Abstract
This cross-sectional study evaluates the association of level of state Medicaid coverage of dental services with receipt of teeth cleaning during pregnancy.
Introduction
Periodontal disease has been associated with adverse maternal and neonatal outcomes.1 Medicaid coverage for dental services is not mandatory during pregnancy and differs on a state-by-state basis. While Medicaid coverage of dental services is associated with use of dental services during pregnancy, this association has not been evaluated since Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA) implementation, when dental coverage was expanded.2,3 Using post-ACA data, we evaluated the association between the generosity of state Medicaid coverage of dental services and receipt of teeth cleaning during pregnancy in a Medicaid-insured population.
Methods
This retrospective cross-sectional study used 2016-2020 data from the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS) including 44 states linked with 2019-2020 data on dental coverage from the Medicaid and Children's Health Insurance Program Payment and Access Commission. PRAMS are deidentified, publicly available data; thus, this study was deemed exempt by the Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine institutional review board. Results reporting adhered to the STROBE reporting guideline. The study included respondents insured by Medicaid at the time of delivery. The exposure was state-level generosity of Medicaid coverage of dental services.4 Each state’s Medicaid program was characterized as having no dental coverage, emergency dental coverage only, coverage of 1 to 4 dental services, or coverage of 5 or more dental services (eMethods in Supplement 1).4 The outcome was receipt of teeth cleaning during pregnancy. Using multivariable Poisson regression,5 we assessed the association between states’ Medicaid coverage of dental services and the likelihood of teeth cleaning during pregnancy, controlling for respondent sociodemographic characteristics.
A sensitivity analysis was performed using the same exposure and covariates for commercially insured respondents (eMethods in Supplement 1). All analyses were based on population-weighted data using the complex survey module of Stata, version 18.
Results
The analysis included 68 385 respondents representing a weighted population of 3 247 222. Among 44 included state Medicaid programs, 3 (6.8%) provided no dental coverage; 6 (13.6%), only emergency coverage; 6 (13.6%), coverage of 1 to 4 dental services; and 29 (65.9%), coverage for 5 or more dental services. Teeth cleaning during pregnancy was reported by 31.6% of respondents insured by Medicaid. The weighted percentages of respondents reporting teeth cleaning during pregnancy were 19.5%, 23.4%, 23.0%, and 34.4% in states with no Medicaid coverage of dental services, emergency coverage only, coverage of 1 to 4 services, and coverage of 5 or more services, respectively (Table 1). Sociodemographic characteristics are summarized in Table 1. Among Medicaid respondents, in states with no Medicaid coverage of dental services, there was a lower likelihood of teeth cleaning during pregnancy compared with states with Medicaid coverage of 5 or more dental services (the most generous coverage) (adjusted incidence rate ratio [aIRR], 0.59; 95% CI, 0.52-0.66) (Table 2). People living in states with emergency dental services only and those in states with 1 to 4 dental services covered had a lower likelihood of teeth cleaning during pregnancy compared with those with the most generous Medicaid dental coverage (emergency: aIRR, 0.70 [95% CI, 0.65-0.75]; 1-4: aIRR, 0.69 [95% CI, 0.65-0.74]) (Table 2). In sensitivity analysis including respondents who were commercially insured, 58.2% reported receipt of teeth cleaning during pregnancy. State differences among privately insured respondents did not reflect state differences observed among Medicaid respondents.
Table 1. Sociodemographic Characteristics of Respondents Insured by Medicaid and Privately Insured by State Medicaid Dental Coveragea.
| Characteristic | Respondents, No. (%)b | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Delivery covered by Medicaid (n = 68 385)c | Delivery covered by private insurance (n = 85 571) | |||||||
| No dental coverage | Emergency dental only | 1-4 Dental services | ≥5 Dental services | No dental coverage | Emergency dental only | 1-4 Dental services | ≥5 Dental services | |
| Living in Medicaid coverage category | 3299 (4.7) | 7081 (5.8) | 8471 (12.8) | 49 534 (76.7) | 3623 (3.2) | 10 267 (6.6) | 8434 (8.6) | 63 247 (81.6) |
| Received teeth cleaning | 687 (19.5) | 1690 (23.4) | 2116 (23.0) | 17 613 (34.4) | 2022 (55.0) | 5853 (57.4) | 4853 (53.7) | 36 414 (58.8) |
| Age, y | ||||||||
| <20 | 289 (10.2) | 694 (9.6) | 756 (8.5) | 3697 (7.2) | 32 (1.0) | 153 (1.3) | 86 (1.0) | 604 (0.9) |
| 20-29 | 1888 (62.8) | 4277 (62.4) | 5202 (62.8) | 28 356 (59.0) | 1357 (41.7) | 4451 (46.5) | 3452 (38.8) | 20 908 (34.0) |
| 30-39 | 1048 (25.5) | 1987 (26.5) | 2350 (26.8) | 16 175 (31.4) | 2093 (53.5) | 5277 (49.1) | 4617 (56.4) | 38 740 (60.7) |
| >39 | 74 (1.6) | 123 (1.6) | 163 (1.9) | 1306 (2.4) | 141 (3.8) | 386 (3.2) | 141 (3.8) | 1481 (4.4) |
| Maternal education | ||||||||
| ≤12 y | 790 (23.6) | 1772 (25.2) | 1532 (19.4) | 10 334 (19.7) | 44 (1.4) | 349 (2.6) | 141 (1.8) | 1481 (2.1) |
| Completion of high school or GED | 1391 (43.7) | 2758 (39.2) | 3631 (44.7) | 3631 (30.3) | 412 (13.3) | 1622 (13.4) | 1034 (12.9) | 6212 (10.9) |
| >12 y | 1118 (32.7) | 2551 (35.6) | 3308 (35.9) | 20 318 (40.1) | 3167 (85.3) | 8296 (84.0) | 7259 (85.3) | 55 554 (84.0) |
| Annual income | ||||||||
| ≤$20 000 | 1160 (52.4) | 3573 (49.1) | 4875 (55.1) | 23 780 (46.0) | 103 (4.0) | 494 (4.4) | 354 (4.9) | 2911 (4.3) |
| $20 001-$40 000 | 783 (23.2) | 1914 (29.2) | 2108 (24.3) | 13 567 (28.7) | 388 (12.1) | 1408 (13.4) | 1043 (11.6) | 6248 (9.0) |
| $40 001-$60 000 | 197 (6.0) | 473 (6.9) | 497 (6.3) | 3899 (8.8) | 531 (16.3) | 1984 (20.1) | 1409 (16.5) | 8401 (12.8) |
| $60 001-$85 000 | 53 (1.7) | 148 (2.1) | 118 (1.6) | 1053 (2.4) | 690 (16.2) | 2117 (20.6) | 1731 (19.4) | 10 632 (16.3) |
| >$85 000 | 1106 (16.7) | 973 (12.8) | 873 (12.7) | 7235 (14.0) | 1911 (48.4) | 4264 (41.5) | 3897 (47.6) | 35 055 (57.7) |
| Maternal raced | ||||||||
| American Indian or Alaska Native | 10 (0.3) | 261 (5.6) | 70 (0.06) | 2374 (1.7) | 5 (<0.1) | 277 (1.4) | 62 (0.2) | 1003 (0.2) |
| Asian | 45 (0.7) | 261 (3.0) | 70 (0.9) | 2374 (4.2) | 212 (2.6) | 732 (4.9) | 212 (2.7) | 7527 (7.8) |
| Black | 1264 (36.8) | 775 (6.90) | 3404 (37.7) | 14 903 (25.3) | 547 (14.2) | 318 (1.5) | 796 (10.3) | 7222 (8.3) |
| Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander | 1 (<0.1) | 17 (0.1) | 1 (<0.1) | 27 (<0.1) | 1 (<0.1) | 17 (<0.1) | 1 (<0.1) | 12 (<0.1) |
| White | 1599 (53.8) | 4007 (70.8) | 4180 (49.8) | 20 537 (57.3) | 2720 (80.0) | 7711 (84.4) | 7085 (81.4) | 42 627 (78.9) |
| Multiracial | 187 (3.0) | 1033 (8.9) | 200 (2.4) | 3393 (3.7) | 79 (1.8) | 961 (5.6) | 132 (1.7) | 2998 (2.1) |
| Othere | 193 (5.2) | 460 (4.7) | 332 (8.6) | 3706 (7.8) | 59 (1.2) | 251 (2.0) | 146 (3.6) | 1858 (2.7) |
| Maternal ethnicityd | ||||||||
| Hispanic | 584 (13.3) | 1617 (24.3) | 725 (18.7) | 12 229 (22.8) | 161 (3.4) | 967 (9.2) | 440 (12.7) | 6536 (8.5) |
| Non-Hispanic | 2715 (86.7) | 5464 (75.7) | 7746 (81.4) | 37 305 (77.2) | 3462 (96.6) | 9300 (90.8) | 7994 (87.3) | 56 711 (91.5) |
| Married | 857 (26.5) | 2517 (36.1) | 2164 (26.5) | 16 522 (34.9) | 3057 (85.7) | 8809 (88.3) | 7181 (84.1) | 53 610 (84.8) |
| Uninsured before conception | 747 (27.4) | 1885 (28.9) | 2591 (31.9) | 9362 (21.7) | 50 (1.2) | 189 (1.8) | 169 (2.6) | 1194 (1.8) |
Abbreviations: GED, General Educational Development; PRAMS, Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System.
District of Columbia, California, Idaho, Nevada, Ohio, South Carolina, and Texas were excluded from analysis as nonparticipants in PRAMS; the 153 956 respondents represent a weighted estimate of 7 957 338 respondents. No dental coverage: Alabama, Delaware, and Tennessee; emergency coverage only: Arizona, Hawaii, New Hampshire, Oklahoma, Utah, and West Virginia; coverage of 1 to 4 services: Florida, Kansas, Louisiana, Maine, Mississippi, and Wyoming; coverage of 5 or more services: Alaska, Arkansas, Colorado, Connecticut, Georgia, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, North Carolina, North Dakota, Nebraska, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Virginia, Vermont, Washington, and Wisconsin.
Estimates are unweighted sample sizes and survey-weighted percentages.
Dental services that may or may not be covered by Medicaid include diagnostic, preventive, restorative, periodontal, dentures, oral surgery, and orthodontia.
Race and ethnicity, which are acknowledged to be social constructs, were included as a proxy to assess influence of structural racism. Race and ethnicity data in PRAMS are derived from linked National Vital Statistics System birth certificate data which are self-reported (eMethods in Supplement 1).
Further categorization is not available in PRAMS.
Table 2. Association of Medicaid Coverage of Dental Services With Receipt of Teeth Cleaning During Pregnancy.
| Insurance coverage during pregnancy | Adjusted incidence rate ratio (95% CI)a | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| No dental coverage | Emergency coverage only | 1-4 Dental services | ≥5 Dental services | |
| Medicaid | 0.59 (0.52-0.66) | 0.70 (0.65-0.75) | 0.69 (0.65-0.74) | 1 [Reference] |
| Commercial insuranceb | 0.96 (0.91-1.00) | 1.02 (0.99-1.04) | 0.94 (0.90-0.97) | 1 [Reference] |
Adjusted for education, income, age, race and ethnicity, marital status, and no insurance before conception.
Included 85 571 participants (total weighted population: 4 710 116).
Discussion
In this study of the post-ACA implementation era, minimal or no Medicaid coverage of dental services was significantly associated with a lower likelihood of receiving teeth cleaning during pregnancy in a Medicaid-insured population. This association did not exist in a commercially insured population, suggesting that differential rates of teeth cleaning were associated with state Medicaid dental policy rather than other state-level characteristics. A limitation is that we did not use methods to determine causal inference and therefore cannot comment on causation. States currently have the opportunity to include dental services as an essential health benefit, which could be a lever to increasing access to dental services during pregnancy.6
eMethods.
Data Sharing Statement
References
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Associated Data
This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.
Supplementary Materials
eMethods.
Data Sharing Statement
