealed significant sex differences in Attention Span at both T0 (t = 2.211, p = 0.029) and T12 (t = 2.380, p = 0.019), with males demonstrating higher mean scores than females. No significant differences were found in Attention Allocation, Attentional Shifts, or Attention Stability at either timepoint (all p > 0.05) (See Table 2).

Table 2.

Descriptive statistics for attention by gender

		Male(n = 56)	Female(n = 75)	t	p-value
		Mean(SD)	Mean(SD)
Attention Allocation	T0	14.89 (2.74)	15.89 (3.55)	−1.753	0.082
	T12	16.52 (4.44)	17.16 (4.33)	−0.831	0.408
Attentional Shifts	T0	18.43 (6.54)	17.95 (5.56)	0.455	0.65
	T12	19.21 (5.79)	20.40 (6.38)	−1.095	0.276
Attention Span	T0	21.70 (6.03)	19.64 (4.62)	2.211	0.029
	T12	23.29 (5.48)	21.09 (5.01)	2.38	0.019
Attention Stability	T0	13.27 (2.63)	12.73 (3.16)	1.028	0.306
	T12	14.16 (2.74)	13.83 (3.16)	0.633	0.528

Note: Mean estimated mean, SD standard deviation, T0 initial moment, T12 12 weeks after, p values two-sided significance

A repeated measures ANOVA was conducted separately for the Attention Span dimension based on gender, which showed a significant time effect (f = 9.613, p = 0.001, η²_p =0.07) but not a significant between-groups effect (F = 1.626, p = 0.201, η²_p =0.025) among boys. The time effect (F = 5.95, p = 0.011, η²_p =0.076) and the between-group effect (F = 0.395, p = 0.675, η²_p=0.011) were only significant in the female subjects. The findings suggest that the impact of yoga and sports interventions was not significant for boys compared to girls. The findings of this study indicate that gender disparities in sustained attention (i.e., the ability to maintain concentration over an extended period) may endure over time, potentially reflecting biological predispositions (e.g., neurodevelopmental trajectories) or sociocultural factors (e.g., gendered expectations in task engagement). In practice, interventions targeting attention span in educational or clinical settings (e.g., ADHD support) could benefit from gender-sensitive approaches, particularly in contexts where sustained focus is critical. Nevertheless, the negligible effect sizes and the absence of substantial differences in other domains necessitate a cautious approach when generalizing gender as a primary predictor of attentional performance. It is recommended that further research be conducted to explore longitudinal interactions and contextual mediators (e.g. environmental demands, intervention fidelity) in order to clarify the mechanisms underlying these disparities.

The impact of various interventions on children’s attention

Repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was employed to ascertain the impact of diverse interventions on participants’ attention allocation, Attention Shifts, Attention Span and Attention Stability of the four dimensions of attention over time.

Repeated-measures ANOVA revealed significant temporal and interventional effects on attention allocation. A significant main effect of time (F_time = 13.86, P < 0.001, η²_p = 0.10) indicated progressive improvements across all groups, though the magnitude of change differed between interventions. Group differences were significant (F_group = 8.23, P < 0.001, η²_p = 0.11), with the Yoga group demonstrating superior outcomes compared to the PE group, followed by the control group. A significant time×group interaction (F_time×Group = 12.07, P < 0.001, η²_p = 0.16) reflected divergent intervention trajectories. Post hoc analysis revealed no significant baseline differences among Yoga, exercise, and control groups at T0 (p = 0.38), confirming initial equivalence. Differences between groups reached the level of significance at stage T12(F = 20.67, p < 0.001, η²_p=0.24). Time factor analysis showed non-significant temporal effects in controls (p = 0.09), contrasted with significant within-group improvements in both intervention groups: PE (F = 24.64, p = 0.011, η²_p =0.068) and Yoga (F = 27.78, p < 0.001, η²_p=0.304). Notably, Yoga exhibited superior effect magnitude (η²_p =0.304 vs. 0.068), this suggests that the effects of interventions on attention assignment vary over time.

The results of repeated measures ANOVA for attention shift showed that the time main effect was significant (F_time=10.85, P < 0.001, η² = 0.078), indicating progressive changes in attention shifts across all groups. The main effect of the group was found to be significantly different in the number of attention shifts between different groups (F_group=3.651, P = 0.029, η² = 0.054). Concurrently, a significant interaction was observed between time and groups (F_time×Group=5.744, P = 0.002, η² = 0.082), reflecting divergent developmental trajectories among groups. Post-hoc analysis confirmed baseline equivalence among Yoga, PE, and control groups (T0: p = 0.711). Differences occur at the T6 stage. This intergroup divergence intensified at T12 (F = 7.84, p < 0.001, η²_p=0.109), where Yoga maintained significant advantages over other groups, while PE and controls showed no significant differences. Longitudinal analysis identified distinct temporal patterns, Yoga group exhibited progressive attention shift improvements (T0-T12: F = 18.7, p < 0.001, η²_p=0.23). PE group displayed non-significant changes from T0-T6, with marginal gains at T6-T12 (F = 3.37, p = 0.04, η²_p=0.05). Control group remained stable throughout (T0-T12: p = 0.73). Effect size comparisons (Yoga η²_p=0.23 vs. PE η²_p=0.05) suggest differential intervention efficacy, with Yoga demonstrating clinically meaningful effects on attention modulation.

Repeated measures ANOVA results for attention span showed that the main effect of time (F_time = 9.61, P < 0.001, η_²p = 0.07), indicating progressive improvements in attention span across all groups. While no significant main effect of group was observed (F_group=1.63, P = 0.201, η²_p = 0.07), a significant time×group interaction emerged (F_time×group=4.92, P = 0.005, η²_p = 0.07), demonstrating differential temporal patterns of intervention efficacy. Subsequent post-hoc analyses confirmed baseline equivalence in attention span across the Yoga, PE, and control groups (T0: F = 0.151, p = 0.86, η²_p=0.002). No significant intergroup differences were observed at T6 (F = 0.798, p = 0.452, η²_p=0.012), however, substantial divergence was noted at T12 (F = 6.097, p = 0.003, η²_p=0.087). The longitudinal analysis shows the time trajectories of the different groups. The yoga group exhibited progressive improvement, with attention span increasing from 21.23 ± 5.06 at T6 (p < 0.05) to 23.88 ± 5.67 at T12 (p < 0.001), accompanied by a substantial effect size amplification (η²_p = 0.40). The PE group demonstrated non-significant incremental changes (F = 2.115, p = 0.125, η²_p=0.032). The control group demonstrated consistent performance throughout the study (p = 0.399). The magnitude of effect size differentials (Yoga η²_p=0.40, PE η²_p=0.032) underscores Yoga’s superior efficacy in enhancing attentional capacity over prolonged intervention periods.

Repeated measures ANOVA for attention stability revealed a significant main effect of time (F_time = 15.65, P < 0.001, η²_p = 0.11), showing progressive improvements across all groups with divergent growth rates. No significant group-level differences were observed (F_group = 0.86, P = 0.426, η²_p = 0.01). However, a significant time×group interaction (F_time×group = 7.65, P < 0.001, η²_p = 0.11) indicated intervention-specific temporal trajectories in attention stability. Subsequent post-hoc analyses confirmed baseline equivalence across the yoga, PE, and control groups (T0: F = 0.361, P = 0.697, η²_p=0.006). However, a substantial divergence was evident at T12 (F = 5.4, p = 0.006, η²_p = 0.078). A marked variation was observed in the within-group temporal effects. The Yoga group demonstrated significant time-dependent enhancements in attention stability (F = 76.215, P < 0.001, η²_p=0.546). The PE group demonstrated moderate temporal effects (F = 14.922, P < 0.001, η²_p=0.19). The control group exhibited no statistically significant temporal changes (p = 0.148). The effect size hierarchy (Yoga η²_p=0.546 > PE η²_p=0.19 > Control η²_p≈0) underscores Yoga’s superior capacity to enhance attention stability over sustained intervention periods.(The results of the post hoc comparisons are shown in the attached table.)(See Table 3).

Table 3.

Effects of yoga training compared to traditional physical education on the children’s attention compared, using ANCOVA with repeated measures

	Yoga (n = 43) Mean (SD)			PE (n = 43) Mean (SD)			Control (n = 45) Mean (SD)			Effect	F	p-value	η2p
	T0	T6	T12	T0	T6	T12	T0	T6	T12
Attention Alocation	15.91(3.41)	16.95(3.42)	19.49(4.74)	15.56(2.95)	15.95(3.18)	17.05(3.26)	14.96(3.38)	15.42(3.50)	14.24(3.33)	Group Time Interaction	8.225 13.859 12.066	< 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001	0.114 0.098 0.159
Attention Shifts	18.23(6.49)	20.88(5.94)	22.42(6.36)	18.65(6.4)	19.05(5.46)	19.88(5.64)	17.6(5.08)	17.76(3.28)	17.49(5.49)	Group Time Interaction	3.651 10,852 5.744	0.029 < 0.001 0.002	0.054 0.078 0.082
Attention Span	20.6(5.57)	21.23(5.06)	23.88(5.67)	20.79(5.57)	21.81(4.91)	22.21(4.54)	20.18(5)	20.47(5.09)	20.09(5.06)	Group	1.626	0.201	0.025
										Time	9.613	< 0.001	0.07
										Interaction	4.916	0.005	0.071
Attention Stability	12.72(2.06)	13.72(2.36)	15.07(2.53)	13.26(2.63)	13.14(2.08)	13.81(2.24)	12.91(3.85)	13.31(3.92)	13.07(3.65)	Group	0.860	0.426	0.013
										Time	15.647	< 0.001	0.109
										Interaction	7.652	< 0.001	0.107

Note: Mean estimated mean, SD standard deviation,T0 initial moment,T6 6 weeks after, T12 12 weeks after,η²_ppartial eta squared

The findings of the repeated measures ANOVA demonstrated that a time and group interaction effect was present for all four dimensions of attention allocation, attention shifts, attention span, and attention stability. Consequently, Simple effects analyses were performed for significant interaction effects.

A preliminary investigation into the effects of yoga on attention allocation revealed that the PE group demonstrated a delayed effect, with a significant difference observed only at T12 compared to T0 (p < 0.05). By T12, the Yoga group demonstrated superior performance in comparison to both the PE (p < 0.001) and control groups (p < 0.01), thereby underscoring its efficacy in enhancing attention allocation over time. The results of this study indicate that yoga interventions may facilitate rapid and sustained improvements in attentional resource distribution, whereas PE requires prolonged engagement to achieve measurable effects.

The interaction effect of attention shifts was further analyzed with simple effects analysis. The results show: Yoga group exhibited a progressive escalation in shift frequency over time, accompanied by statistically significant disparities betweenT6 (p < 0.05) and a conspicuous divergence from the control group at T12 (p < 0.001). Conversely, the PE group exhibited diminished effects, with a marginal T6–T12 difference (p < 0.05), indicating a more protracted adaptation to intervention demands. The Yoga group’s sustained improvement suggests that mindfulness-based practices may enhance cognitive flexibility more effectively than structured physical activities.

A preliminary investigation into the effects of yoga on Attention Span revealed significant enhancements in the Yoga group at T12, T6, and the control group at T12, T6, when compared to the baseline (p < 0.001). No significant differences were observed in either the PE or control groups over time. This lends further support to the notion that yoga possesses a distinctive ability to encourage sustained attentional engagement. This may be attributed to the practice’s emphasis on maintaining concentration and regulating breathing, which has the potential to strengthen neural pathways associated with endurance.

Simple effects analyses were performed for Attention Stability. The Yoga group demonstrated marked improvements in stability at T6 (p < 0.05) and T12 (p < 0.001) when compared to the baseline, and exhibited superior performance in comparison to the control group at T12 (p < 0.001). The PE group demonstrated delayed improvement at T12 compared to T6 (p < 0.001), yet remained inferior to Yoga. These findings suggest that the structured meditative components of yoga may enhance neural consistency. In contrast, the dynamic nature of PE may necessitate extended practice to stabilize attentional control.(See Fig. 2.)

Fig. 2.

Effects of different intervention methods on attention allocation, Attention Shifts, Attention Span and Attention Stability in children across various time periods; T0= initial moment; T6= 6 weeks after; T12= 12 weeks after; Yoga is the Yoga group, PE is the physical education group, Control is the control group; *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01 and ***P < 0.01; two-factor repeated-measures ANOVA, post hoc simple effects analysis

Overall, the intervention effects exhibited variability across the attention dimensions, with Yoga demonstrating earlier and more pronounced improvements in comparison to the PE and control groups. Evidence of time-dependent gains was particularly evident at T12, reflecting the cumulative benefits of sustained practice. The potential superiority of yoga may be attributable to its integration of mindfulness and physical discipline, which has been demonstrated to engender both immediate and enduring neurocognitive adaptations. Conversely, the effects of PE were delayed, presumably due to its emphasis on motor coordination as opposed to direct attentional training. The existence of these differential outcomes serves to emphasise the importance of tailoring interventions to target specific cognitive domains.

Discussion

The present study sought to demonstrate the effect of Yoga practice on children’s attention. A comparative analysis was conducted among the 12-week Yoga, Physical education and control groups, revealing significant enhancements in the four dimensions of attention allocation, transfer, breadth and stability. This indicate that children participating in Yoga programmes demonstrate enhanced concentration skills when compared to those engaged physical training and not participating in any physical activity. The results suggest a favourable impact on the cognitive function of school-age children [28]. This finding is consistent with the observations reported in previous research on the impact of Yoga and physical exercise on executive function, attention, and memory in adolescent schoolchildren [29–32]. This finding not only validates the role of Yoga as a sensorimotor training modality that promotes executive function [15], but also provides an empirical basis for multidimensional intervention strategies in attention development.

Yoga is a prevalent mind-body practice encompassing meditation, breathing, physical activity, and posture. The practice of Yoga emphasises bodily awareness, which involves focusing attention on the breath and specific muscles or body parts. The cultivation of concentration represents a pivotal facet of the Yoga practice. The practice of Yoga has been shown to produce a range of effects that are analogous to those of relaxation, including the promotion of self-control, concentration, self-efficacy, body awareness, and stress reduction. Consequently, it can be hypothesised that Yoga may enhance an individual’s general concentration abilities. This phenomenon may offer a potential explanation for the enhanced accuracy observed in recordings under demanding task conditions, such as uncoordinated flanking [33].

The practice of Yoga and mindfulness involves a focus on perceiving changes in body movement and inner sensations [34]. The practice of Yoga comprises a variety of elements, including stretching poses, breathing exercises, and meditation [35], with participants focusing intently on their breath, akin to the practice of mindfulness [36]. The efficacy of this approach in reducing the tendency to ruminate on stressful thoughts and anxiety has been demonstrated in numerous studies [37]. The impact of conscious breath control on the parasympathetic nervous system has been demonstrated [38], and conscious focused breathing has been shown to prevent the diversion of stressful thoughts, thereby facilitating relaxation [39]. Furthermore, studies have demonstrated that individuals who engage in regular Yoga practice exhibit a significantly reduced basal metabolic rate (BMR), which may be attributed to a diminished state of arousal [40]. This heightened state of focus facilitates enhanced concentration, a benefit that may be attributable to the consistent practice of Yoga.

The practice of Yoga involves directing attention towards the act of breathing, with a focus on taking long, deep breaths. Research has demonstrated that this active long breathing can lead to the regulation of the nervous system and a decrease in metabolic activity in the parasympathetic state [41]. Furthermore, Yoga has been shown to have a positive impact on neurocognitive abilities, including improved short-term memory, visual scanning [42], and motor performance [43]. Concurrently, studies have demonstrated that active breathing during Yoga practice can directly enhance visual perception, facial expression recognition, and object recall [44]. Consequently, Yoga practice may enhance cognitive function, particularly working memory [45]. The practice of Yoga has been shown to enhance working memory capacity and attentional control, which in turn have been demonstrated to predict working memory breadth [46]. Neuroimaging studies have also demonstrated that long-term Yoga practice may result in an augmentation of gray matter volume in the brain [47], particularly in brain regions associated with executive function (e.g., basal ganglia) [3]. This structural change may be related to an increase in cognitive ability.

The significant enhancement in attention distribution that was observed in the Yoga group (T12 η²_p=0.304) may be attributable to the integrative effect of Yoga on executive function. As a comprehensive mind-body practice, Yoga is capable of influencing executive function in a variety of ways. The emphasis on breath control and posture adjustment in the Yoga practice facilitates enhanced self-regulation, a process that is critical for the development of inhibitory control and the ability to switch between tasks within the context of executive function [48, 49]. This enhancement in self-regulation provides a fundamental basis for attention distribution. Kaunhoven’s studies have demonstrated that practices such as mindfulness and Yoga have the potential to enhance the ability to reflect, conflict monitoring and response inhibition [50]. This, in turn, has the capacity to improve an individual’s ability to control attention. Consequently, Yoga, as a deliberate exercise, has the potential to cultivate attention control and inhibition skills, thereby further enhancing attention distribution. Concurrently, Yoga has been demonstrated to enhance attention and impulse control, particularly in children and adolescents, a phenomenon that may be associated with its salutary effects on executive function [51]. This enhancement is not only reflected in single tasks, but also enhances the individual’s performance in multitasking by promoting psychosomatic coordination. Consequently, the efficiency of task switching can be enhanced in the presence of complex tasks [52].

The long-term practice of Yoga has been demonstrated to have a positive effect on the structure of brain regions associated with executive function [53]. Research findings have indicated that Yoga practitioners exhibit increased volumes of grey matter in these brain regions, which may underpin their superior performance in executing functional tasks. Concurrently, the activation of the prefrontal-parietal network by breathing training in Yoga has been demonstrated [54], which is the brain region at the heart of attention distribution. This neuroplasticity change serves to further reinforce Yoga’s facilitating effect on attention sharing. In contrast, the physical education group demonstrated an enhancement in basic motor coordination through play activities (effect size η²_p=0.068), suggesting that the cognitive-motor integration model exclusive to Yoga offers greater benefits in mobilising higher-order attention resources. This enhanced ability has the potential to not only improve academic performance but also to positively impact multitasking in everyday life.

The sustained improvement in attention shifting observed in the Yoga group (η²_p=0.109 between groups at T12) may be attributable to the cognitive flexibility promoted by Yoga. The frequent transition of asanas during a Yoga class (e.g., transition from standing to tumbing) demands that children rapidly adjust their attention focus, and this dynamic training may enhance the adaptability of the dorsal attention network [55]. Neuroimaging evidence demonstrated that Yoga practice increased gray matter density in the anterior cingulate cortex, an area responsible for conflict monitoring and attention redirection, which was highly consistent with the improvement of transfer efficiency in the Yoga group at T12 in this study (F = 18.7, p < 0.001). In contrast, although the ball game in the physical education group incorporated reaction speed training, it lacked the requirement for active regulation of attention focus, resulting in a limited transfer effect (P >0.05 in PE group vs. control group at T12).

Research has demonstrated that both interval training and aerobic exercise can enhance cognitive flexibility [56, 57], and Yoga, as an intermittent aerobic exercise, has been shown to improve an individual’s cognitive flexibility. Evidence suggests that Yoga practice can enhance an individual’s executive function [58], thereby facilitating cognitive flexibility [59]. Consequently, Yoga’s potential to enhance attention shifting may be attributed to its impact on executive function and cognitive flexibility.

Limitations

Despite the fact that the present study controlled for factors such as gender, age, and grade in order to ensure homogeneity between the two groups, it still failed to balance the differences in BMI, physical fitness, and intelligence, which may limit the validity of the findings. Consequently, further research is required to ascertain the precise causal impact of Yoga exercise on attention, with enhanced control over confounding variables.

Selection bias

Although this study was block randomized in blocks to reduce selection bias. But since the participants signed up voluntarily. Consequently, these participants may have exhibited a heightened anticipation for the outcomes of the experiment in comparison to the typical child. They demonstrated a higher level of activity, a stronger predilection for physical activity, and a greater propensity to adhere to the instructions provided by the instructor in the context of yoga and physical education. Consequently, they may exhibit enhanced efficacy following yoga and physical education interventions in comparison to the average child. This bias has the potential to result in studies that favour children who are more positive, rather than being representative of the overall group of children.

Attention bias

Although block randomization was used and Assessor blinding was used for coaches and psychoassers to reduce the risk of bias, randomization may also allow children with greater hopes to be assigned to a control group, leaving these subjects without a significant amount of professional attention. It was impossible for trial participants to turn a blind eye to treatment allocation, especially for children in the control group. Therefore, the risk of bias due to not blinded of participants was present throughout the trial.

Intervention fidelity

The actual implementation of the experimental interventions and the initial design, protocol or plan, and yoga asanas and curriculum protocols were reviewed by a number of experts in child education. In addition, yoga instructors are selected on the basis of having passed the national certification examination and obtained a professional certificate. The training is carried out according to the experimental process. These intervention regimens are sufficient to warrant intervention fidelity. Nevertheless, the risk of bias may still exist due to the complexity of implementation, the extended time it takes, and the difficulty of the instructor to evaluate the course due to the blinding method (obscuring the identity of the experimenter from the coach and the psychoasser). Overall, intervention fidelity was good.

Conclusion

The findings of this study have indicated that 12 weeks of twice-weekly 40-minute yoga sessions have the capacity to enhance children’s attention and reduce inattention.

Yoga exercise has been demonstrated to be an effective form of cognitive behavioural therapy in promoting the development of attention control and inhibition skills in children.

It has the potential to enhance attention span in classroom-based tasks and may serve as an enjoyable and cost-effective treatment for children with and without attention problems. Consequently, school-based children’s Yoga classes emerge as a viable and cost-effective exercise activity that can enhance children’s learning function. These classes can be utilised as a complementary approach to children’s emotional regulation and mental health education.

Authors’ contributions

YQ. and WY. drafted the main text of the manuscript, YS monitored the intervention process and prepared figures, TJ. was responsible for checking the language, ZP. Collect and analyze data. All authors have reviewed the manuscript.

Funding

This work was funded by the Project of Shaanxi Provincial Sports Bureau of China 2024 Regular Subject Project (Project No.: 20240112).

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

The studies involving participants were reviewed and approved by Chang’an University Academic Committee. All parents of participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Consent for publication

All authors consent for publication.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.