Earth Grid: Toward a low-carbon energy infrastructure

Summary

With fossil fuels as a major global energy source and their associated carbon emissions impacting the climate, there is an urgency in transitioning to carbon-free energy sources (CFESs) such as nuclear and renewables (solar, hydroelectric, and wind). The need for an updated electric power transmission and distribution system arises due to the variable loads and geographic diversity of renewable energy sources. This perspective explores the idea of the “Earth Grid,” which proposes an intercontinental electric grid facilitated by three technological advancements: enhanced information and communication technology (ICT) applications in the electric grid, development of inter-country grids for power-sharing, and the application of artificial intelligence (AI) for efficient operation and maintenance. Further, the article discusses the need for a collaborative effort on the global stage to transform the existing electricity generation, transmission, and distribution sector to create a globally interconnected carbon-neutral Earth Grid infrastructure for accelerated carbon-free energy access for all.

Graphical abstract

Earth sciences; Energy resources; Energy sustainability; Energy systems; Energy management

Introduction

Electricity has been a major element in the development of human civilization. In the Industrial Revolution, starting in the eighteenth century, humans progressed from using firewood to coal, oil, gas, and then electricity as part of long-term worldwide energy progress. Globally, electricity consumption in 1971 was only 8.8% of total energy consumption; it grew to 20% in 2019 and is expected to triple by 2040.¹ Annual global electricity generation increased from 11,957 TWh in 1990 to 27,001 TWh in 2019, with an average annual growth rate of 2.9% from 2009 to 2019.^2,3 Moreover, global yearly power usage per capita climbed from 2.1 MWh in 1990 to 3.3 MWh in 2019.⁴ However, the economic and power consumption pattern of each country on a continent varies greatly. For example, Ethiopia’s (African continent) primary energy consumption increased from 253 kWh in 1980 to 927 kWh in 2019. Similarly, India’s (Asia) per capita energy consumption increased from 1239 kWh in 1965–6992 kWh in 2021. The average American’s (North America) energy consumption rose from 76,117 kWh in 1965 to 76,634 kWh in 2021, even as the efficiency of electric power use increased markedly.^3,4

Global economic restructuring has shifted the worldwide energy and electricity mix, which is dominated by conventional sources. Furthermore, energy generation and demand expansion have led to increased transmission capacity.^5,6 In 2013, there were 2.5 million km of transmission lines over 220 kV, with a total capacity of 12,000 GVA.⁷ Transnational power grids and mega-grid interconnections have significantly increased the electricity trade between countries. The global interconnection of power grids, the expansion of power grid coverage to mega-grids, and optimal resource allocation across a larger area have become recent global trends.

However, the dominance of conventional fossil fuels in energy generation drives and keeps stimulating the challenges of environmental pollution and climate change, endangering the planet’s ecosystems. Hence, carbon-free energy sources (CFESs), such as solar and wind, have recently grown in use.^5,6 CFESs generation encompasses a wide range of renewable energy sources and abundant room for expansion.⁸ For example, the world’s energy needs could be readily supplied by harvesting clean energy from hydro (7700 TWh), wind (4000 TWh), geothermal (650 TWh) and solar (7740 TWh) by 2050, meeting climate goals.⁹ By 2020, global photovoltaic power generation (PPG) capacity was 760.13 GW^10,11,12 and is projected to increase by 4240 GW till year 2040.¹³ Another form of CFES, nuclear power (mainly fission, with fusion under development), can also contribute to decarbonization. While fusion-powered nuclear plants remain a long-term prospect with major scientific and engineering hurdles, conventional fission-based reactors are already operational worldwide. Natural uranium resources are abundant and widely dispersed. In 2020, 445 nuclear power plants operating with a combined capacity of 400 GW supplied 2553 TWh of electricity in 32 countries.^14,15 Nuclear generation can be expanded if spent fuel is properly managed and weapons proliferation is effectively prevented.

Existing electric power distribution has uneven capacity. Some parts of the world cannot meet the global demand for clean energy allocation with existing infrastructure. Others have the transmission capacity to manage distributed generation. With the Earth’s rotation, there is a continual shift in global electricity demand. For example, the peak load in a few regions of India is during the day, while the off-peak load in a few parts of the USA is at night. CFES generation, such as solar energy, also varies with the Earth’s rotation. A large-scale interconnected CFES energy transmission and distribution network can accommodate the variation in the load and generation of the electric grid. Global clean energy platforms with high voltage transmission levels and capacities cater to broader and longer transmission lengths to realize large-scale and long-distance clean energy allocation.¹⁶

The World Resources Institute recently reported that global energy development confronts considerable hurdles in terms of distribution and efficiency, including high costs, low efficiency, and difficulty transporting energy over long distances.¹⁷ It is recognized that realizing a globally interconnected Earth Grid will require unprecedented international cooperation, policy alignment, and economic collaboration, in addition to technological innovation. With these issues, it is imperative to start an energy revolution to help build a sustainable “Earth Grid” (See Figure 2 for a conceptual illustration of a globally interconnected ‘Earth Grid’ spanning multiple continents) by promoting CFES usages that support a safe, efficient, and clean environment.¹⁸ Hence, from this perspective, we discuss the evolution of the electric grid and propose a futuristic carbon-neutral power infrastructure. Numerous technologies that have aided in the advancement of the electric grid are identified and reviewed.

Figure 2.

Conceptualized Earth Grid (the connecting electric grid lines between continents are representative only and do not indicate actual points of connection)

This figure illustrates a vision of the Earth Grid, showing how green energy can be globally shared and distributed. Primary carbon-neutral energy sources, such as solar, wind, hydro, and nuclear energy, are key contributors, as shown symbolically in the figure above. The reliability and intelligence of this grid would depend on five core pillars: information and communication technology (ICT), including Internet of Things (IoT) devices, advanced metering infrastructure (AMI), and wired/wireless communication; computing, incorporating quantum computing, cloud computing, and distributed computing; security, focusing on ensuring privacy, maintaining data integrity, and authenticating users and systems; distributed ledger technologies, such as blockchain, tangle, and hashgraph for secure and transparent transactions; and artificial intelligence (AI), applied for both general operational intelligence and specific tasks, such as forecasting and optimization. Terrestrial high-voltage direct current (HVDC) interconnections are shown as red lines, and subsea HVDC interconnections are depicted as blue lines. All symbols and technologies shown reflect the broad range of digital and physical infrastructure needed to enable this globally interconnected electric grid with the goal of resilient, reliable, and carbon-free energy access worldwide.

Likewise, Earth Grid, other initiatives are also running worldwide. One example is the Global Energy Interconnection (GEI), led by China.¹⁹ However, GEI was framed around clean energy, ultra high voltage (UHV) transmission, and smart grids as its pillars. Earth Grid emphasizes a three-pillar integration of: (1) advanced ICT and data infrastructure, (2) intercontinental HVDC grid expansion, and (3) AI-driven operational intelligence, whereas prior initiatives such as GEI primarily focused on physical interconnections and renewable resource sharing. Earth Grid proposes a holistic framework combining technological, economic, and policy considerations into a unified vision for a carbon-neutral, globally interconnected grid. This goes beyond earlier proposals by integrating digital infrastructure and intelligence layers (AI/communication) with the physical grid. To reinforce this, a citation to a recent comprehensive review of global power grid initiatives²⁰ is included, which surveys the state-of-the-art and underscores the need for such integrated approaches. For example, recent literature notes that improved power electronics and digitalization are reducing the costs and barriers for long-distance grid integration. However, prior efforts have not sufficiently addressed the convergence of physical grid development with AI, ICT, and data infrastructure. From this perspective, the present work identifies this gap and contributes a unified conceptual and technical framework for a future Earth Grid to support the vision of a sustainable, carbon-neutral, and globally connected power system. The rest of the article is structured as follows: Section 2 outlines the historical development of the electric grid, followed by a critical evaluation of ICT applications in Section 3. Section 4 presents the future vision of the Earth Grid, with sub-sections covering generation, transmission, and distribution (4.1), followed by selected example projects supporting deployment (4.2), and a detailed discussion of advanced control and communication systems (4.3). Section 5 discusses key challenges, including technical, organizational, and governance-related complications. Finally, Section 6 concludes the article with an outlook based on current trends and future prospects.

The evolution of the electric grid

Humanity and its needs have advanced to the current age, where artificial intelligence (AI) and computing have become a part of human society and culture.²¹ Electricity and magnetism, discovered during the 18^th century, have been dominant driving factors in human welfare. Figure 1 depicts the subsequent scientific and technological advances that took off after the discovery of electricity. The utilization of electricity has increased; however, generation remains a challenge. Electricity generation relies on resources and systems, which are usually concentrated in a few places.

Figure 1.

Timeline diagram

The diagram visualizes a list of events that happened that supported the evolution of the electric grid since the discovery of electricity in 1706. The timeline is further marked with versions of the grid that are segregated based on a few major events.

Furthermore, the generated electricity requires transmission and distribution infrastructure, including an interconnected system of cables, isolation devices, voltage level changers, switchgear and protection, control and monitoring systems, and communications systems.

Figure 1 organizes the advancement in electric grid infrastructure into four stages: Grid V.0 (1882–1886), Grid V.1 (1887–1985), Grid V.2 (1987–2011), and Grid V.3 (2012-present). The organization is based on historical developments to date. Grid V.0 incorporates early developments such as new power plants and transmission systems. During this period, there was no actual transmission; there were short distribution lines with very low voltages from DC (commutator) generators.

The electric grid system has evolved swiftly since the first power station (Grid V.0) was established at the Pearl Street Generating Station in lower Manhattan, New York.^22,23 Grid V.1 enlarged the number of utilities and distances covered by the electric grid generation, transmission, and distribution systems. The traditional electric grid was built for a unidirectional power flow. It relied on fossil fuel production technologies that drove the Industrial Revolution with electricity, power tools, and factory automation. Automatic meter reading devices based on caller-ID technology were devised and patented by Theodore Paraskevakos in the 1970s.²⁴ This was used for monitoring sensors, and transferring the data needed for load management was another significant development in Grid V.1.²⁴

Grid V.2 also exhibited advancements in communication, renewable energy integration, control and monitoring systems, and the associated standards to strengthen grid resilience. Grid V.2 met the increased demand for services and limited generation capacity by deploying additional components to monitor, regulate, control, and run the electric grid, such as supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems. SCADA systems have been utilized since the 1950s, supporting the transition to a more efficient and stable Grid V.2.²⁵ Although the High Voltage Direct Transmission (HVDC) was commercially introduced into the power system in 1954 between Gotland Island and Sweden with a capacity of 20 MW, 100 kV.²⁶ However, bulk power transfer to load centers was not adopted during this time due to a lack of efficient and effective power conversion technology. Developing new flexible AC transmission system (FACTS) devices, such as static power electronics devices and systems, has increased the grid’s power transmission capabilities.

Smart loads, local energy storage systems, and flexible generation and systems are features of Grid V.3. Concerns about global warming led to a replacement in the usage of fossil fuel-based power facilities in favor of cleaner sources such as nuclear, clean coal, renewables, and distributed energy devices. These led to systems allowing a bidirectional power flow between consumers and the electric grid.²⁷ Updates in information and communication technology (ICT) and metering infrastructure, control designs, source- and consumer-end optimization, and load kinds are some developments witnessed after 2012 (Grid V.3). With the advancement in the power electronics devices, a new long-distance bulk power transmission infrastructure based on HVDC technology became popular worldwide.²⁸

This new transmission infrastructure was increasingly capable of reconstructing sinusoidal shapes of AC voltage, for instance, one or more DC voltage levels utilizing a 3-level natural point clamped Voltage Source Converter (VSC) contributing lower harmonic orders.²⁹ Table 1 describes a feature of different electric grid versions. Specifically, the technology and standards used to design the electric grid differ, and each version is differentiated based on the technology and standards used.

Table 1.

The table distinguishes the different versions of the electric grid and shows the types of generation, transmission, and distribution systems, involvement of power electronics converters, types of ICT architecture, and standards associated with them

Grid version with Timeline22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39	Major generation	Transmission system			Coverage distance			Support from power converters	ICT	Major standards during the operation of the electric grid
		AC	DC	Hybrid	Geographically limited	Inter country	Inter-continental
Grid V.0 (1882–1886)	Thermal and hydro	No	Yes	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	Voltage level
Grid V.1 (1887–1985)	Conventional, nuclear, and renewable	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes	No	No	Primitive	Frequency and voltage level, deregulation, communication, and commercial remote metering
Grid V.2 (1986–2011)	Conventional, nuclear, and renewable	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes	SCADA	Frequency and voltage level, deregulation, communication, smart metering, power quality, and distributed generation.
Grid V.3 (2012-present)	Conventional, nuclear, renewable	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Smart infrastructure	Frequency and voltage level, deregulation, communication, AMI, power quality, distributed generation, and smart grid.

In the table, conventional generation technologies refer to fossil fuel-based generation systems, while renewable technologies refer to CFES-based generation. The developments in ICT are discussed in the next section.

Critical evaluation of information and communication technology vis-à-vis grid application

The evolution of the electric grid in the last few decades is primarily related to the addition of power electronic systems, renewables, energy storage systems, controllers, and types of controllable loads. However, the basic infrastructure of the grid, consisting of conventional generating systems, transformers, and transmission lines, has remained the same. Although the base infrastructure remained the same, the generation profile has become more dynamic with the utilization of renewables.³⁰ Similar is the case with loads, which are becoming non-linear due to the increase in the connected power electronics systems and electrochemical energy storage devices.³¹ The increase in the type of generations and loads demands the regulation of power flow with real-time data exchange between controllers. Hence, the modern electric grid inherently depends on ICT infrastructure to ensure reliability at the consumer end and discreteness, intelligence, and facilitation of reconfigurable sources at the generating end.³² A robust ICT infrastructure helps to ensure appropriate control actions at the system and the related subsystem levels.³³

However, the challenges in power systems and communication technologies are addressed as two distinct fields of electrical science. ICT infrastructure development has challenges in deployment, which vary based on the distance between the sending and receiving ends, the region’s topography, latency requirements, data rates, security, cost, and maintenance. Communication technologies have evolved rapidly since the first electrical communication-based telegraph was invented in 1837. Grid V.0 and Grid V.1 had primitive communication systems involving local monitoring and control. However, the evolution of ICT was need-based. With the evolution of Grid V.2, advanced monitoring, control, and operation using SCADA systems started to dominate and standardize. Recently, ICT infrastructure (Grid V.3) has been characterized by two communication technologies: wired and wireless. In general, wired communication technologies are superior to wireless communication technologies in terms of reliability, security, bandwidth, interference, privacy, and the terminal equipment cost.^34,35 However, when wired communication technologies are considered for information exchange between electric grid entities, deploying a separate wire along with power lines adds to the additional cost incurred by the power system operator.

The challenge of the higher deployment cost of wired communication technologies along power lines can be solved using wireless communication technologies, which incur a lower installation cost and minimal requirements for wires. However, wireless communication technologies are constrained by a shorter range, lower bandwidth, higher power consumption, higher latency, and interference.^35,36 Hence, an unorthodox communication technology using power lines is a possible solution. Power line communication (PLC), which uses higher frequency electromagnetic waves transmitted via conductors of power cables to exchange information, is a widely used technology in the current electric grid infrastructure. The operating frequency ranges from 3 kHz to 100 MHz. Narrowband PLC and Broadband PLC are the two types of PLC technologies used in the electric grid. Broadband PLC has a shorter range (1.5 km) coverage, while narrowband PLC covers more than 150 km. The variants of these PLC technologies in the form of standards (SO/IEC 14908-3 (LON, ANSI/EIA 709.2), and ISO/IEC 14543-3-5 (KNX, EN 50090), ITU-T G.hn and IEEE 1901, HomePlug Green PHY) and devices are developed by industries working in the ICT sector.^37,38

Optical fibers have emerged as a more reliable and robust wired communication technology. The properties of available communication technologies are exploited to meet the requirements of reliable information exchange in the electric grid. Wi-Fi, WiMAX, mobile network technologies (3G, 4G, LTE, 5G), wireless personal area networks (WPANs), and satellite-based communication are a few technologies.³⁹ Of these technologies, Wi-Fi, WiMAX, and WPANs are limited by the coverage and number of users per device. However, mobile network technologies and satellite-based communication can provide broader coverage when used in a connected system.

Newer smart grid system controllers leverage synchronized current and voltage amplitudes and phase angle measurements to reduce outages and enhance stability. These measurements are performed based on a common IEEE standard, “C37.118.1-2011—IEEE Standard for Synchrophasor Measurements for Power Systems.” This standard defines a standalone unit called the phasor measurement unit (PMU), which defines methods for computing phasors, frequency, and the rate of change of frequency (ROCOF) under all operating conditions. Absolute phase measurements permit accurate state information to be delivered to system operators and controls. Overall, communication systems form the basis for the reliable operation and monitoring of the current interconnected electric grid network. A common standard motivates developing a future zero-emission interconnected grid synchronized for fostering reliability, protection, and minimum outages in the generation, transmission, and distribution systems. The following section describes the concept of a possible electric grid called the Earth Grid, which meets the requirements for a zero-emission interconnected grid.

The future vision of the electric grid

Figure 2 depicts the Earth Grid. The Earth Grid viewpoint does not necessitate a complete reconstruction of the current electric grid. However, improved use of existing technologies may help solve these issues.

Figure 2 shows various systems for the generation, transmission, distribution, control, and communication. Each technology relies on ICT infrastructure to transfer data and information, ensuring overall system resilience. AI algorithms support the Earth Grid’s overall operation and maintenance.⁴⁰ The connecting lines in Figure 2 between two points in the map are just for representative purposes and do not correspond to the actual location or path through which the cables will be deployed. A detailed description of the components and technologies is provided in the figure caption for reference. This conceptual illustration also emphasizes that the Earth Grid combines physical infrastructure with digital and computational technologies to enable a globally integrated, carbon-neutral grid.

Figure 3 extends a use case scenario in which the interaction of technologies in the Earth Grid is illustrated. It highlights how emerging technologies complement existing grid infrastructure to achieve integrated operation. Many technologies are already in electric grid planning, control, and maintenance, and many emerging technologies will be incorporated in the future. The following subsections will explain the technologies for the implementation of the Earth Grid vision.

Figure 3.

Current and emerging technologies in Earth Grid

The figure illustrates a range of technologies that are either already in use or emerging as essential components for implementing the Earth Grid vision. The central element, labeled “Emerging Technologies,” is depicted as a processor to symbolize its role as the core enabler of the future grid. The processor’s open connection points indicate a capacity for integrating emerging technologies as they develop. The illustration provided in the figure emphasizes essential ideas such as carbon-neutral energy production (encompassing solar, wind, and nuclear sources), intelligent network planning, self-repairing networks, vehicle-to-grid (V2G) and grid-to-vehicle (G2V) functionalities, advanced metering and billing systems, online platforms with variable pricing, asset management through blockchain and peer-to-peer (P2P) exchanges, AI-driven predictive analytics, and real-time oversight and management of grid assets. Together, these technologies illustrate the interconnectedness, operation, and monitoring of every component within the energy system, as outlined by the foundational elements shown in Figure 2.

The Earth Grid-generation, transmission, and distribution

Electricity in the Earth Grid is generated using CFESs, although distributed or standalone systems such as microgrids will support regional loads. These microgrids will likely be powered by geothermal, tidal, biofuels, and other renewables. Generating renewable energy relies on the location’s topography, which varies geographically. Tropics and flat topography favor solar energy generation, while hilly terrain with rivers supports hydroenergy generation. Coastal places can also generate wind and tidal energy. Integrating renewable energy over long distances is often more economical with VSC-HVDC than with AC lines,^41,42 due to lower line losses and the ability to stabilize asynchronous grids. For example, industry analyses indicate that for overhead lines longer than roughly 300–500 km (or subsea cables >50–100 km), HVDC can offer lower overall costs and losses than equivalent AC lines.⁴¹ Also, renewable energy integration with VSC-HVDC has many benefits, including increased use of alternative energy sources, less reliance on alternating current (AC) systems, and rapid recovery from oscillations and false circumstances.⁴³ Interconnection between continental nations will be linked using an HVDC sea-link transmission system to share bulk clean energy, as shown in Figure 2. The Earth Grid will connect with the regional grids using a territorial HVDC transmission system, facilitating the integration of clean energy resources as well as other energy generation as shown in Figure 2.

The HVDC transmission offers numerous benefits for power grid connections when compared to conventional AC transmission.⁴⁴ At first, it improves AC transmission short-circuit capacity by lowering the probability of synchronous operation problems during long-distance transmission. For the grid’s scheduling and management purposes, asynchronous operations are also advantageous.⁴⁵ Second, it can mitigate the effects of grid interconnection during an outage.⁴⁶ Third, thanks to technical development, thyristor technology is now more affordable and more reliable than ever before.⁴⁷ Thus, direct current transmission is frequently the best option. As of 2023, over 300 GW of cumulative HVDC transmission capacity is in operation globally, still only a small fraction (on the order of a few percent) of total generation capacity.⁴⁸ While this number is growing (with ∼150 GW of new HVDC projects planned worldwide in the next decade⁴⁸), HVDC remains underutilized due to high upfront costs and the complexity of deployment. The slow adoption is due to high upfront costs and the complexity of HVDC deployment. However, the Earth Grid vision would necessitate a dramatic scale-up of HVDC usage worldwide. China installed 253 GW^49,50 of HVDC transmission capacity in 2021 and plans to add more than 124 GW by 2030.⁵¹ The greatest continuous power transmission capacity of an HVAC system is around 100 times smaller than that of an HVDC system, which potentially allows for transmission over distances greater than 1000 to 2000 km.⁵² Communication lines included within the HVDC infrastructure allow for comprehensive grid monitoring and centralized control.⁵³ A global network of interconnected grids can reduce the negative impacts of such intermittent generations using CFESs, whose capacity depends on the time or source availability. The transfer of power using the interconnected Earth Grid benefits the efficient utilization of CFESs.^32,54

Example projects supporting the deployment of the Earth grid

Many HVDC transmission systems for inter-border power generation and sharing already exist worldwide and span continents either operationally or in the planning stages.⁵⁵ For example, the Middle East (Arab) Grid Inter-Connected Project include Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Palestine, Syria, and Turkey (EIJLLPST), Maghreb (Spain, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt) and Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) (Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman, and UAE) grid projects. The EIJLLPST grid project shares power between the eight nations depending on their existing national infrastructure, rated at 170 MW–500 MW, using interconnected transmission lines of 132 kV–500 kV.⁵⁶ In the Maghreb project utilizing 2 submarine cables rated at 1400 MW, power is shared between Spain and Morocco.⁵⁶ In similar lines, Xlinks Morocco–UK HVDC project is another example of transcontinental clean energy trade.⁵⁷

Other nations (Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt) use transmission lines of 200 kV–400 kV rated at 170 MW–900 MW. The GCC power-sharing is based on 200 kV–400 kV lines (including submarine cables and a back-to-back HVDC system) with rated power-sharing of 400 MW–1200 MW between the partner nations. Furthermore, in Asia, a regional electric grid interconnection for power-sharing exists between the Russian Federation, China, and Mongolia, with an installed power transmission capacity between Russia and China (1235 MW), between Russia and Mongolia (430 MW), and between China and Mongolia (300 MW). In China itself, the “China Southern Power Grid” has an operational HVDC power infrastructure of 1 million sq. km with a power transmission capacity of 50 GW.⁵⁸

The overall interconnected transmission line capacity has continued to increase in the last decade in the proposal to build a super Asia grid infrastructure between Russia, China, Mongolia, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK), the Republic of Korea (ROK), and Japan, which will be extended to India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Afghanistan and other interested countries.⁵⁹ Similarly, in the European Union (EU), the European Interconnected System can facilitate the cross-border interchange of power, ensuring the stability of the supply and security of each member state using HVDC and HVAC transmission lines.⁶⁰ Significant projects are presently under development throughout Europe to permit cross-country power interchanges, including over oceans and mountains, such as the “Nemo Link” undersea cable between Belgium and Great Britain, delivering 1000 MW of power using HVDC.⁶¹ Similarly, another significant example of the HVDC intercountry transmission network is the “North Sea Link” which connects Norway and the UK electrical grid and is one of the longest undersea interconnectors in the world at 1400 Megawatts in capacity.⁶²

Apart from the intercountry projects mentioned above, there are some examples of intercontinental projects that are under development or planned. Australia-Asia Power Link (AAPL)⁶³ is a project that is planned to supply power from northern Australia to Singapore. AAPL will be achieved by deploying a 3 GW capacity transmission line extending for approximately 4500 km, planned with a $23 billion USD investment. Also, as mentioned previously, the Xlinks Morocco–UK Power Project⁵⁷ is in the planning phase to connect Morocco with the United Kingdom. The project plans to transfer the solar and wind power generated from Morocco to the United Kingdom, which is slated to supply up to 8% of the UK’s electricity by 2030 if built, using 3,800 km long cables with a 3.6 GW HVDC interconnection. The expected cost is estimated to be $25 billion USD, of which half or more will be spent on procuring undersea and land cables, which are being manufactured.

These examples of various inter-country and intercontinental projects outlined above have techno-economic benefits. These benefits not only increase the clean energy share of the countries involved in the generation, distribution, and diversification of energy sources but also enhance their energy security and resilience against local supply disruptions, increase reliability, and infrastructure development of the electric grid involved in the projects. In addition, the complexity of the project will push scientific and technological innovation in energy generation sectors, deep-sea power cable technologies, reliable and interoperable HVDC transmission systems, and so forth. Other benefits of such projects also include new employment opportunities and high financial returns to the stakeholders participating in the project planning, execution, and operation.⁵⁷ Large consortium-based approaches are also found, which advocate for global grid integration. For instance, the Global Energy Interconnection Development and Cooperation Organization (GEIDCO)⁶⁴ has been partnering with international bodies (such as the UN) and facilitating discussions on cross-border grid projects (e.g., in Asia).^19,64

Apart from the above, it will usher in new dimensions of strategic geopolitical relations between the countries involved by fostering mutual trust, which can also lead to the development of cooperation in other fields. It is important to note that cost is a variable quantity that varies based on domestic and geopolitical scenarios. The costs of large-scale energy infrastructure can vary significantly depending on technology and region. For instance, the Hinkley Point C nuclear power station in the UK is now projected to cost around $40 billion USD,⁶⁵ whereas the planned Xlinks Morocco–UK Power Project – a massive solar/wind farm with HVDC transmission – is estimated at ∼$25 billion USD.⁵⁷ These examples illustrate both the high capital investment required for transformative projects and the potential cost advantage of renewable-based interconnections. They underscore that while initial costs are huge, strategic projects (such as Earth Grid components) could be economically viable if they leverage cheaper renewable generation and avoid some expenses associated with conventional generation. To complement these project examples, Table 2 below provides a consolidated overview of the key technological pillars underpinning the Earth Grid vision, summarizing their roles, current global status, and major challenges. This overview helps frame the detailed discussions in the following subsections, where we explore the advanced control, communication, and enabling technologies that support the reliable and intelligent operation of a globally interconnected electric grid.

Table 2.

Key pillars of the earth grid concept and their current status

Sl. No	Pillar/Technology	Role in earth grid vision	Current state-of-the-art/global status	Major challenges/needed developments
1.	HVDC Grid Infrastructure	Enables low-loss, long-distance power transmission and cross-border energy trading	Multi-terminal HVDC links operational (e.g., China’s UHVDC, EU’s North Sea Wind Power Hub). VSC-HVDC adopted in meshed networks.	Technical complexity in global synchronization, grid codes harmonization, protection schemes, fault management in meshed HVDC, and geopolitical coordination.
2.	ICT and Communication Networks	Real-time monitoring, control, and data exchange across continents	WAMS, SCADA, PMUs deployed in regional grids; latency-optimized fiber networks (e.g., ENTSO-E); emerging 5G and TSN for grid communication.	Ultra-reliable low-latency connectivity, cybersecurity risks, interoperability, and latency optimization for transcontinental coordination.
3.	AI and Data Analytics	Forecasting, optimization, anomaly detection, demand-side, and DER control	Widely researched; real-world deployments in smart grid forecasting and demand response; reinforcement learning for inverter control in pilot projects.	Data standardization, explainability, trust, real-time scalability, integration with legacy systems, and training AI on multi-modal grid datasets.
4.	Distributed Ledger Technology (Blockchain)	Peer-to-peer energy trading, secure decentralized transaction recording, and trust across jurisdictions	Trials for local energy markets (e.g., Brooklyn Microgrid, Power Ledger in Australia). Consortium-led tests in cross-border applications.	Scalability, transaction throughput, energy consumption, regulatory acceptance, and privacy compliance.
5.	Energy Storage Systems (ESS)	Buffers the intermittency of renewables, frequency stabilization, and intertemporal load balancing	Rapid growth in Li-ion BESS, flow batteries, pumped hydro; hybrid storage integrated in national grids (e.g., South Australia Hornsdale BESS).	Cost decline, cycle life improvement, integration with HVDC/AC hybrids, policy incentives, and end-of-life recycling infrastructure.
6.	Cybersecurity and Resilience Frameworks	Ensures data and operational security in a highly interconnected global infrastructure	IEC 62443 standards, EU NIS2 directive, increasing use of intrusion detection and AI-based anomaly tracking in substations and cloud-edge energy platforms.	Standard harmonization across nations, zero-trust architectures, quantum-safe encryption, and advanced threat modelling for AI-driven grids.

Note: HVDC refers to high-voltage direct current; VSC-HVDC: voltage source converter-based high-voltage direct current; ICT: information and communication technology; AI: artificial intelligence; DER: distributed energy resources; ESS: energy storage systems; BESS: battery energy storage systems; SCADA: supervisory control and data acquisition; PMU: phasor measurement unit; TSN: time-sensitive networking; IEC: International Electrotechnical Commission; EU NIS2: European Union Network and Information Security Directive 2; UHVDC: ultra high-voltage direct current.

Advanced control and communication systems

Advanced control and communication systems are fundamental to the reliable operation of the Earth Grid. These systems are supported by several core pillars: robust ICT infrastructure, high-performance computing and artificial intelligence, secure distributed ledger technologies, and pervasive IoT-enabled sensing and control. Initiatives such as the TwinEU initiative,^66,67 funded by the EU,⁶⁸ are demonstrating digital twin tools⁶⁹ in eight pilot studies across 11 countries, and piloting advanced real-time simulation and AI-driven control across 11 countries as a step toward greater interconnection and smart operation.^67,68,70,71 In the following subsections, each of these foundational pillars will be discussed in detail, highlighting their critical role in enabling the resilience, scalability, and intelligence of a globally interconnected power network.

Information and communication technology infrastructure

The dependency of generation on the use of renewables involves the major challenge of intermittency, which is solved by using energy storage systems and grid-scale storage systems.^10,72 While a globally interconnected Earth Grid can mitigate local intermittency by balancing supply and demand across time zones, energy storage systems remain critical for short-term balancing and grid stability.

A diverse mix of storage technologies (battery farms, pumped hydro, thermal storage, and so forth) would be deployed at strategic nodes to buffer fluctuations and provide frequency regulation.^10,72 In fact, large-scale storage complements the Earth Grid by ensuring reliability during sudden disturbances or when renewable generation is low worldwide.

However, the Earth Grid demands robust predictive planning, monitoring, and control to manage power quality issues, ensure grid stability, and meet consumer expectations, which requires resilient ICT infrastructure. A schematic showing the interconnection of the various technologies in the Earth Grid is shown in Figures 3 and 4. The pillars supporting the operation of the Earth Grid are ICT, computing, data security, distributed ledgers, and artificial intelligence, are shown at the top of Figure 2. The ICT infrastructure comprises of different wired and wireless communication technologies, IoT, and advanced metering infrastructure. The operation, control, and data analytics in the Earth Grid using the information communicated using ICT infrastructure are utilized by the computing servers running on the cloud, distributed, and quantum computing technologies. While cloud and distributed computing are already being used in practice, quantum computing remains largely experimental. At this stage, it is limited to laboratory research and proof-of-concept demonstrations, without any major deployment in power systems.

Figure 4.

Technology interconnection within the Earth Grid

This diagram illustrates the major technologies and systems underpinning the operation of the Earth Grid. It presents key components, including various energy generation sources (such as wind, hydro, solar, distributed energy resources, and nuclear), energy storage systems (ESS), flexible generation systems, microgrids, transmission and distribution networks (including high-voltage direct current (HVDC), ultra-high-voltage direct current (UHVDC), high-voltage alternating current (HVAC), hybrid configurations, and trans-regional to intercontinental electric grids), and a range of modern loads (smart loads, virtual power plants (VPP), auxiliary loads, electric vehicle-to-everything (V2X) services, smart homes, and automated public services). Power lines and communication lines are distinguished using solid and dashed lines, respectively, with color variations indicating the hierarchy of interconnections (intra-subsystem, inter-subsystem, and inter-system levels). The system’s functionality is supported by an advanced information and communication technology (ICT) infrastructure, which incorporates robust security protocols to enable the reliable integration of regional and central control and communication centers. Additionally, artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms running on distributed computing platforms support critical functions, such as predictive analytics-based maintenance, real-time system monitoring, and operational coordination. The figure reflects how all entities (generation, transmission, distribution, and loads) are interconnected and coordinated in the Earth Grid framework, ensuring resilience, reliability, and efficiency at both the local and global scales.

Nevertheless, the design of the Earth Grid will demand extensive research to understand the influence of ICT infrastructure on the electric grid and vice versa. The dependence on renewable energy in the Earth Grid demands the exploration of the use of algorithms for predictive analytics. The algorithms demand the use of physics-based, data-based, or hybrid models in determining the system’s operation lifetime or expected failures.^73,74 Implementing these predictive analytics algorithms⁷⁵ in real-time can be made possible by utilizing data storage technologies such as distributed ledgers and computing systems based on cloud, distributed, or quantum technologies.^76,77,78,79 Among all these technologies, quantum computing stands out as the least developed. Its application in real-time grid environments will require significant breakthroughs, both in hardware capability and operational stability. Furthermore, institutional frameworks and agreements (for example, power trading treaties or transnational regulatory bodies) would be essential to facilitate the cross-border energy flows envisaged by the Earth Grid.

Computing and artificial intelligence

Computing is supported by databases, which are shared across networks and located at different geographical locations, called distributed ledgers.⁸⁰ Blockchain, tangle, and hashgraph are some of the common types of distributed ledgers reported in the literature.^81,82 Data availability promotes using AI models to perform analytics, forecasting, operations, prognosis, and maintenance to ensure reliable operation.^83,84,85 The huge transaction of data by default enforces data security to emerge as an important pillar for the wider acceptance of the concept of the Earth Grid.^86,87,88 The data security measures involve developing advanced encryption and decryption techniques for transmitting and storing information, data integrity checks, and multiple-level authentication to access the information.^89,90,91,92 Ensuring security is critical for the Earth Grid, as shown in Figure 2, particularly maintaining privacy, integrity, and authentication of grid data and communications, since breaches in any of these can severely disrupt operations. Prior studies have often treated these issues separately, and their combined impact on grid stability remains an underexplored area.

The existing controllers in electric grid infrastructure comprise control models with limited functionalities to mitigate voltage, frequency, transient, and small-signal stability challenges. The prospect of the Earth Grid is concentrated using CFESs that are primarily decentralized and supported by various emerging technologies such as AI, IoT, sensors, blockchain, and big data, as shown in Figure 3. The controllers in the Earth Grid will utilize AI advancements in analytics, forecasting, operation, and maintenance. Utilities are beginning to deploy AI for predictive maintenance; for instance, AI algorithms have been used to predict transformer failures and schedule preemptive maintenance, reducing outage risks.^40,93 An AI model is a system with a set of data instead of a set of mathematical equations with boundary conditions.⁹⁴ The set of data exhibits the dynamics of a system operation over time, making the model accurate in performing time-series data prediction.^95,96 Hence, researchers worldwide are working on AI models to improve the reliability of electric grids depending on renewable energy sources.⁹⁷ The trending use of the digital twin concept for operations, prognosis, maintenance, and end-of-life predictions in the electrified transportation sector is an example of models’ acceptability in day-to-day usage.^98,99 The digital twin concept is further extended to the entities involved in electric grid services, such as grid-scale energy storage.^100,101 For example, the TwinEU project in Europe (launched in 2023) is piloting digital twin tools across 11 countries’ power systems to enhance real-time analysis and grid planning.^66,67 The utilization of AI models is expected to cater to the requirements of all the systems, subsystems, and entities of the Earth Grid.

In summary, computing and AI technologies form the backbone of the Earth Grid, enabling secure, data-driven decision-making. Their integration ensures resilient, predictive, and adaptive energy systems ready for future challenges.

Distributed ledgers and data security

Figures 3 and 4 depict different technologies that have to be utilized in large energy systems such as the Earth Grid. Along with other pillars, data security is a major concern to ensure the reliable operation of the Earth Grid. Past events such as the 2015 cyber-attack on Ukraine’s power grid have highlighted how compromising data integrity/availability can cause large outages.¹⁰² Thus, in a globally connected system, cybersecurity is a critical vulnerability. Any breach, whether through communication links or control software, can result in widespread disruptions. Therefore, securing the system must be a central design priority, not an afterthought. Among the techniques outlined, consider blockchain technology as an example, which is well known for its usage in cryptocurrency applications.¹⁰³ Blockchains are distributed data structures or ledgers that allow for the safe storage of digital transactions without needing a centralized authority. Blockchains are shared and distributed databases that maintain a continuously growing record of transactions and their chronological order.^104,105 In simple words, blockchain serves as a ledger for data records, digital transactions, and executables. The digital transactions are aggregated into bigger structures called blocks. These blocks are time-stamped and cryptographically coupled to previous blocks, establishing a chain of records that establishes the sequencing order of occurrences, or the ‘blockchain’. These features of the blockchain promote its utilization in the energy sector.

An example is the use of blockchain to enable the automated execution of smart contracts in peer-to-peer (P2P) networks.¹⁰⁶ Blockchain can also be regarded as a database that permits multiple users to update the ledger simultaneously, resulting in multiple chain versions. Instead of a central authority preserving the ledger, each network participant maintains a copy of the records’ chain and uses consensus to determine the ledger’s authentic state. The precise process for reaching an agreement is a work in progress that may differ to fit a wide range of application areas.^104,105 Since cryptography connects new transactions to previous ones, blockchain is durable and secure. Every network user may check whether transactions are legitimate, resulting in transparency and tamper-proof records.¹⁰⁷

Blockchain technology can be defined for multiple use cases linked to energy sector operations and business processes. Existing literature specifies various applications and parts of business models that may be impacted, including grid management, data communication in smart grid systems, billing, trading, sales, marketing, and automation.¹⁰⁸ When combined with artificial intelligence (AI) techniques such as machine learning (ML), the saved data structures using blockchain can expand potential applications to understand customer energy trends. Understanding the trends, hence, can provide customized and value-added energy products. Further applications include the network administration of decentralized networks, flexibility services, and asset management.

Internet of things in information and communication technology

Regardless of the introduction of multiple advanced technologies, ICT will play a major role in the reliable operation of the Earth Grid because the exchange of data between entities will remain crucial. The decentralization of controllers and increased participation of individual entities as prosumers position the Internet of Things (IoT) as an important ICT application. The IoT connects common devices in the real world to the internet. The “Things” in IoT can be any physical entities of the Earth Grid (for example, products and services, buildings, appliances, machinery, cars, and humans). IoT has the potential to alter electric power and energy systems by delivering a long-term solution, such as a stochastic dynamic energy management system.^109,110 The participation of thousands of IoT devices in the Earth Grid creates massive volumes of data (or big data), making it difficult to track, capture, store, cure, share, search, protect, understand, display, and transfer. However, digitizing the energy sector with IoT helps improve the accounting for DER integration, reduce energy waste, generate savings, and enhance the efficiency, resilience, dependability, security, and sustainability of electric networks.¹¹¹

A simplistic example of amalgamation is the utilization of sensors and the IoT to collect data, big data to manage and analyze, before using the data to train AI models, and blockchain to build data integrity. Furthermore, AI models help build insights into the system’s current operating state, such as possible faults, related timelines, energy, and financial loss surveillance and prediction.¹¹² These insights help decision-making and create additive control and protection systems for the Earth Grid.

Caveats and complications

The definition of the Earth Grid to attain low-carbon energy infrastructure, when envisioned, seems to be in contrast with the current advancement to maturity of multiple cutting-edge technologies required. Questions on maturity, scalability, integration challenges, and a comprehensive advantage over already existing solutions are tangible. The required development in the electric grid infrastructure is ongoing, but the usage of ICT infrastructure based on AI, IoT sensors, blockchain, and big data needs evaluation.^40,113,114 Each mentioned technology under evaluation is known for its effectiveness in one or another field, for example, in automotive manufacturing¹¹⁵ and the medical industry,¹¹⁶ but not in the energy sector. However, when deeply analyzed, these technologies are already in use for varied applications in the energy sector, especially in electric grid infrastructure. Nonetheless, moving from local-scale technologies to a global system introduces many new layers of complexity. These complexities extend beyond proof-of-concept or regional pilot studies, which include differences in infrastructure maturity, conflicting national regulations, and geopolitical tensions. Thus, it demands robust adaptation strategies, regulatory harmonization, and infrastructural retrofitting tailored to diverse grid maturities and governance models. Hence, while technological readiness may exist in parts, broader integration across countries remains a major hurdle.

Current state of information and communication technology technologies demonstrating maturity

Examples of use cases are related to industry using AI and ML algorithms for demand forecasting to predict energy usage with high accuracy,^117,118 electric grid management to ensure grid stability and efficient use of green energy generation, and predictive maintenance. Accurate demand forecasting can optimize the overall operational cost by controlling power generation, transmission, and distribution in the Earth Grid across connected regions worldwide. Apart from demand forecasting, the data collected from different systems in real-time or stored in the data centers using sensors and IoT systems can be analyzed to perform asset management, fault detection and localisation, distributed energy resource management, demand response optimization, identify potential failures or faults before they actually occur, and others using data-based models that rely on AI and ML algorithms.^119,120 Smart meters^121,122,123 have been in existence and usage for a decade, which is an example of the usage of IoT sensors and technology. IoT has recently been extended to remote monitoring and control and distributed energy resource management. For example, remote monitoring and control are deployed in the transformers and switchgear at substations, energy management and efficiency improvement,^124,125 edge control, distributed energy resource management, and services.¹²⁶ IoT is gaining momentum, which is majorly related to the advanced data analysis and algorithms being used.

When data sharing and utilization are underlined as key enablers, the usual challenges of data management are privacy and security, accessibility, transparency in use, scalability, and interoperability, which are some challenges that need to be mitigated. Like AI/ML and IoT sensors, blockchain and big data-based technologies, described as a part of ICT, have also emerged as solutions and are currently being used intensively in the energy sector. Blockchains are currently being used in peer-to-peer energy trading¹²⁷ between individuals and communities, empowering consumers to buy and sell renewable energy directly, bypassing traditional utilities.¹²⁸ Further, the use of blockchain has extended to managing renewable energy certificates to ensure authenticity and foster a more efficient and reliable market for renewable energy.¹²⁹ For example, LO3 Energy and Siemens are demonstrating the use of blockchain to trade solar power on a blockchain platform for a blockchain-based microgrid in the New York borough of Brooklyn.¹³⁰ Another domain of blockchain utilisation in the energy sector is the tracking of carbon emissions. Blockchain is being used to track carbon emissions throughout the supply chain, ensuring transparency and accountability in carbon offset programs and emission trading schemes.^131,132

All the energy sector companies involved in the utility market are leveraging big data to understand customer behavior, segment them based on usage patterns, and offer personalized energy plans and efficiency recommendations. The big data, further, when integrated with AI/ML algorithms^133,134,135 can be used to optimize grid operations, identify potential bottlenecks, and improve efficiency and reliability. Further extensions to identify and assess risks associated with extreme weather events, cyberattacks, and equipment failures, enabling utilities to develop proactive mitigation strategies, are also being done.¹³⁶ Although communication and data technologies have matured significantly, making them suitable for local and regional applications, scaling them to a planetary/intercontinental grid demands more. It will require reliable performance across different legal systems, infrastructure conditions, and levels of policy readiness.

Differentiating the concept of Earth Grid with high-voltage direct current network

Unlike the HVDC network, which plans to implement point-to-point connections between two regional grids, the concept of the Earth grid envisions a truly global network. It is a holistic, integrated approach for global energy generation, distribution, and management, ensuring seamless and optimal carbon-free energy utilization on a scale previously not envisioned. Aspects that distinguish Earth Grid from the current electric grid infrastructure, including HVDC, will be discussed in this subsection. The core focus of using the Earth grid lies in evenly distributing green energy generation and its potential across continents. More precisely, the regions with energy surplus can contribute to the regions with energy deficits in real time with proper coordination and control. The energy surplus and deficit here incorporate the local generation and storage in a region. For example, consider that there are two regions- A, located in a sunny desert with huge potential for solar power generation, and B, a high-altitude region with significant power demand but low potential for local energy generation. Both regions are in two different time zones with a time difference of 8 h-when it is midday with peak generation in A, it is evening in B and peak load condition. The power system operators of A and B use advanced forecasting and planning based on AI and ML algorithms to determine the energy required, surplus, and/or deficit. Based on mutual business consensus and energy exchange systems and algorithms, using the HVDC system, the control system routes the surplus from A to mitigate the deficit of B.

The Earth Grid utilizes advanced smart grid technologies, incorporating IoT devices and systems, artificial intelligence, and machine learning for anticipatory examination and effective energy administration. These systems enable the flexible equilibrium of energy provision and requirement, enhancing the allocation of sustainable energy and reducing transmission inefficiencies. The capacity to anticipate and react to energy trends also enhances the utilization of storage solutions, thereby enhancing the efficiency and sustainability of the system. Further, Earth Grid fosters decentralized energy production and consumption. A global energy market for Earth Grid will encourage the global exchange of green energy, facilitating the development of decentralized energy production against the central production model. Governments and industries worldwide will look for opportunities to tap the potential of the market, boosting the deployment of large-scale clean energy generation and storage systems.

The realization of the Earth Grid will require the facilitation of a global energy market, which will be based on the international policies and standards set up by all collaborating nations from varied continents. A decentralized administrative and regulation body under a central governance system with representation from different types of energy producers, including large-scale carbon-free generation and small-scale decentralized ones, consumers ranging from nations, cities, individual industries, and households, and intermediaries such as energy traders and distribution companies, needs to be established. Like the global oil and local energy trading markets, real-time trading based on digital platforms using blockchain and automated smart contracts can create an online marketplace, ensuring transparency, security, and reliability in transactions.

Most importantly, the Earth grid proposes and promises mechanisms for equitable energy sharing, incentives for renewable energy investment, and frameworks for carbon credit trading across borders. This will boost the socioeconomic and environmental framework. Clean energy generation is based on the availability of natural resources, geography, and the topography of the region. The interconnected nature of the Earth Grid enhances resilience against natural disasters, political instability, or fluctuating energy prices, ensuring a more stable and secure energy supply worldwide. By aligning energy policies and regulatory standards, the Earth Grid fosters a unified approach to tackling climate change, promoting equitable access to clean energy resources, and supporting economic development through sustainable means.

Scalability and integration challenges

The previous subsection exhibited the present utilization of ICT on an industrial scale within the energy sector. However, there will be ample scalability challenges when using it in the presented prospect of the Earth Grid. AI and ML algorithms are being used, but a major caveat associated with scalability lies in data availability and quality. Ensuring the availability of good data quality for use in models is a challenge, as ensuring similar data collection methods across grid infrastructures is difficult. A common data collection standard incorporating time stamping, resolution, and parameters will be required to be developed. In addition to data, high computational requirements are a natural challenge, as scaling these computations for real-time grid management or large-scale deployment can be resource-intensive and expensive. Further, complex AI models can be opaque, making it difficult to explain their reasoning and potential biases.

Regarding IoT sensors and associated systems, the major caveats to scalability are connectivity and security, interoperability and standardization, and data management and analytics. Connecting millions of sensors and devices across a vast geographical grid poses significant challenges regarding network bandwidth, latency, and security. Ensuring secure communication and data integrity across diverse devices and protocols is crucial. The lack of standardized communication protocols and data formats between IoT devices can hinder seamless integration and data exchange across grid components and utilities. Further, processing and analyzing the massive amount of data millions of sensors generate in real time requires a robust and scalable data management and analytics infrastructure.

Although blockchain has been in use in varied applications for more than a decade, transaction throughput, energy consumption, and the lack of a regulatory landscape are some of the concerns that need to be addressed to ensure scalability at the level of the Earth Grid. The public blockchain is limited to the number of transactions per second, which will be a bottleneck when used for large-scale energy trading applications with high transaction volumes, such as Earth Grid. Also, the transactions and systems are energy-intensive, raising concerns about sustainability in the energy sector. Many countries have yet to define regulations for using blockchain as they consider it to be still evolving, which creates uncertainty for businesses and hinders widespread adoption.

Similar to blockchain, big data have also been in the market for more than a decade, but data integration, harmonization, real-time data processing, privacy, and security concerns are some of the caveats that need to be addressed to ensure scalability at the level of the Earth Grid. Integrating data from diverse sources across different utilities, grid operators, and energy markets can be challenging due to data formats, semantics, and quality inconsistencies. Performing real-time analytics on massive, streaming datasets from the grid requires high-performance computing infrastructure and efficient data processing algorithms. The availability of large amounts of data in servers poses data security challenges. User privacy and data security are crucial, especially when dealing with sensitive consumer energy consumption data.

Different devices and systems generate data in various formats and protocols. Ensuring seamless data exchange and interoperability between these technologies requires standardized data formats and communication protocols. Lack of standardization can hinder data integration, aggregation, and analysis, limiting the effectiveness of AI algorithms and big data analytics. Cybersecurity vulnerabilities must be considered while performing integration, as not all stakeholders will agree to share the user data in a common or connected distributed platform. Further, integrating numerous interconnected devices and systems increases the attack surface and potential cyberattack vulnerabilities. The rapid evolution of these technologies necessitates adapting existing regulatory frameworks to address issues such as data ownership, liability, and market participation in decentralized energy models. Establishing clear and consistent regulations is essential for fostering innovation and ensuring the responsible deployment of these technologies.

For an example integration challenge, let us look into using AI and ML algorithms with big data. Integrating AI algorithms with real-time data from IoT devices requires robust data pipelines and efficient edge computing capabilities to handle data pre-processing and filtering closer to the source. If the use of IoT and blockchain is looked into, integrating secure and tamper-proof blockchain technology with resource-constrained IoT devices requires lightweight protocols and efficient consensus mechanisms to ensure scalability and minimize energy consumption. Challenges associated with faults in communication, latency, and errors in data also require attention. These issues that are manageable within a single country or region become much more difficult to handle at a global scale. For the Earth Grid to succeed, technology must be robust, secure, and capable of operating under international standards, and it will require a dedicated institutional support behind it.

Operational and organizational structure

The defined Earth Grid, at one point, defines interconnection between all the energy generation, transmission, and distribution entities, and on the other side, raises the challenge of establishing governance, responsibilities, and the role of already existing stakeholders. A harmonised market structure with agreement on different stakeholders of different regions that facilitates cross-border energy trading while considering regional differences and regulatory frameworks will be required. Transparent pricing mechanisms and fair access to the market for all participants, including renewable energy producers and consumers, must be ensured to instill trust. Further, robust balancing mechanisms will be required to address the intermittent renewable energy sources and maintain grid stability across the Earth’s grid.

The governance and operation of the Earth Grid will be performed by establishing an international governing body with representatives from different sectors and participating countries acting as stakeholders. This body would oversee technical standards, grid interoperability, and dispute-resolution mechanisms. It can be an extension of already existing intercontinental projects where multiple stakeholders and organizations participate in the success of the project. Existing national and regional grid operators could retain responsibility for managing their respective portions of the Earth Grid, adhering to global standards, and collaborating with the central governing body. Further, the decision-making will be decentralized by leveraging AI and ML algorithms and distributed intelligence within the grid to enable localized decision-making for optimized operations and faster response to disruptions. While a unified global governance model is desirable, real-world implementation is anything but simple. Nations have different laws, energy goals, and diplomatic relationships. Building consensus will take time and careful negotiation. The inertia of existing infrastructure, institutional resistance, and economic self-interests of states may challenge efforts to centralize oversight or standardize operational practices. Building mutual trust, fostering transparency, and navigating geopolitical sensitivities will therefore be as critical as the technical and organizational innovations proposed.

The local distribution system operators (DSOs) would continue to manage and maintain distribution networks within their regions, ensuring efficient and reliable power delivery to end consumers. Large transmission system operators (TSOs) would evolve to manage larger interconnected zones within the Earth Grid, focusing on optimizing power flows, ensuring grid stability, and facilitating cross-border energy trade. DSOs and TSOs would need to collaborate closely with the central governing body, regional operators, and all stakeholders to ensure seamless integration and coordinated operation within the Earth Grid. They already work collaboratively, but with new responsibilities and accountability, further involvement in data sharing, operation, and management can be expected.

Standard outage management protocols and frameworks will be developed or agreed upon between all stakeholders. The standards that exist in the present market can be extended, updated, or agreed upon at the local, regional, or central level, outlining responsibilities for isolation, restoration, and communication across different regions. The advanced ICT infrastructure supported by different technologies can implement advanced monitoring and analytics to pinpoint fault locations quickly and efficiently, minimizing outage duration and impact. Further, a multi-layered risk management strategy can be developed to address technical, cybersecurity, and financial risks with clear lines of accountability for different stakeholders.

Outlook and conclusion

The ambition to create a globally interconnected power grid represents a paradigm shift in the perception and management of energy resources. This concept, though laden with potential, confronts a spectrum of formidable challenges that require a multifaceted endeavor demanding attention to various technical, economic, geopolitical, and social issues. This notion of the Earth grid is not only an engineering marvel, but it also demands resilience against diverse environmental and terrestrial conditions. Additionally, integrating these sprawling networks with existing local grids demands technological innovations and coordination at multiple levels. Furthermore, the complexity of integrating multiple technologies for the operation of the Earth Grid implies new research paradigms and development challenges.¹³⁷

Financially, the enormity of the required investment cannot be overstated. However, a collaborative approach by the G20+ nations, leveraging their combined economic might, would provide a solid foundation for this venture. Prior techno-economic studies demonstrate the feasibility and potential financial viability of such global-scale energy infrastructures.^138,139,140 These economies are already instrumental in shaping global financial and energy policy landscapes and could pivot their focus toward proposed sustainable energy initiatives. Furthermore, the commitments of various nations under the COP21 Paris Agreement underscore the global consensus on tackling climate change, which aligns seamlessly with the objectives of a global power grid (Earth Grid). The agreement represents not just a commitment but an actionable framework through which these nations could channel resources into such transformative energy projects.¹⁴¹ To advance this vision, it is crucial to establish pilot projects connecting regional grids across continents, standardize protocols for interoperability, and develop scalable regulatory frameworks. Strategic public-private partnerships and innovation hubs focused on Earth Grid technologies can accelerate deployment while ensuring inclusivity and resilience.

Another challenge is persuading countries worldwide to participate in developing an interconnected electric network. If we see through geopolitical lenses, the path is fraught with complexities.^142,143 Establishing an Earth Grid requires navigating intricate geopolitical terrains and aligning international policies - a task that calls for unprecedented levels of diplomatic dexterity and cooperation.^142,144 Socially, the impact on local communities and environmental considerations will necessitate careful planning and inclusive dialogue.¹⁴⁴ The development will require new establishments worldwide to define and establish a joint legal, financial, data privacy, and pricing framework. The participating nations should perceive a healthy energy security perspective irrespective of impulsive political occasional correspondence.¹⁴³ Although the development of the Earth Grid requires enormous effort to bring infrastructural changes, the benefits of the Earth Grid are enormous.

Further, challenges are associated with the maturity of new technologies for utilization in the energy sector. Pilot projects are running worldwide, but the large-scale utilization of technologies still demands deeper research. For example, a blockchain pilot project report by Deutsche Energie-Agentur recently published a report presenting a protocol developed for the utilization of blockchain for automated energy systems.^145,146 Similar challenges exist in the direction of data security with the increase in the participation of energy sector entities as prosumers. A data security breach or any malicious operation by any anti-social element can lead to partial or complete failure of large energy systems.^147,148

The architecture of each pillar of the Earth Grid- ICT, computing, data security, distributed ledgers, and artificial intelligence should have functionalities to ensure resilience, reliability, efficiency, and security. Timely or necessary upgrades in protocol and applications will require proper coordination and agreement from all the stakeholders who are impacted directly or indirectly. Moreover, free and open-source protocol and application developments should be made to avoid the supremacy of certain stakeholders in the energy sector. Countries undersupplied in the resources to generate electricity to meet their requirements can pursue the possibility of trading energy using the interconnected electric grid. Access to energy brings changes in different aspects of society and of a nation by strengthening the social, economic, and technological sectors. Advancements in various sectors help synchronize the growth of underdeveloped, developing, and developed countries. Furthermore, the interconnected electric grid network strengthens the continental electric grids’ energy security, sustainability, and overall resilience. The Earth Grid will reduce the dependence of countries worldwide on regions with an abundance of energy sources (conventional and renewable).

Also, nations lacking the financial capital to establish generation units can also benefit by diverting their surplus capital to developing a smart electric infrastructure or any other internal development projects. The proposed prospect of a carbon-neutral Earth Grid provides a new framework for supporting the global goal of achieving reliable access to sustainable and modern energy services. It will also foster mutually beneficial interdependencies between countries to help reduce energy poverty and enhance energy equity. Addressing the institutional and geopolitical dimensions of Earth Grid deployment requires a dedicated, adaptive governance model that accounts for the dynamic nature of global politics, energy sovereignty concerns, and uneven regulatory landscapes. Beyond technology, nations must cooperate on sensitive fronts such as cross-border infrastructure rights, data governance, and equitable cost-sharing mechanisms. Establishing intergovernmental steering bodies or consortia with rotating leadership and consensus-driven protocols may offer a viable middle ground. These entities should remain transparent, inclusive, and flexible enough to evolve with the shifting balance of economic power and technological advancement.

In conclusion, while the journey toward a globally interconnected power grid is undeniably challenging, it is equally compelling and necessary for a sustainable, low-carbon future. It demands a synergistic approach, combining the financial prowess of the world’s largest economies, the strategic vision of global policymakers, and the innovative spirit of the engineering community. This endeavor, if realized, would mark a significant milestone in the human collective pursuit of a sustainable, interconnected global society.

Acknowledgments

The article was supported by the International SA/China Joint Research Program 2024: the National Key R&D Program of China (Grant 2025YFE0101600) and the National Research Foundation (NRF) South Africa Reference/Grant Number: CHN231204197557.

Author contributions

AK, XH, YD, BS, ARS, PK, and RCB conceived the idea. AK and BS did all the conceptual visualizations. AK, BS, and ARS co-wrote the original article. XH, YD, RCB, and PK contributed to the article editing. JLK assisted with the abstract, discussions, and contributed to the article editing. All authors assisted during article preparation.

Declaration of interests

The authors declare no competing interests.