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. 2025 Nov 21;15:41216. doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-25168-0

The impact of physical activity on innovative behavior: a moderated mediation model

Mengfen Liu 1,#, Jiawei Chen 1,#, Guangyao Zhu 1, Junke Wang 2,✉, Zeng Zhou 3
PMCID: PMC12639113  PMID: 41271953

Abstract

In contemporary educational practices, the innovative behavior of secondary school students is frequently inhibited by exam pressure, limiting opportunities for generating and implementing innovative ideas. Activating innovative potential through non-cognitive skill interventions during secondary school has become a crucial factor in cultivating innovative talent for higher education. This study aims to explore the impact of physical activity on the innovative behavior of middle school students. It constructs a theoretical model using Self-Determination Theory (SDT) as the core framework, with body image state as a mediator and perceived school climate as a moderator. Using the Physical Activity Scale, Body Image State Scale, Perceived School Climate Scale, and Innovative Behavior Scale, a survey was conducted with 1,643 middle school students, and hypotheses were tested through SPSS 26.0 and the PROCESS macro. (1) Physical activity significantly positively predicts innovative behavior; (2) Body image state mediates the relationship between physical activity and innovative behavior; (3) Perceived school climate moderates the relationship between physical activity and innovative behavior, with a strengthening moderation effect. Physical activity promotes innovative behavior by enhancing body image state, and supportive school resources and inclusive interpersonal environments strengthen this process. This study provides theoretical support and an operational model for integrating “physical education + innovation development” in secondary schools.

Keywords: Physical activity, Innovative behaviour, Secondary school students, Body image state, Perceived school climate

Subject terms: Education, Environmental social sciences, Psychology, Psychology

Introduction

Innovative behavior has emerged as a key indicator for assessing the quality of talent development in higher education1. However, the urgent need to address the innovation capabilities of university students is evident — a survey revealed that only 37% of respondents believed they possessed sustained innovative capacity2. The root cause of this issue lies in secondary education: the period between ages 12 and 18 represents a ‘dual critical phase’ for developing innovative thinking and cultivating exercise habits3. During this stage, the prefrontal cortex undergoes rapid development, and physical exercise enhances neural connectivity in brain regions related to innovation by stimulating the secretion of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)4, leading to greater cognitive enhancement compared to other educational stages5. Under exam-oriented education, secondary students face dual constraints: limited opportunities for innovative practice hinder them from testing ideas6,7. while excessive sedentary study, often exceeding eight hours daily, further reduces cognitive flexibility8,9. This dual constraint not only suppresses current innovative behavior but also undermines the continuity of innovation potential in subsequent higher education stages10. Consequently, exploring non-cognitive intervention strategies in secondary education is crucial for bridging the gap in innovation talent development between secondary and tertiary education. As a feasible intervention integrated into daily school life, the mechanisms and pathways linking physical exercise to innovative behavior in secondary students require further empirical exploration.

In recent years, academic research on innovative behavior has shifted from simple correlation verification to exploring differentiated effects. Aga et al.11 conducted acute aerobic exercise experiments and found that exercise enhanced divergent thinking, confirming a specific link between exercise and types of innovative thinking. However, the focus was primarily on physiological mechanisms, with insufficient attention to cognitive pathways. Domestic studies have focused on longitudinal validation in educational contexts. Jin et al.12 used a random intercept cross-lagged model and found that physical exercise predicted adolescents’ creative self-efficacy through psychological resilience, revealing the dynamic individual-level association between the two. However, both domestic and international studies primarily focus on traditional mediators such as cognitive flexibility, with insufficient exploration of body-related cognitive mechanisms. There has been insufficient exploration of body image state as a key mediator linking physiological and psychological factors, and a lack of systematic analysis of environmental boundary conditions. Based on this, the present study adopts social cognitive theory as the core framework, integrating self-determination theory and society ecosystems theory to construct a logical chain linking behavioral engagement, self-cognition, environmental interactions, and innovative output, thereby expanding the current understanding of the relationship between physical activity and adolescent innovative behavior.As shown in Table 1:

Table 1.

Theoretical variables correspondence Table.

Theoretical Framework Core construct Corresponding research variable Functional positioning
Social cognitive theory Triadic interaction, self-efficacy Physical activity、body image state、Innovative behaviour Top-level framework
Self-determination theory Basic psychological needs satisfied Physical activity、body image state Intermediary mechanism
Society Ecosystems Theory Microsystem → Individual interaction Perceived school climate Adjusting boundaries
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Research hypothesis

Physical activity and innovative behaviour

Creativity serves as the cognitive foundation for innovative behavior, while innovative behavior reflects its tangible practical outcomes. Significant distinctions exist between the two regarding their essential nature, process focus, and measurement goals: creativity emphasizes generating novel and useful ideas without requiring tangible output for validation, whereas innovative behavior spans the full cycle of idea generation → promotion → implementation → optimization, highlighting the transformation of cognitive outcomes into actionable results13–15. This conceptual distinction is widely acknowledged in international scholarly circles. For example, Amabile (1988) emphasized that the essence of innovative behavior lies in actively generating new ideas, processes, or solutions to practical problems13. Scott and Bruce (1994) further delineated three stages: idea generation, promotion, and implementation, particularly underscoring the transition from idea to action14. Building on this, the present study defines innovative behavior in the campus context as the process by which individuals generate novel ideas during learning and practice and translate them into concrete actions or outcomes. This definition upholds the core principles of classical theory while adapting to the unique characteristics of secondary education settings16. Neuroscientifar physical activity optimizes brain function through dual pathways17. Cotman demonstrated at the molecular level that inducing the secretion of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) promotes hippocampal neurogenesis and enhances memory integration18. Studies have found that physical activity benefits brain function in adulthood; regular engagement in physical activity enhances cognitive abilities19, and moderate physical activity is positively correlated with creativity in adolescents20,21. Furthermore, physical activity improves cognitive functions, including attention, working memory, and executive function, and promotes innovative thinking by enhancing brain neuroplasticity22. Research also shows that physical activity improves mood and enhances positive emotional experiences23, which are closely linked to innovative behavior24. Building on this, the present study posits Hypothesis 1: physical activity has a substantial positive impact on innovative behavior.

The mediating role of body image state

Body image state, as a core component of self-perception, encompasses an individual’s integrated cognitive and emotional experience regarding body shape, function, and value25.Body image can be divided into two dimensions: State and Trait26. Trait-based body image state refers to a stable cognitive tendency across different contexts, while state-based body image state reflects immediate self-perception in a specific context, with the two exhibiting a trait-foundation and context-activation relationship25. This study focuses on the relatively stable state-based body image in the context of physical exercise, specifically, students’ immediate perceptions and evaluations of their physical abilities and appearance during participation in campus sports activities. From the perspective of self-determination theory27, physical activity reshapes an individual’s body image by fulfilling three basic psychological needs: autonomy (choosing exercise activities), competence (achieving exercise goals), and relatedness (interaction in team sports), thus fostering a positive body image state. This positive shift not only involves improved satisfaction with appearance but also includes a more favorable perception of body function, which is more closely linked to innovative behavior28. The inherent characteristics of innovative behavior closely align with the psychological traits formed during the development of a positive body image state, providing theoretical justification for body image state’s mediating role between physical activity and innovative behavior. Research has shown that the body efficacy aspect of body image state is significantly positively correlated with innovative self-efficacy. When individuals believe their bodies can perform complex tasks, they generalize this belief to the idea that they can complete complex cognitive tasks, which motivates them to actively pursue innovative methods29. Furthermore, a positive body image state can mitigate the impact of frustration during the innovation process. Since innovative behavior often involves repeated failures, individuals with a positive body image are more likely to draw resilience from their experiences of overcoming physical challenges (I can run a marathon, so I can solve this experimental problem)30,31. Based on this, the present study proposes Hypothesis 2: Body image state mediates the relationship between physical activity and innovative behavior.

The moderating role of perceived school climate

School climate refers to the quality and character of school life, encompassing various aspects and organizational patterns of school life32. Perceived school climate refers to students’ perceptions and feelings about their school environment, which are closely linked to individual academic achievement, behavioral development, and mental health33. According to the Society Ecosystems Theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979), schools, as a micro-system, directly influence behavioral outcomes by reinforcing or inhibiting individual behavioral tendencies through their environmental characteristics. A supportive school climate enhances students’ intrinsic motivation to engage in physical activity by providing exercise resources (such as facilities and guidance) and psychological support (such as teacher and peer encouragement)34. Teachers’ encouragement of physical activity improves students’ problem-solving abilities35, while the transfer of skills in physical activity is more easily translated into innovative capabilities in a supportive environment. Experimental studies have demonstrated a significant positive correlation between school sports resources and exercise frequency36,37, and students with higher exercise frequencies perform better in innovative tasks38. The 4P model of creativity39 and the 5 A framework of creativity40 propose that the environment is a crucial determinant of creativity, with the school environment playing a key role in fostering creativity41. Thus, students who perceive a poor school climate may be unable to engage in systematic learning and exercise, resulting in significantly reduced benefits from both physical activity and learning. Perceived school climate may play a moderating role in the relationship between physical activity and innovative behavior. Based on this, the present study proposes Hypothesis 3: Perceived school climate moderates the relationship between physical activity and innovative behavior.

Based on this, the present study adopts social cognitive theory as the core framework, integrating self-determination theory and society ecosystems theory to construct a logical chain linking behavioral engagement, self-cognition, environmental interactions, and innovative output, thereby expanding the current understanding of the relationship between physical activity and adolescent innovative behavior. Considering this, we have constructed the hypothesized model in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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The hypothesized model in Fig. 1.

Methods

Study population

Between November and December 2024, data were collected from eight secondary schools in Hunan Province using a cluster random sampling method, with participants completing an online survey via Wenjuanxing. Participants were aged 14–18 years, with 975 males and 668 females. Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the Ethics Committee of Hunan University of Electromechanics (2024019) prior to its commencement, and the study adhered to the principles of the Helsinki Declaration. Before distributing the questionnaires, consent was obtained from the school administration, teachers, and parents. Students were informed of their right to withdraw from the survey at any time during completion. The principal investigator provided standardized training for teachers involved in administering the questionnaires. The questionnaires were completed within a specified timeframe, with Grade 12 students excluded due to their academic workload. The sampling process involved training teachers, conducted by the researchers, who subsequently passed the instructions to the students. An informed consent form was included on the front page of the questionnaire, detailing the study’s purpose, confidentiality, and anonymity. The questionnaire was designed to be completed in approximately 15 min and included distractor items to identify invalid responses. Upon completion, the questionnaires were collected by teachers, and the data was entered and cross-verified by two independent researchers. A total of 1,723 questionnaires were collected, and after excluding invalid and incomplete responses based on two screening questions, 1,643 valid samples were obtained, yielding a final response rate of 95.29%.

Measurement tools

Physical activity

The physical activity scale used in this study was developed by Hashimoto et al.42. This scale includes parameters such as the duration, frequency, and intensity of participants’ physical activity. Scoring was based on a 5-point Likert scale, with duration ranging from 0 to 4, and frequency and intensity from 1 to 5. Longer duration, higher frequency, and greater intensity corresponded to higher scores, indicating greater physical activity. The formula for calculating physical activity is: Activity = Intensity × Duration × Frequency. Intensity and frequency were rated on a 1–5 scale, while duration was rated on a 0–4 scale. The maximum score was 100, and the minimum score was 0. The activity level criteria were as follows: ≤19 for low activity, 20–42 for moderate activity, and ≥ 43 for high activity. The Cronbach’s α coefficient for this scale in the current study was 0.694.

Innovative behaviour

The innovative behavior scale was adapted from the revised version of the Innovative Behavior Scale by Ng43. The scale was adjusted for linguistic and cultural relevance while maintaining the original meaning. The final version of the scale was consistent with the original items and scoring system, now in Chinese. The scale has been validated in Chinese populations44. It consists of 9 items, scored using a 5-point Likert scale, including three subscales: idea generation, idea dissemination, and idea implementation. The total or average score for each subscale can be calculated. The items included in each subscale are as follows: Idea Generation—behaviors related to generating new approaches, ideas, and perspectives for solving problems (Items 1, 2, and 3, with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.88); Idea Dissemination—individual willingness to spread new ideas (Items 4, 5, and 6, with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.885); Idea Implementation—individual ability to transform new ideas and perspectives into concrete actions (Items 7, 8, and 9, with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.9). The Cronbach’s α coefficient for this scale in the current study was 0.948.

Body image state

The Body Image State Scale was developed by Cash and Thomas F25. The scale was adapted to fit the linguistic and cultural context of China while preserving the original meaning. The final version of the scale was consistent with the original items and scoring system, now in Chinese. The scale has been validated in Chinese populations45. Composed of 6 items, the scale uses a 9-point scoring system. Items 1, 3, and 5 are scored positively, while items 2, 4, and 6 are scored negatively. Higher scores indicate greater satisfaction with one’s body image state. The Cronbach’s α coefficient for this scale in the current study was 0.929.

Perceived school climate

The Perceived School Climate Scale was developed by Jia and Yueming46. It consists of 25 items across three dimensions: teacher support, peer support, and opportunities for autonomy. The scale uses a 5-point rating system, with average scores calculated for each dimension. Higher scores indicate a more positive perception of the school climate by adolescents. In this study, the Cronbach’s α coefficients for teacher support, peer support, opportunities for autonomy, and the overall scale were 0.838, 0.712, 0.782, and 0.871, respectively.

Data processing

Descriptive statistics and correlation analyses were conducted using SPSS 26.0. Mediation effects were tested using the PROCESS macro. The results indicated that Harman’s single-factor test was employed. The analysis revealed that, without principal component factor rotation, three factors had eigenvalues greater than 1. The first factor explained 36.5% of the variance, which was below the 40% threshold47. Therefore, no significant common method bias was found in this study.

Results

Statistical analyses

All statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS 26.0. Initially, we examined methodological biases to assess potential biases arising from the self-reported questionnaires48. Subsequently, we standardized the data for the main variables before conducting the analysis. Finally, to test the hypotheses, we utilized the PROCESS macro in SPSS (Models 4 and 5) to analyze the relationships between variables49. The PROCESS macro employs the bootstrapping method with 5000 resamples to estimate model tests and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI), with a relationship considered significant when the 95% CI does not include zero. Gender and age were treated as covariates in the analysis, with the significance level set at α = 0.05.

Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis

Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis reveal significant positive correlations between physical activity and innovative behavior (r = 0.131**), and between body image state and innovative behavior (r = 0.127**). Body image state shows the highest significant positive correlation with innovative behavior (r = 0.525**), suggesting that body image state may play a crucial role in the relationship between physical activity and innovative behavior. Additionally, perceived school climate shows significant correlations with physical activity (r = 0.18**) and innovative behavior (r = 0.17**), providing a basis for the moderating role of perceived school climate. The detailed results are presented in Table 2.

Table 2.

Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis table (N = 1643).

M SD
Physical activity 26.349 25.945 1
Perceived school climate 86.604 11.338 0.18** 1
body image state 31.055 9.779 0.127** 0.11** 1
Innovative behaviour 40.511 9.571 0.131** 0.17** 0.525** 1
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**P < 0.01.

Mediating effect analysis

As shown in Fig. 2, after controlling for demographic variables, such as gender and grade, physical activity exhibited a significant total effect on innovative behavior (b = 0.052**). After mediation by body image state, the direct effect remained significant (b = 0.026**), though with a reduced strength. Furthermore, the mediation paths—physical activity → body image state (0.043**) and body image state → innovative behavior (0.598*)—were both significant. These results suggest that body image state partially mediates the relationship between physical activity and innovative behavior. Physical activity not only directly promotes innovative behavior but also exerts an indirect influence through enhancing body image state.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

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Mediating path between body image status and physical activity and innovative behaviour.

Moderated mediation effect test

The moderated mediation analysis, as shown in Table 3, revealed that the interaction term “Physical activity × Perceived school climate” had a significant regression coefficient (β = 0.011, t = 12.091, p < 0.05), suggesting that Perceived school climate may moderate the relationship between physical activity and innovative behavior. The analysis was further tested using the bias-corrected percentile bootstrap method. At three levels of Perceived school climate—one standard deviation below the mean, the mean, and one standard deviation above the mean—the moderation effect of Perceived school climate on the relationship between physical activity and innovative behavior, along with the Bootstrap 95% confidence intervals, are presented in Table 4.

Table 3.

Moderated mediating effect (N = 1643).

Innovative behaviour body image state
β t β t
Physical activity 0.026 6.613 0.043 4.603
Perceived school climate 0.18 11.38
Physical activity*Perceived school climate 0.011 12.091
body image state 0.598 31.466
R 2 0.398 0.018
F F = 134.852*** F = 5.993***
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* p < 0.05 ** p < 0.01.

Table 4.

Perceived school climate regulation effects table (N = 1643).

Perceived school climate Effect BootSE BootLLCI BootULCI
M-1SD 0.018 0.01 0.002 0.038
M 0.026 0.007 0.012 0.041
M + 1SD 0.034 0.01 0.014 0.055
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As shown in Table 3, the moderation effect of Perceived school climate further confirms that, as the level of Perceived school climate increased from low to high (−1SD → M→ +1SD), the effect size increased from 0.018 to 0.034, with the Bootstrap confidence intervals excluding zero, indicating that the stronger the Perceived school climate, the more significant the impact of physical activity on innovative behavior. This suggests a “strengthening” moderation effect.

Discussion

The relationship between physical activity and innovative behaviour

This study found a significant positive correlation between physical activity and innovative behavior. This result supports Hypothesis 1, suggesting that individuals engaging in physical activity demonstrate stronger innovative capabilities and tendencies. Additionally, this result validates the claim of embodied cognition theory that physical activity enhances creativity50. From a physiological perspective, regular physical activity (particularly moderate-intensity aerobic exercise) optimizes neuroplasticity and brain network functions, providing a physiological foundation for innovative behavior. Research indicates that maintaining a fixed weekly schedule of moderate-intensity exercise significantly increases the secretion of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)51. This factor promotes synaptic formation in the prefrontal cortex (responsible for executive functions and rule-breaking), hippocampus (involved in memory integration), and parietal cortex (supports distant associations), enhancing the coordinated activation of these brain regions52. The core of innovative behavior—such as divergent thinking (generating multiple solutions) and distant associations (connecting seemingly unrelated information)—depends on the efficient coordination of these brain regions53,54. For example, Paul D. Loprinzi’s study found significant effects of both acute and chronic exercise on the memory function of young and middle-aged adults55,56, confirming the immediate cognitive enhancement effects of exercise on innovation.

Mediating effect of body image state

This study reveals that body image state mediates the relationship between physical activity and innovative behavior. From the perspective of how physical activity shapes body image state, regular physical activity (especially skill-based or sustained exercises) facilitates a positive shift in body image by improving physical function and enhancing body perception. On one hand, the physical benefits of exercise (such as increased strength, endurance, and coordination) bolster an individual’s recognition of their body’s functional value — shifting focus from concerns about appearance to appreciating the body’s ability to perform tasks25. For example, individuals engaged in long-term team sports are more likely to develop a positive cognition of my body can support complex collaboration. On the other hand, the immediate body awareness during exercise (such as breath rhythm and movement control) enhances body awareness, reducing excessive concern about external negative evaluations and lowering body anxiety57. This transformation from appearance critique to functional recognition constitutes the core of a positive body image state, and this shift is the unique contribution of physical activity: compared to passively receiving body information, individuals who actively engage in exercise can reconstruct their body perception through direct experience57. Furthermore, a positive body image state fosters innovative behavior through three pathways: First, as a core self-cognitive resource, it enhances self-efficacy58. When individuals acknowledge their body’s functional value (my body can support sustained exploration), they transfer this sense of control to innovative tasks, becoming more willing to adopt unconventional methods and reducing hesitation due to self-doubt. Second, according to Fredrickson’s broaden-and-build theory59, the positive emotions and acceptance accompanying a positive body image state expand cognitive boundaries, enabling individuals to break free from fixed thinking patterns and embrace novel connections. For instance, the positive perception of body function may reduce self-imposed limits such as perfection is required, making trial and error in the innovation process more acceptable. Third, a positive body image state reduces the depletion of self-regulation resources. Negative body image states often involve recurrent self-criticism (I can’t do it)60, which consumes cognitive resources, while a positive body image state frees these resources, allowing individuals to focus on problem-solving and extend the depth and duration of innovative thinking61,62. In other words, a positive body image state is an important characteristic of innovative behavior, which partly explains the close relationship between the two. In this study, the body image state induced by physical activity also plays a crucial role in enhancing individuals’ innovative behavior.

The moderating effect of perceiving school climate

This study finds that perceived school climate plays a moderating role in the relationship between physical activity and innovative behavior. The core logic lies in the fact that individuals’ subjective perceptions of the school environment alter the intensity and pathway through which physical activity influences innovative behavior, forming a dynamic moderating mechanism of environmental perception → amplification/buffering effects → differential relationship strength. From a theoretical perspective, based on the Society Ecosystems Theory, the school, as a critical microsystem for adolescent development, creates boundary conditions for individual behavior through its environmental characteristics—supportive interactions, resource availability, and innovation tolerance—thus affecting the efficiency with which physical activity relates to innovative behavior. Specifically, the moderating effect of perceived school climate operates through three pathways: first, the resource matching effect. A highly supportive environment (with adequate sports facilities and innovation platforms) reduces the implementation cost of physical activity and innovative behavior. When schools provide both athletic facilities and maker spaces, and integrate them through curriculum design, students are more likely to translate the physical benefits and collaborative experiences gained through physical activity into practical innovative behavior skills63. Second, the reinforcement of psychological safety. An inclusive environment (which encourages trial and error and accepts unconventional ideas) weakens the perception of risk in innovative behavior, making it easier for the positive emotions generated by physical activity (such as vitality and control) to be converted into motivation for innovative attempts. For example, in a campus culture that permits failure reflection, students are more likely to transfer their strategic adjustment experiences from team sports to iterative improvements in innovative projects34. Third, the amplification of social support. When schools communicate the value of “synergistic development of physical activity and innovation” through teacher-student interactions (with teachers affirming the role of exercise in stimulating cognitive activity) and when peer networks form around “exercise-innovation” cooperation, the social dimension of physical activity is enhanced, thereby amplifying its effect on innovative behavior64. This suggests that perceived school climate is not an independent variable; rather, it dynamically moderates the strength of the relationship between physical activity and innovative behavior by shaping the feasibility and psychological cost of their pathway. A positive school climate acts as a catalyst for the innovative transformation of physical activity, while a negative climate may become a barrier to this transformation.

Research limitations

This study reveals the mechanisms linking physical activity, body image state, perceived school climate, and innovative behavior, but several limitations remain. First, the sample is not fully representative; gender imbalance in the sample, with a lower proportion of female participants, may lead to an underestimation of moderating effects. Additionally, key information such as the urban-rural characteristics of the schools and school type classification was not disclosed, which may limit the generalizability of the conclusions. Second, the study used a cross-sectional design, which, despite statistical controls to reduce confounding variables, does not fully establish the causal temporal relationship between variables. Third, the reliance on self-report scales as measurement tools may introduce common method bias, which could somewhat limit the ecological validity of the measurements. Fourth, the boundary conditions of the moderation and mediation mechanisms have not been sufficiently explored. The heterogeneity of the moderating effects of different dimensions of perceived school climate was not analyzed, and the potential influence of variables such as gender and type of physical activity on the mediation paths was not examined. Fifth, the study lacks intervention validation; it infers mechanisms solely through correlation analysis, without experimental design to verify causal effects, thereby diminishing the practical implications of the findings.

Conclusions and recommendations

This study found that a supportive environment significantly strengthens the effect of physical exercise on body functionality, supplementing the conclusions of Shoesmith et al.65 regarding the influence of school factors on behavioral transformation. It clarifies the stage-specific moderating role of an inclusive environment in the body functionality → innovative behavior pathway, with its effect concentrated during the capability transformation stage rather than the capability formation stage. This finding supplements the full-chain moderation model proposed by Li et al.66, deepening the understanding of the environment-individual interaction mechanism.The findings of this study indicate that physical activity significantly positively predicts innovative behavior in adolescents. This relationship is mediated by body image state, and perceived school climate moderates the connection between physical activity and innovative behavior—specifically, a high-supportive school environment strengthens the impact of physical activity on innovative behavior. Despite limitations such as sample constraints and restricted causal inference, the study provides an integrated perspective on the “body-psychology-environment” interaction in understanding adolescent innovative capability development. It also validates the feasibility of using physical activity as an intervention pathway for promoting innovative behavior58,67.

Based on the research findings and limitations, the following recommendations are proposed: theoretically, future studies could employ a longitudinal design with multiple waves to establish causal sequencing between variables, and incorporate cross-cultural samples to assess the cultural robustness of the model. In terms of methodology, it is recommended to combine objective indicators with self-reported data, using experience sampling methodology (ESM) to reduce common method bias, while employing multi-group structural equation modeling to analyze the moderating effects of variables such as gender and educational level. Future research could adopt a province-level stratified and school-type comprehensive sampling design to expand the geographical and school-type scope, clearly identifying key sample attributes to enhance the generalizability of the findings. In practice, schools should allocate sports resources in a tiered manner, plan sports spaces according to athletic levels, establish dynamic feedback mechanisms, and implement process-oriented evaluations to create an inclusive and innovative atmosphere. Teachers should implement a three-stage teaching approach focused on skill, function, and innovation, incorporating real-time functional feedback, providing differentiated guidance for male and female groups, and strengthening the positive moderating role of perceived school climate. Furthermore, educational departments could promote the development of a sports innovation literacy evaluation system, integrating sports participation and innovative practices into student development assessments to provide systematic guidance for the comprehensive development of adolescents.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank all participants for their contributions to this research.

Author contributions

Liu, Chen and Wang. conducted the research design, participated in collecting data, and drafted the manuscript.Liu and Wang. conceived the experiment. Liu, Wang, Zhou and Chen analysed the results interpretation of the data and drafted the manuscript. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

Funding

Ministry of Education Humanities and Social Science Youth Project “Number Intelligence Empowering College Students Physical Health Wisdom System Construction and Empirical Tracking Research” (23YJC890059);The project of Bashu Sports Culture Research Center of Sports Culture Research Base of State General Administration of Sports “Evaluation and Countermeasures of Sports Intangible Cultural Heritage inheritance in Tuojiang River Basin (24BSB10)”.

Data availability

Due to the nature of this study, participants in this study did not agree to share their data publicly and therefore supporting data could not be provided. If anyone would like to obtain data from this study, please contact the corresponding author.

Declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the Hunan Mechanical & Electrical Polytechnic (2024019) prior to its commencement. Written informed consent was obtained from parents/guardians who were willing to participate in the study.Each participant signed an informed consent form, affirming their voluntary involvement in the study, their comprehension of the study’s aims, and the use of their data.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Footnotes

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

These authors contributed equally: Mengfen Liu and Jiawei Chen.

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