Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the dual-pathway mechanisms underlying cognitive-emotional integration in older adults through a 12-week randomized controlled trial. Specifically, it explored how groove music-integrated Tai Chi (GOTC) modulates cognitive and emotional processes compared to conventional music-based Tai Chi (COTC) and a control group (CON), using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) and surface electromyography (sEMG) to assess prefrontal connectivity and neuromuscular dynamics. A total of 75 older adults (aged 60–75 years) were randomly assigned to three groups: GOTC (n = 25), COTC (n = 26), and CON (n = 24). The intervention groups participated in a 12-week Tai Chi program, while the control group maintained their usual activities. Cognitive-emotional integration was evaluated using behavioral assessments (BRIEF, Stroop test) and neurophysiological measures (fNIRS for prefrontal connectivity, sEMG for neuromuscular dynamics). Neuromuscular coherence (COH) analysis was performed to examine β- and γ-band synchronization during specific motor tasks. The GOTC group demonstrated superior emotional regulation for low-intensity stimuli compared to COTC (P = 0.04) and CON (P < 0.001), with no differences observed under high-intensity conditions. Cognitive improvements were most significant in GOTC, as evidenced by reduced BRIEF scores for working memory (vs. COTC: P = 0.01; vs. CON: P < 0.001) and planning (vs. COTC: P = 0.02). The Stroop test revealed GOTC’s advantage in word interference reduction (P = 0.03 vs. CON). Neuromuscular COH analysis showed enhanced β- and γ-band synchronization in GOTC during lateral sliding (vs. COTC: P = 0.01; vs. CON: P < 0.001) and rotational tasks (γ-band: P = 0.01 vs. COTC; P < 0.001 vs. CON). fNIRS data indicated strengthened post-intervention functional connectivity between medial and left prefrontal cortices (mPFC-lPFC) in GOTC (vs. COTC: PFDR < 0.03; vs. CON: PFDR < 0.02), which correlated with γ-band COH during lateral sliding (r = 0.234, P = 0.03). The findings support a dual-pathway mechanism where groove music enhances neuromuscular coordination (β/γ-band COH) and prefrontal integration (mPFC-lPFC connectivity), synergistically improving cognitive-emotional integration in older adults. These results advance embodied cognition theory by linking rhythmic-motor entrainment to neurofunctional plasticity in aging populations. Trial registration: Our participants are not involved in a clinical trial, nor are they involved in any patients, so this study was not clinically registered at the beginning, but we have been retrospectively registered and are currently under review, and we are registered on the Chinese Clinical Registry, registration no. PID: 268427. We uploaded the retrospectively registered file, and this study is fully ethical. The study was approved by the ethics committee, and informed consent was obtained from all participants.
Keywords: Cognitive-emotional integration, Tai Chi, Tai Chi, Embodied cognition, FNIRS, Neuromuscular dynamics, Aging
Introduction
With the acceleration of global aging, the decline of cognitive function and emotion regulation in the elderly population has become an important public health issue [1]. Studies have shown that aging is accompanied by the deterioration of brain structure (e.g., prefrontal cortex atrophy) and function (e.g., reduced neuroplasticity), leading to decreased executive function and weakened emotion regulation, which in turn increases the risk of depression, anxiety, and cognitive impairment [2] [3] [4]. This decline not only affects the quality of life of older adults, but also increases the burden on families and society [5]. Therefore, it is of great practical importance to explore effective interventions to delay or improve cognitive-emotional integration function in the elderly.
Cognitive-emotional integration involves the dynamic interaction between the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and the limbic system, in which the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) play a central role in emotion regulation and executive function [6] [7]. However, traditional studies mostly rely on a single modality (e.g., behavioral or neuroimaging), which makes it difficult to comprehensively reveal the mechanisms. The combination of near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), which monitors PFC functional connectivity in real time, and surface EMG, which captures neuromuscular synergistic modes, can help to analyze the mechanisms of “brain-body” coupling [8].
In addition, the existing evidence shows that although cognitive training, exercise intervention, and music therapy have shown some effects in improving cognitive or emotional functioning in older adults, these methods often target only a single dimension, and it is difficult to realize the synergistic enhancement of cognitive-emotional functioning [9] [10] [11]. More importantly, there is a lack of research paradigms that can simultaneously quantify neural activity and motor synergies, resulting in an understanding of intervention mechanisms that remains at the behavioral or isolated neural level. Based on embodied cognition theory (ECT) [12], the development of cognitive and emotional functioning relies on the dynamic interaction between the body and the environment, and rhythmic movement may provide a more optimized intervention pathway for cognitive-emotional integration (CEI) by integrating auditory, motor, and cognitive processing [13].
While Tai Chi has demonstrated benefits for older adults’ cognitive and emotional health through its mind–body integration and slow, rhythmic movements, emerging evidence suggests that combining movement with music may amplify these effects. Music’s multisensory stimulation (e.g., rhythmic auditory cues, emotional valence) can enhance motor synchronization, attentional focus, and affective engagement, potentially augmenting Tai Chi’s therapeutic impact. However, current Tai Chi practices for older adults often employ conventional music (e.g., ambient or instrumental tracks) lacking optimized rhythmic structures to entrain neural-motor coupling. Moreover, the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying music-Tai Chi integration remain poorly understood, particularly how groove music—characterized by syncopated rhythms and high-groove propensity—modulates prefrontal-limbic connectivity and neuromuscular dynamics in aging populations. This gap limits the development of evidence-based, multimodal interventions tailored to cognitive-emotional decline in older adults.
Therefore, the present study aimed to elucidate the dual-pathway regulatory mechanisms of rhythmic music-integrated movement Tai Chi (GOTC) on CEI in older adults through a 12-week randomized controlled trial. Specific objectives include (1) to validate the behavioral (executive function, emotion regulation) benefits of GOTC compared to traditional music Tai Chi (COTC); (2) to reveal the neural basis of the enhanced functional connectivity of the PFC through fNIRS; (3) to quantify the β/γ band neuromuscular synchronization using sEMG; and (4) to establish the coupling relationship with the functional connectivity of the brain. The research results not only provide empirical support for the theory of embodied cognition, but also provide a generalizable paradigm for the design of non-pharmacological intervention strategies in an aging society.
Method
Participants
The sample size was determined using G*Power software, with an effect size of 0.40 and a power of 0.80. Based on these parameters, a minimum of 66 participants was required. To ensure a sufficient sample size, we recruited a total of 78 older adults aged 60–75 years through collaboration with local senior activity centers, community health organizations, and retirement communities.
Participants were included if they were aged 60 to 75 years and had no significant neuromuscular, skeletal, or cardiovascular disorders that could pose risks during moderate-intensity physical activity. Exclusion criteria comprised severe visual, auditory, or sensory deficits affecting study participation: diagnosed cognitive or neurodegenerative conditions (e.g., dementia, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease); medical contraindications such as uncontrolled hypertension, recent cardiac events, or mobility limitations requiring assistive devices (e.g., walkers); and current engagement in structured exercise programs or music therapy that might influence physical or cognitive outcomes.
Prior to enrollment, participants and/or their legal guardians were provided with comprehensive information regarding the study’s purpose, methods, procedures, potential risks, and benefits. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants or guardians after ensuring their full understanding of the study. The study adhered strictly to the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki. The study protocol was reviewed and approved by the ethics committee before initiation.
Research design
This study adopted a randomized controlled trial design. After recruitment, the 78 participants were randomly allocated into three groups: the groove music + Tai Chi group (GOTC, n = 26), the conventional music + Tai Chi group (COTC, n = 26), and the control group (CON, n = 26). Randomization was conducted using a computer-generated random number sequence to ensure equal distribution of baseline characteristics across groups. Ultimately, there were two dropouts in the GOTC group (due to personal scheduling conflicts) and one dropout in the CON group (due to relocation). The flowchart of group allocation and follow-up is presented in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1.
Flowchart of experimental group allocation. Abbreviations: GOTC, groove music + Tai Chi group; COTC, conventional music + Tai Chi group; CON, control group
The intervention period lasted for 12 weeks, with three sessions per week, each lasting 45 min. The groove music + Tai Chi group engaged in specifically designed training sessions that integrated groove music with structured low-impact Tai Chi routines. The music featured prominent rhythmic patterns and repetitive bass lines adapted to the average auditory processing speed of older adults. Tai Chi mainly selects the 24 forms of Tai Chi Chuan commonly used by the elderly.
The conventional music + Tai Chi group followed the same Tai Chi curriculum but with background music lacking the distinctive rhythmic elements of groove music (e.g., classical instrumental pieces). The control group did not receive any music or Tai Chi-related training but participated in regular low-intensity activities (e.g., light walking, stretching) to maintain baseline activity levels.
All training sessions were conducted in a controlled environment by trained instructors following standardized protocols. Each session included 5-min warm-up and cool-down periods to minimize injury risks. Adherence to the intervention was monitored, and any deviations or absences were recorded to ensure data accuracy.
Groove music selection
The selection of groove music for this study followed a rigorous process tailored to the physiological and cognitive characteristics of older adults. Initially, candidate songs were sourced from geriatric music preference studies and curated playlists for seniors, with a focus on rhythmic patterns conducive to low-impact movement (e.g., swing, blues, and mid-tempo jazz). A panel of music therapists and gerontology experts evaluated the tracks for age-appropriate suitability, prioritizing tempo (80–110 BPM) to align with older adults’ motor capabilities, clear basslines to accommodate potential age-related hearing loss, and cultural familiarity (e.g., 1950s–1970s popular music). To minimize cognitive load, instrumental versions were created using BrevAI (Hong Kong) software to remove lyrics, as verbal processing might interfere with motor synchronization in older populations. Processed tracks were then assessed using a groove perception scale validated for older adults, retaining only tracks scoring above 4.2/5.0—a threshold accounting for age-related declines in auditory temporal processing. Finally, amplitude normalization was applied with dynamic range compression to enhance rhythm perception while avoiding excessive loudness, which could cause discomfort for seniors with auditory hypersensitivity.
Tai Chi intervention protocol
A 12-week adaptive Tai Chi intervention was designed for older adults (60–75 years), comprising three 45-min weekly sessions at community centers. Developed by geriatric and Tai Chi specialists, the protocol integrated low-impact movements, cognitive engagement, and social interaction.
Sessions included a warm-up (chair-assisted joint mobilization with nostalgic music), core training (rhythm-based Tai Chi steps, thematic improvisation using props, and partner coordination), and cooldown (dynamic stretching with mindfulness). Biomechanical adaptations limited rotations to ≤ 90°, avoided prolonged single-leg stances, and provided adjustable barres for balance support.
Safety protocols featured anti-slip flooring, real-time physiological monitoring (blood pressure, SpO2), and automated session pauses for critical health thresholds. Difficulty progressed from basic step learning (weeks 1–4) to variable rhythms with dual-task challenges (weeks 5–8) and complex group choreography (weeks 9–12). Certified instructors followed standardized videos, while motion capture provided real-time feedback on movement quality. Post-session performance summaries reinforced participant engagement. This protocol targeted holistic improvements in physical, cognitive, and emotional health through safe, multisensory movement integration.
Assessment indices
Emotional regulation
The emotional regulation assessment was adapted for older adults using a simplified, ecologically valid task focused on age-relevant stressors. Participants engaged in a computerized protocol presenting 24 real-life scenarios (12 low-arousal: e.g., managing minor chronic pain; 12 high-arousal: e.g., resolving family conflicts) through audio-visual clips with enlarged subtitles and adjustable playback speed. Each trial began with a 30-s scenario presentation, followed by a strategy selection phase where participants chose between two adaptive regulation approaches: acceptance (“acknowledge feelings while reframing perspectives”) or diversion (“shift focus to neutral/positive thoughts”). After selection, participants practiced the chosen strategy for 45 s while receiving real-time heart rate variability biofeedback displayed via a color-coded interface (green = optimal regulation). Task parameters were optimized for older adults through pilot testing, including extended response windows, tactile button responses, and scenario validation by geriatric focus groups. Performance was quantified by acceptance strategy preference (%) across trials and physiological coherence changes during regulation, providing a dual-metric evaluation of emotional flexibility.
Executive function
Behavior rating inventory of executive function
Executive function was assessed using the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function® Adult Version (BRIEF-A), a validated self- and informant-reported questionnaire adapted for older adults. The tool evaluates core dimensions critical to geriatric cognitive health: emotional regulation, planning/organization, working memory, inhibitory control, and task monitoring. Participants or their caregivers rated behaviors on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from “rarely” to “very frequently,” with higher scores indicating greater executive dysfunction. Psychometric properties were verified in a pilot study with older adults (Cronbach’s α = 0.89–0.93 across subscales), demonstrating strong reliability for this population.
Stroop test
The Stroop test was adapted to evaluate inhibitory control in older adults using a four-task computerized protocol designed to accommodate age-related sensory and cognitive changes. Stimuli were displayed on a high-contrast screen with enlarged 24-point Arial font and adjustable brightness settings to address visual acuity decline. Participants responded via a touchpad interface to minimize fine motor demands, completing sequential conditions: (1) reading color words (e.g., “GREEN”) in black text, (2) naming solid-color patches, (3) identifying ink colors of incongruent word-color pairs (e.g., “BLUE” printed in red), and (4) reading words while suppressing conflicting color information. Reaction times (ms) and accuracy (%) were recorded using E-Prime 3.0 software, with the interference effect quantified as the percentage increase in response latency during incongruent trials relative to baseline tasks.
Specifically, color interference was the time difference between Parts 1 and 3 and word interference between Parts 2 and 4.
Body movement control measurement
Body movement control was evaluated using a wireless surface electromyography system (sEMG; Delsys Trigno) during three standardized Tai Chi tasks designed to reflect core elements of Tai Chi-based motor coordination: lateral sliding coordination (assessing bilateral lower-limb symmetry), rotational balance (evaluating dynamic postural control during axial turns), and upper-limb arm swing synchronization (measuring rhythm-motor temporal integration). Electrode placements were optimized based on biomechanical demands: bilateral gluteus medius and vastus lateralis for sliding tasks to monitor lower-limb abduction stability and sagittal plane control; oblique abdominis and erector spinae for rotational tasks to capture trunk coordination and axial stability; and middle deltoid and biceps brachii for arm swing tasks to track horizontal plane motion and flexion–extension rhythmicity (Fig. 2). Raw sEMG signals underwent standardized processing, including 20–450 Hz bandpass filtering, full-wave rectification, and 50-ms root mean square smoothing. Intermuscular time–frequency coherence (TFC) was calculated using Halliday’s framework, with coherence values derived from cross-spectral and auto-spectral densities. Coherence was computed as:
where Sxy(f) is the cross-spectral density and Sxx(f) and Syy(f) are auto-spectral densities. Significant coherence thresholds (> 0.5) were applied to α (8–15 Hz), β (15–30 Hz), and γ (30–50 Hz) bands, corresponding to global rhythm synchronization, fine motor adjustments, and rapid beat responses, respectively.
Fig. 2.
Schematic illustration of body movement control tasks and electromyography (EMG) electrode placement. Note: Due to privacy regulations, cartoon representations were used instead of pediatric participant photographs
Task protocols were synchronized with musical beats and motion capture data, ensuring temporal alignment of movement onset, directional transitions, and rhythmic cues. The lateral sliding task required participants to perform continuous crossover steps synchronized with 2/4-beat music at progressively increasing tempos (60–100 BPM). The rotational balance task involved 360° axial turns coordinated with waltz rhythm, with phase-specific recording of eccentric and concentric muscle activity. The arm swing test incorporated contralateral arm swings and stepping combinations performed to disco rhythm, emphasizing upper-limb timing accuracy. Amplitude-normalized sEMG data were analyzed for multiband coherence patterns, providing a dynamic mapping of neural-muscular-rhythmic coupling during Tai Chi movements. This approach quantifies the integration of cognitive-motor pathways by linking muscle coordination dynamics to rhythm-driven behavioral outputs, aligning with the study’s focus on dual-pathway mechanisms in cognitive-emotional integration.
Functional brain connectivity measurement
Functional brain connectivity was assessed using a 22-channel fNIRS system (NIRx NIRSport2, Germany) with 8 light sources and 8 detectors (3.0-cm optode spacing) covering prefrontal cortices. Signals were acquired at 760-nm and 850-nm wavelengths (sampling rate: 10 Hz) during both resting-state (5-min eyes-open) and task conditions (Stroop interference trials). Channel positions aligned with the international 10–20 system were verified using 3D digitization (Polhemus Patriot), focusing on prefrontal subregions: right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (rDLPFC), left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (lDLPFC), right frontal pole cortex (rFPC), left frontal pole cortex (lFPC), and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3.
Six regions of interest in the prefrontal cortex
Hemodynamic time-series were preprocessed through motion artifact correction (spline interpolation), bandpass filtering (0.01–0.2 Hz), and block-averaging across trials. Functional connectivity (FC) was quantified via cross-correlation analysis between oxygenated hemoglobin (HbO) signals from region-of-interest (ROI) pairs. A higher FC value indicated a stronger functional connection between two brain regions, while a lower value indicated a weaker relationship between the signals.
Statistical analysis
Outliers were identified via boxplot analysis, and normality assumptions were evaluated using the Shapiro–Wilk test. Given the non-normal distribution of the data, non-parametric methods were applied. Within-group pre-post differences were analyzed using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test, while between-group comparisons (three groups) were conducted with the Kruskal–Wallis H test, followed by post hoc pairwise comparisons adjusted via the Holm–Bonferroni correction. All analyses were performed in SPSS 26.0 (IBM, Armonk, NY, USA), with statistical significance set at α = 0.05.
Results
Table 1 demonstrates comparative emotional regulation across groups.
Table 1.
Comparison of emotional regulation across groups
| GOTC | COTC | CON | PBetween group | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Acceptance use: low intensity (%) | Pre | 63.19 (21.15) | 61.12 (20.01) | 62.67 (24.23) | 0.70 |
| Post | 69.49 (25.25) | 65.11 (23.60) | 62.12 (21.20) | < 0.001 | |
| PWithin group | < 0.001 | 0.03 | 0.80 | ||
| Acceptance use: high intensity (%) | Pre | 52.23 (24.26) | 51.45 (34.26) | 53.24 (26.47) | 0.90 |
| Post | 57.54 (27.54) | 53.65 (24.54) | 53.11 (27.67) | 0.30 | |
| PWithin group | 0.10 | 0.20 | 0.90 |
Low intensity
Post-intervention group differences were statistically significant (P < 0.001). Both the GOTC and COTC groups showed significant improvements compared to the CON group, with the GOTC group outperforming the COTC group (P = 0.04).
High intensity
Post-intervention group differences were not significant (P > 0.05).
Table 2 presents BRIEF score comparisons: emotional control and initiation dimensions showed significant post-intervention group differences (P < 0.05). Both GOTC and COTC groups exhibited reduced scores compared to the CON group, though no significant differences were observed between the two intervention groups.
Table 2.
Comparison of BRIEF scores across groups
| GOTC | COTC | CON | PBetween group | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Inhibition | Pre | 15.00 (6.00) | 14.00 (7.00) | 15.00 (6.00) | 0.050 |
| Post | 13.00 (6.00) | 13.00 (7.00) | 15.00 (5.00) | 0.020 | |
| PWithin group | 0.06 | 0.15 | 0.80 | ||
| Shifting | Pre | 10.00 (4.00) | 10.00 (3.00) | 10.00 (2.00) | 0.80 |
| Post | 9.00 (3.00) | 10.00 (3.00) | 10.00 (4.00) | 0.30 | |
| PWithin group | 0.02 | 0.50 | 0.90 | ||
| Emotional control | Pre | 16.00 (6.00) | 15.00 (6.25) | 16.00 (5.00) | 0.40 |
| Post | 13.00 (5.75) | 14.00 (7.00) | 16.00 (5.00) | 0.01 | |
| PWithin group | < 0.001 | 0.08 | 0.50 | ||
| Initiation | Pre | 13.00 (4.75) | 12.00 (4.00) | 13.00 (2.50) | 0.20 |
| Post | 10.00 (5.00) | 11.00 (5.25) | 13.00 (4.00) | 0.002 | |
| PWithin group | < 0.001 | 0.04 | 0.70 | ||
| Working memory | Pre | 19.00 (6.75) | 20.00 (5.25) | 19.00 (6.00) | 0.70 |
| Post | 11.00 (7.25) | 17.00 (6.75) | 18.00 (7.00) | < 0.001 | |
| PWithin group | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | 0.10 | ||
| Planning | Pre | 21.00 (7.00) | 20.00 (6.25) | 20.00 (6.00) | 0.30 |
| Post | 13.00 (5.00) | 17.00 (6.75) | 19.00 (6.00) | < 0.001 | |
| PWithin group | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | 0.20 | ||
| Organization | Pre | 9.00 (4.00) | 8.00 (5.00) | 9.00 (3.00) | 0.10 |
| Post | 9.00 (5.00) | 9.00 (5.25) | 9.00 (5.00) | 0.90 | |
| PWithin group | 0.50 | 0.03 | 0.80 | ||
| Monitoring | Pre | 12.00 (5.25) | 13.00 (4.75) | 12.00 (4.00) | 0.20 |
| Post | 13.00 (5.00) | 11.00 (5.25) | 13.00 (5.00) | 0.01 | |
| PWithin group | 0.20 | 0.003 | 0.30 |
Data are presented as median (interquartile range). Abbreviations: GOTC groove music + Tai Chi group, COTC conventional music + Tai Chi group, CON control group
Working memory demonstrated highly significant post-intervention group differences (P < 0.001). The GOTC group achieved significantly lower scores than both the COTC (P = 0.01) and CON groups.
Planning showed similar trends (P < 0.001), with the GOTC group outperforming the COTC group (P = 0.02).
Monitoring revealed significant post-intervention differences (P = 0.01), with the COTC group showing reduced scores compared to the CON group (P = 0.03).
Table 3 summarizes Stroop test outcomes: color interference—no significant post-intervention group differences were observed.
Table 3.
Comparison of Stroop test scores across groups
| GOTC | COTC | CON | PBetween group | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Color interference (s) | Pre | 6.00 (5.00) | 5.00 (4.00) | 5.00 (3.25) | 0.30 |
| Post | 5.00 (5.00) | 5.00 (525) | 5.00 (3.00) | 0.70 | |
| PWithin group | 0.20 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||
| Word interference (s) | Pre | 20.00 (10.00) | 20.00 (10.75) | 20.00 (10.25) | 1.00 |
| Post | 17.00 (7.75) | 19.00 (9.00) | 21.00 (11.75) | 0.01 | |
| PWithin group | < 0.001 | 0.10 | 0.50 |
Word interference
The GOTC group demonstrated significantly reduced reaction times compared to the CON group (P = 0.03).
Figures 4 and 5 illustrate body movement control task comparisons using intermuscular coherence (COH) across frequency bands.
Fig. 4.
Intermuscular coherence comparisons across groups. COH values represent coherence area. Non-significant coherence values (P ≥ 0.05) are masked in dark blue
Fig. 5.
Tasks showing significant between-group differences in frequency band coherence areas. Only post-intervention comparisons are displayed for brevity. A Lateral sliding coordination. B Rotational balance
Pre-intervention
Significant between-group differences were observed in all tasks.
Post-intervention
Lateral sliding coordination: GOTC exhibited greater β- and γ-band COH areas than both COTC (P = 0.01 for both bands) and CON (P = 0.01 and P < 0.001, respectively).
Rotational balance
GOTC showed increased γ-band COH areas compared to COTC (P = 0.01) and CON (P < 0.001).
Figure 6 displays functional connectivity outcomes derived from fNIRS data. Pre-intervention between-group differences in prefrontal connectivity were non-significant (all P > 0.05). Post-intervention analyses revealed significantly stronger functional connectivity between the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and left prefrontal cortex (lPFC) in the GOTC group compared to both the COTC (PFDR < 0.03) and CON (PFDR < 0.02) groups.
Fig. 6.
Comparison of pre- and post-intervention effective connectivity differences among groups
Table 4 summarizes correlations between mPFC-lPFC functional connectivity and neuromuscular coherence (COH) areas. A significant positive correlation was observed in the GOTC group between γ-band COH areas during the lateral sliding coordination task and mPFC-lPFC connectivity (r = 0.234, P = 0.03). No other correlations reached statistical significance (all P > 0.05).
Table 4.
Correlations between mPFC-lPFC functional connectivity and neuromuscular coherence areas
| Functional connectivity of mPFC-lPFC | |
|---|---|
| Lateral sliding coordination: | |
| β-Band COH | 0.012 |
| γ-Band COH | 0.234* |
| Rotational balance: | |
| γ-Band COH | 0.056 |
The data are presented in the form of correlation coefficients
Discussion
Effects of music-integrated physical Tai Chi on mood regulation, executive function, and inhibition
This study systematically assessed the effect of rhythmic music-integrated movement Tai Chi (GOTC) on the improvement of cognitive-emotional functioning in older adults through a 12-week randomized controlled trial. The results showed that movement Tai Chi with rhythmic music (GOTC) significantly improved the regulation of low-intensity emotional stimuli in older adults, a finding that is consistent with previous findings on the neural mechanisms by which rhythmic activity enhances emotion regulation [14]. The GOTC group significantly outperformed both the traditional music-Tai Chi group and the control group in a low-intensity emotion regulation task, which is in line with previous research proposing the theory that the rhythm of music synchronization promotes the theory of emotion regulation ability [15]. This improved effect was mainly seen in low-intensity emotional situations, which may stem from the fact that rhythmic music’s unique rhythmic properties are more likely to activate prefrontal-limbic system functional connectivity [16]. The findings suggest that the GOTC intervention is effective in helping older adults cope with mild mood fluctuations common in daily life, such as daily stress or mild frustration, which is of practical significance in maintaining the emotional stability and psychological health of older adults. Notably, the effect of the intervention on high-intensity emotion regulation did not reach a significant level, which is in line with the findings of existing studies on different neural pathways involved in different intensity emotion regulation [17]. This result suggests that interventions for high-intensity emotions may require different strategies or longer intervention cycles.
The results of the present study showed that rhythmic music combined with movement Tai Chi (GOTC) significantly improved executive functioning in older adults, a finding that is consistent with research findings about Tai Chi training enhancing cognitive control [18]. Specifically, in terms of working memory, the GOTC group showed significantly better improvement than the traditional music and Tai Chi group and the control group, which is consistent with the findings about rhythmic activities promoting working memory [19]. This improvement helps older adults to better handle the multitasking demands of daily life, such as adding and completing other cognitive tasks simultaneously [20]. In terms of planning ability, the GOTC group showed a significant advantage, supporting the finding that music training enhances executive function. This enhancement is practically helpful for older adults to independently manage daily life affairs, such as taking medication on time and scheduling daily activities [21]. Notably, both intervention groups showed improvements in emotional control and task initiation, which is consistent with the findings about exercise improving executive function. These improvements help older adults to better control emotional impulses and initiate daily activities [22]. Therefore, the results of this study confirm that the intervention of combining rhythmic music with movement and Tai Chi is effective in improving several executive functions in older adults, which is important for maintaining their independence and quality of life in daily life.
On the other hand, the present study assessed the inhibitory control function of older adults in each group by means of the Stroop test. The results showed that the response time of the GOTC group was significantly shorter in the word interference task, and the improvement in the response time of the GOTC group was significantly better than that of the control group in the word interference task, which is in line with the findings on the enhancement of cognitive flexibility by rhythmic activities [23]. The word interference task in the Stroop test mainly reflects the individual’s ability to inhibit the interference of irrelevant verbal information, and this improvement suggests that the GOTC intervention may help older adults filter irrelevant information interference more effectively by strengthening inhibitory control functions in the prefrontal cortex [24]. Notably, none of the groups showed significant improvement in the color interference task, which is consistent with the theory of the Stroop effect proposed in previous studies that the color naming task involves more basic cognitive processing and may be less sensitive to intervention [25]. Therefore, the results of this study suggest that the intervention of rhythmic music combined with movement Tai Chi can effectively improve the verbal inhibition function of older adults, and this enhancement of executive function can help older adults better focus their attention in daily communication and reduce the interference of irrelevant information, which is of positive significance in maintaining their cognitive health.
A dual-channel analysis of cognitive-emotional integration in music-fused physical Tai Chi conditioning
In this study, the effects of different intervention modalities on neuromuscular coordination function in older adults were assessed by intermuscular coherence (COH) analysis. The results showed that the intermuscular coherence in the beta and gamma frequency bands was significantly enhanced in the GOTC group. This study revealed the specific improvement of neuromuscular coordination function by GOTC intervention through intermuscular coherence (COH) analysis. The findings showed that the GOTC group had significantly higher COH values than the control group in the β- (15–30 Hz) and γ-band (30–50 Hz) during the side-slip coordination task (both P < 0.01), a finding that is in line with the findings regarding the synchronization of the γ-band to reflect higher cognitive-motor integration [26]. Of particular note, the enhanced gamma frequency band neuromuscular synchronization was significantly correlated with the previously reported improvement in prefrontal functional connectivity, supporting the coupled role in movement understanding and emotional processing proposed by previous studies [27]. In the rotational balance task, the significant elevation of γ-band COH in the GOTC group (P < 0.001) further supports the theory that γ oscillations support motor-cognitive dual-task processing [28]. Together, these findings suggest that rhythmic music, by enhancing neuromuscular coupling of high-frequency oscillations, may facilitate the sharing of neural resources for motor execution and emotion regulation [29].
The present study revealed the specific effects of GOTC intervention on prefrontal functional connectivity and neuromuscular synergy as measured by multimodal synchronization of fNIRS and sEMG. The findings showed that the GOTC group exhibited a significant enhancement of mPFC-lPFC functional connectivity after the intervention (PFDR < 0.03), a finding that is consistent with research findings on the involvement of prefrontal control networks in executive function and emotion regulation [30]. What is more, we found that the strength of mPFC-lPFC functional connectivity was significantly and positively correlated with γ-frequency band neuromuscular coherence (γ-COH), and the enhancement of mPFC-lPFC functional connectivity reflected the improvement of the efficiency of information integration within the prefrontal lobes, which is consistent with the neural loop model of emotion regulation proposed in previous studies [31]. The correlation between γ-COH and functional connectivity suggests that rhythmic music may achieve “top-down” cognitive-motor integration by synchronizing neuromuscular activity with prefrontal function [32]. This integration is particularly important for older adults who have to deal with the dual demands of movement execution and emotion regulation simultaneously [33]. The present study demonstrated for the first time the coupling between prefrontal functional connectivity and γ-band neuromuscular synergy in an elderly population, providing direct evidence for the understanding of the “cognitive-emotional-motor” trinity of aging mechanisms, as well as new neurophysiological targets for the development of interventions targeting the integration of functionality in the elderly.
Conclusion
This study confirms that rhythmic music combined with movement Tai Chi (GOTC) is effective in promoting cognitive-emotional integration function in older adults. This intervention significantly improved low-intensity emotion regulation and executive functioning (especially working memory and planning ability) by enhancing prefrontal functional connectivity and neuromuscular synchronization. The coupling of gamma-band neuromuscular synchronization with prefrontal functional connectivity was found to be a key mechanism in producing these improvements. These findings provide an important theoretical basis and practical Tai Chi for the development of non-pharmacological intervention programs for cognitive-emotional health in older adults.
Author contribution
All authors were involved in the experimental design and writing the manuscript for this study.
Data availability
All data from this study are in the manuscript; please contact the corresponding author if you need anything else.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
The study protocol followed the ethical principles of the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the Ethics Committee of Beijing Normal University (approval number: BNU20241125). All participants signed an informed consent form agreeing to participate in this study.
Consent for publication
All participants and authors agreed to publish all aspects of this study.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Footnotes
Haojie Li and Xinyu Lin shared co-first authorship.
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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Associated Data
This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.
Data Availability Statement
All data from this study are in the manuscript; please contact the corresponding author if you need anything else.