Hibiscus rosa‐sinensis : A Multifunctional Flower Bridging Nutrition, Medicine, and Molecular Therapeutics

ABSTRACT

Hibiscus rosa‐sinensis , commonly known as the shoe flower, thrives in tropical and subtropical regions across South China, Asia, Africa, and America, adapting well to diverse environments. Its therapeutic potential is attributed to a range of bioactive compounds Anthocyanins, saponins, quercetin, kaempferol, and anthraquinones are found in various plant parts. These compounds scavenge reactive oxygen and nitrogen species and modulate inflammatory (IL‐6, TNF‐α, PPAR‐γ, cyclooxygenase) and oxidative (MDA, MPO, NO, SOD, GSH) markers, offering therapeutic benefits against cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular, neurological, gastrointestinal, and hepato‐renal disorders. The plant exhibits antidiabetic effects by lowering blood glucose, triglycerides, cholesterol, and postprandial glucose absorption. Cardioprotective properties are linked to the regulation of PPAR‐γ, SREBP‐1c, acetyl‐CoA carboxylase, and fatty acid synthase. Molecular docking studies reveal strong binding affinities of myricetin and rutin with α‐glucosidase (−10.5) and SOD (−8.6), highlighting their antidiabetic and hepatoprotective potential. H. rosa‐sinensis also exhibits antimicrobial activity against various bacterial (e.g., E. coli , S. aureus ) and fungal strains (e.g., A. flavus , A. niger ). Animal‐based studies affirm its safety between 400 and 800 mg/kg body weight. Its coloring, flavoring, nutritional, and therapeutic properties support applications in food, cosmetics, nutraceuticals, and dyeing. However, long‐term clinical trials are essential to validate its traditional uses and therapeutic efficacy.

H. rosa‐sinensis bioactives modulate oxidative and inflammatory pathways. Myricetin and rutin show strong α‐glucosidase and SOD binding affinity. Exhibits safe, multifunctional use in health, food and nutraceuticals.

Abbreviations

ABTS

2,2'‐azino‐bis‐(3‐ethylbenzothiazoline‐6‐sulfonic) acid

AIDS

acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

ALP

alkaline phosphatase

ALT

alanine transaminase

AMPK

AMP‐activated protein kinase

AST

aspartate transferase

C3

carbon 3

CAT

catalase

CCL4

carbon tetrachloride

CD4

cluster of differentiation 4

CMC

carboxy methyl cellulose

CuO NPs

copper oxide nanoparticles

DPPH

2,2‐diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazyl

ESR1

estrogen receptor 1

FRAP

ferric reducing antioxidant power

GABA

gamma‐Aminobutyric acid

GAE

gallic acid equivalents

GSH

glutathione

HCT

hematocrit

HDL

high density lipoprotein

HER2

human epidermal growth factor receptor 2

HIV

human immunodeficiency virus

IgE

immunoglobulin E

IL‐6

interleukin 6

LD

lethal dose

LDL

low density lipoprotein

MCF

Michigan Cancer Foundation

MDA

malondialdehyde

MIC

minimum inhibitory concentration

MPO

myeloperoxidase

MTT

3‐ (4,5‐dimethylthiazol‐2‐yl)‐2,5‐diphenyltetrazolium bromide

NO

nitric oxide

PDB

protein data bank

PPAR‐γ

peroxisome proliferator‐activated receptor gamma

PRISMA

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta‐Analyses

ROS's

reactive oxygen species

SOD

superoxide dismutase

SREBP‐1c

Sterol regulatory element binding protein‐1c

TC

total cholesterol

TFC

total flavonoid content

TG

triglyceride

TNF‐α

tumor necrosis factor alpha

TPC

total phenolic content

VLDL

very low‐density lipoprotein

1. Introduction

The medicinal herbs and flowers have changed the aura of the 21st century and shifted global trends towards natural herbal remedies due to their pharmacological aspects. The development of ethnomedicine and nutraceuticals has significantly impacted humanity and plays a key role in health promotion (Chaachouay and Zidane 2024). Multiple communities from ancient times have used plants for various purposes, including food, shelter, and earning sources, based on their knowledge, skills, and beliefs (Zemede et al. 2024). Moreover, these flowers and herbs are the backbone of traditional healthcare systems and have been used for centuries to cure several acute and chronic disorders (Ralte et al. 2024). Despite modern commercialized synthetic drugs that are available in the market and have immediate responses to manage the symptoms of diseases, more than 80% of the current world population uses medicinal plants as primary treatment sources (Yadav et al. 2024).

Several adverse health consequences, such as gastrointestinal disturbance, neurological impairments, and heart and renal failure, have been reported from the utilization of synthetic drugs (Rehman et al. 2024). According to the World Health Organization, ~5 million individuals die each year due to improper and false drug recommendations. These figures demanded the formulation of such drugs, which have limited adverse health effects and better health benefits (Ahmed et al. 2024). Nutraceutical and food industrialists have developed nutraceuticals and functional foods that modulate the normal physiology of the human body (Keservani et al. 2024; Shi et al. ²⁰²⁴).

Medicinal plants and their compounds are safe to consume with multiple health‐promoting and disease‐reducing properties. H. rosa‐sinensis , an evergreen herbaceous medicinal plant, belongs to the Malvaceae family and Hibiscus genus that has around 275 species in tropical and subtropical regions of the world (Raza et al. 2025; Geeganage and Gunathilaka ²⁰²⁴). H. rosa‐sinensis is renowned for its diverse nomenclature across the world's various regions. It is Gul‐e‐Gurhal in Pakistan, Chembarathi in Malayalam, Semparutti in Tamil, Rudrapuspa in Sanskrit, Gurhal in Hindi, Shoe flower plant and Chinese hibiscus in English (Sivaraman and Saju 2021). Flavonoids and polyphenolic compounds present in H. rosa‐sinensis are responsible for its anti‐inflammatory, antitumorigenic, antibacterial, antifungal, anti‐diabetic, antioxidant, and antipyretic properties (Sanadheera et al. 2021).

This multidimensional review focuses on the nutritional composition and phytochemistry of H. rosa‐sinensis . It effectively conveys that the content goes far beyond ornamental uses, highlighting H. rosa‐sinensis's medicinal properties, safety concerns, and the industrial value of different parts. Moreover, the studies on the synergy of H. rosa‐sinensis with other medicinal plants are the highlight of this article. The combination of health, safety, and economic perspectives ensures relevance across disciplines, making this review unique and impactful. Lastly, this review is the first to comprehensively report molecular docking regarding hepatoprotective and antidiabetic roles, offering new insights into the therapeutic potential of H. rosa‐sinensis.

2. Methodology

As shown in the PRISMA flow diagram (Figure 1), 300 studies were found. After removing duplicates and excluding irrelevant papers based on titles and abstracts, 195 articles were retained for full‐text review. Fifteen articles were excluded after full‐text review, with the reasons for their removal detailed in the PRISMA flow diagram. Finally, 180 studies were included in the review.

FIGURE 1.

PRISMA flow diagram of the literature search process.

3. Taxonomical Classification

Kingdom	Plantae
Subkingdom	Tracheobionta
Division	Magnoliophyta
Class	Magnoliopsida
Subclass	Dilleniidae
Order	Malvaceae
Genus	Hibiscus
Species	H. rosa‐sinensis

(Iqbal and Rehman 2023).

4. Geographical Distribution

H. rosa‐sinensis is an herbal flowering plant distributed across the world's tropical and subtropical regions, particularly in South China, tropical Asia, Africa, and America, which provides favorable conditions for its growth and germination. However, its growth depends on soil fertility, nutrient availability, irrigation system, and environmental and climatic conditions (Magdalita and San Pascual ²⁰²²; Shah and Wu ²⁰¹⁹).

5. Botanical and Morphological Description

H. rosa‐sinensis is a perennial shrub that grows to a height of 1.3 m with a width of 1.5–2.4 m. Its dull green leaves are simple, serrate, and glabrous, with a length of 4 to 8 cm and a width of 2 cm. Its flowers are five‐petalled with a 4‐in. diameter and are bisexual, showy, actinomorphic, dichlamydeous, and pentamerous. The seeds aid in the germination process of H. rosa‐sinensis , which occurs because of pollination in appropriate environmental conditions. It has abortive fruit, erect and cylindrical stems, and branched tap roots, while its dark brown seeds are 1.6 to 2.9 mm tall. Its growth is at its peak when the temperature is optimum, i.e., 13°C–34°C, and pH is about 5.5–6. Its cultivation is significantly increased due to its pest, disease, and drought‐resistant properties (Shaheen et al. 2023; Valdivié and Martínez ²⁰²²). The botanical and morphological description of H. rosa‐sinensis is demonstrated in Figure 2.

FIGURE 2.

Botanical description of Hibiscus rosa‐sinensis.

6. Nutritional Composition

The nutritional profile of H. rosa‐sinensis significantly contributes to improving healthy lifestyles and overall well‐being. Different factors such as biofortification, enrichment, and fermentation can improve the nutritional profile and enhance the bioavailability of nutrients within the body (Moyo 2024). Studies have reported that nutrient content can vary depending on environmental factors. It has been found that the moisture (2.6%–7.7%), ash (3%–14%), fat (2%–9%), fiber (3.1%–3.9%), proteins (2%–7%), and carbohydrate contents are (32%–73%), respectively in the leaves of H. rosa‐sinensis (Eze and Nwibo 2017; Udo et al. ²⁰¹⁶). However, the flowers of H. rosa‐sinensis have moisture (76%–83%), ash (5.5%–6.3%), fats (0.3%–1.2%), fiber (1.5%–2%), proteins (1.54%–2.4%), and carbohydrates (13%–15%) (Bala et al. 2022; Al‐Snafi ²⁰¹⁸). Vitamins such as vitamin A (2.5), vitamin B2 (1.5), vitamin C (20), vitamin E (10 mg/100 g) and minerals including potassium (5.4), iron (9.5), calcium (9.3 mg/100 g), phosphorous (42 mg/g‐1), sodium (0.4 mg/g‐1), magnesium (90 mg/g‐1), and manganese (2.4 mg/g‐1) are the main micro‐constituents of dried leaves of H. rosa‐sinensis (Eze and Nwibo 2017; Udo et al. ²⁰¹⁶).

7. Phytochemical Composition

H. rosa‐sinensis contains several bioactive compounds that impose multiple therapeutic attributes and contribute to improving individuals' health. Shafiq et al. (2021) identified caffeic acid, gallic acid, and p‐coumaric acid at 15, 11, and 35 ppm concentrations. Furthermore, the bioactive compounds in the roots are (flavonoids, tannins, glycosides, resins, reducing sugars, saponins, gums and mucilage) (Amtaghri et al. 2024), leaves (alkaloids, quercetin, kaempferol, anthocyanins, sterols, glycosides, and fats) (Umar et al. 2024), stems (sitosterol, cardiac glycosides, anthraquinones, malvalic acids and cyclic sterculic acid) (Tawfeeq et al. 2024), and flowers (thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, apigenidine, oxalic, citric and ascorbic acids) (Zulkurnain et al. 2023; Bala et al. ²⁰²²).

The essential oil extracted from the flowers contains bioactive compounds such as 1‐iodoundecane, 1, 2‐benzenedicarboxylic acid isodecyl octyl ester, neopentane, 2‐propenamide, 1–4 butanediol ester, 2, 2, 4‐trimethyl 3‐pentanone, 2‐cyclopentylethanol, 1‐tetrazole‐2‐ylethanone, amyl nitrite, and 4‐trifluoroacetoxyoctane (Agarwal and Prakash 2013). The essential oil of H. rosa‐sinensis leaves comprises limonene, carvone, tetradecane, (E)‐caryophyllene, 2‐ethylhexyl mercaptoacetate, bisabolene, caryophyllene oxide, 1,3,7,11‐cyclotetradecatetraene, dibutyl phthalate, docosyl heptafluorobutyrate, and squalene, performing multiple functions within the body systems (Sidhu et al. 2023). The chemical structures of H. rosa‐sinensis bioactive compounds are drawn below.

8. Traditional Applications

H. rosa‐sinensis has been traditionally used in primary healthcare systems to cure multiple disorders. Healthcare professionals formulate different decoctions, amalgams, and creams using parts of H. rosa‐sinensis against specific ailments. These formulations vary from region to region. Bangladesh prepares decoctions by using the flowers of H. rosa‐sinensis to modulate the regular menstrual cycles. At the same time, the Chinese formulate hot water extract from their flowers and bark to regulate menstrual periods and reduce menstrual pain. In addition to menstruation regulation, H. rosa‐sinensis also contains other traditional health implementations (Bala et al. 2022). The hot water extracts of its dried leaves and flowers are used to treat sick infants, gonorrhea, influenza, dry and productive cough, stimulate labor during delivery, and bronchitis. Its roots and bark are beneficial in the management of sexually transmitted disorders (HIV and AIDS), cough, skin disorders, and menorrhagia (Amtaghri et al. 2024; Magdalita and San Pascual ²⁰²²; De Boer and Cotingting ²⁰¹⁴). Table 1 includes the traditional uses of H. rosa‐sinensis different parts in various regions of the world (Bala et al. 2022).

TABLE 1.

Traditional uses of H. rosa‐sinensis different parts in different forms throughout the world.

Parts	Form/route	Uses/benefits	Country
Flower	Hot water extract	Emmenagogue	China
Leaves and flowers		Sick infants	Cook Islands
Leaves and flowers		Gonorrhea	Cook Islands
Flowers		Reproductive issues	East indies
Flowers		Grippe	French Guiana
Root and bark		External emollients	Philippines
Flowers		Regulate menstruation	New Britain (East)
Dried stems		Contraceptive and emmenagogue	Peru
Flowers and leaves		Ease childbirth	Fiji
Leaves	Fresh juice	Diarrhea and improves reproductivity	Fiji
Fresh leaves	Decoction	Antidiarrheal	Japan
Flowers	Orally	Emmenagogue and aphrodisiac	Kuwait
Roselle juice	Juice	To quench thirst	Thailand
Bark	Extract	Emmenagogue	Vietnam
Bark, stem	Decoction	Menorrhagia	Vanuata
Leaves	Eaten as spinach	Food	Nyasaland in South Africa
Fresh flowers	Infusion (orally)	Abortifacient	Rarotonga
Flowers and leaves	Water extract	Induce labor	Samoa
Young leaves	Water (orally)	Induce labor	Ireland
Flower and bark	Infusions	Treatment of dysentery	Mexico

9. Medicinal Properties

H. rosa‐sinensis has various health‐promoting and disease‐ameliorating properties, which are mainly due to the presence of bioactive constituents. These components aid in alleviating the progression and severity of different health disorders such as diabetes, cardiovascular disorders, liver cirrhosis, and arthritis.

9.1. Antioxidant Potential

The antioxidant potential of plants is their ability to scavenge and neutralize ROS, thus helping reduce oxidative stress and inflammation and maintaining homeostasis in the body (Goyal et al. 2025). Although synthetic antioxidants have been prepared, due to their low effectiveness, natural antioxidants are frequently used to reduce free radicals (Uzombah 2022). The capacity of H. rosa‐sinensis to scavenge and neutralize ROS makes it a suitable option as a natural antioxidant. Various studies have been conducted to validate the antioxidant properties of H. rosa‐sinensis. The antioxidant activity of H. rosa‐sinensis' isolated compounds (C3, C4, and C5) and vitamin C was evaluated by determining ABTS scavenging activity, lipid peroxidation scavenging activity, metal chelating activity, nitric oxide scavenging activity, superoxide scavenging activity, and hydrogen peroxide scavenging activity which demonstrated that compound C5 has higher free radical scavenging activity as compared to C3, C4, and ascorbic acid. The respective EC50 values were 2.82, 4.70, 5.22, 6.57, 8.10, and 5.19 μg/mL (Rengarajan et al. 2020). Earlier, Thi et al. (2021) revealed the antioxidant potential of H. rosa‐sinensis by conducting a DPPH assay at varying concentrations of 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.15%, 0.2%, 0.25%, and 0.3%. The results depicted the maximum DPPH free radical's inhibitory effect (87.42%) at 0.3% concentration compared to other concentrations.

Moreover, Sidhu et al. (2023) conducted DPPH, NO, and ABTS assays to assess the antioxidant potential of H. rosa‐sinensis leaves essential oil and dibutyl phthalate. It was observed that the essential oil has more antioxidant potential with IC50 values of 1240 μg/mL (DPPH), 1300 μg/mL (NO), and 1460 μg/mL (ABTS). The DPPH assay revealed that the methanolic extract of H. rosa‐sinensis leaf and flowers was revealed by Sharma and Thakur (2022) with respective IC50 values of 98 and 117 μg/mL. Similarly, its ethanolic leaf extract showed free radical scavenging potential as determined by the DPPH method with the IC50 value of 18.70 μg/mL (Kumar Dwivedi and Jain ²⁰²³). Ghaffar and El‐Elaimy (2012) conducted total antioxidant activity and reducing power assays, which revealed that H. rosa‐sinensis extract has a significant free radical scavenging effect compared to butylated hydroxytoluene at 500 μg/mL. Furthermore, Khan et al. (2014) demonstrated the free radical scavenging potential of H. rosa‐sinensis flowers, which showed DPPH inhibition of 75.4% and 64.9% by its methanol and ethanol extracts, respectively.

Additionally, Falade et al. (2009) indicated DPPH inhibition by the methanolic extract of flowers, which was 43.9 mg/mL. The observed DPPH inhibition was 83% and 97% by the ethanol and aqueous extract of Hibiscus flower (Mak et al. 2013). Chai (2020) evaluated the free‐radical scavenging potential of white, orange, and hybrid hibiscus flowers and leaves by conducting DPPH, TPC, TFC, and FRAP assays. It has been shown that orange flowers have the highest antioxidant potential (90%) as compared to white (81%) and hybrid (75%) Hibiscus, with the respective values of DPPH (90.45%), TPC (33 mg GAE/g), and FRAP (125.38 mg FE/g). Similarly, Kumar Dwivedi and Jain (2023) revealed that the ethanol extract of hibiscus leaves has the highest antioxidant potential with an IC50 value of 18.70 μg/mL.

9.2. Anticancer Activity

Cancer is a proliferative disorder that rapidly spreads and disrupts the normal growth of cells. Cancer prevalence constantly increases with advancements in food, environment, industries, and healthcare facilities (Johariya et al. 2024). According to an estimation, approximately 20 million cases of cancer were reported in 2024, with 9.7 million fatalities. These figures demand effective management strategies with limited toxic effects to reduce mortality and cancer prevalence (Noman et al. 2025). Researchers have employed a medicinal plant, H. rosa‐sinensis , to evaluate the cancer‐ameliorating potential. Harini (2024) conducted a trial to investigate the anticancer potential of H. rosa‐sinensis by MTT assay, and it was demonstrated that the ethanolic extract of hibiscus (10, 25, 50 μg/mL) showed dose‐dependent attenuation of cancer proliferation and migration. Furthermore, Lu et al. (2022) used H. rosa‐sinensis to synthesize silver (Ag) nanoparticles and determined their impact on the viability of hepatic carcinoma. The results revealed that silver nanoparticles had cytotoxic potential against the invasion, migration, and proliferation of hepatocellular cancer cell lines. The IC50 was 223 μg/mL for SNU‐387, 265 μg/mL for Morris hepatoma (McA‐RH7777), 185 μg/mL for hepatic ductal carcinoma (LMH/2A), and 188 μg/mL for Novikoff hepatoma (N1‐S1 Fudr) cell lines.

H. rosa‐sinensis depicted cytotoxic activity against human liver cancer (Hep G2) cell lines by revealing suppression of 132.49% (Shafiq et al. 2021). Moreover, Akhtar et al. (2022) prepared gold nanoparticles of hibiscus and curcumin extract and conducted a comparative study against cancerous cells (HCT‐116 and MCF‐7). The results demonstrated the higher cytotoxic activity of hibiscus gold nanoparticles with an IC50 of 5.80 μg/mL and 3.62 μg/mL against the migration and proliferation of HCT‐116 and MCF‐7 cells compared to curcumin gold nanoparticles. It has been observed that mutations in the ESR1 and HER2 genes advance the development of breast cancer in females. Therefore, Agrawal et al. (2021) proposed an in silico study to investigate the effect of hibiscus on ESR1 and HER2 in breast cancer management. It has been evident that the bioactive compounds, such as rutin, quercetin, kaempferol, and myricetin, of hibiscus have promising effects on attenuating the impact of ESR1 and HER2; however, among these compounds, rutin has a relatively higher suppressive activity, which acts as an inhibitor of ESR1 and HER2 genes. The prevalence of skin cancer is constantly increasing, which causes 50,000 deaths among individuals all over the world. Melanoma is the principal factor aggravating the pathogenesis of skin cancer. However, effective treatment to manage its etiology is limited. Therefore, alternative and safer techniques for utilizing plants and plant‐based compounds are incorporated into modern trials. Goldberg et al. (2016) investigated the growth inhibitory potential of hibiscus flowers' aqueous extract against B16F10 melanoma cells. The results revealed dose‐dependent suppression of melanoma growth and proliferation by hibiscus supplementation. The findings showed that 1 mg/mL inhibited 2‐fold cell proliferation, while 2 mg/mL reduced 4 times cell growth. Furthermore, Rehana et al. (2017) showed that the copper oxide nanoparticles (CuO NPs) of H. rosa‐sinensis had tumor suppressor potential against MCF‐7, Hep‐2, and A549 cancer cell lines. The findings revealed that CuO–S6 showed maximum inhibitory potential with an IC50 of 19.77 μg/mL against MCF‐7 cell lines, whilst, CuO–S3 and CuO–S6 exhibited IC50s of 21.63, 21.66, and 18.11 μg/mL against HeLa, Hep‐2, and A549 cell lines, respectively.

9.3. Antidiabetic Potential

Diabetes mellitus, especially type 2 diabetes, is rapidly prevailing and affecting every 1 in 9 individuals globally. According to reports, diabetes affects ~450 million individuals above 30 years old residing in low‐ and middle‐income countries, and these counts are progressively increasing from year to year. According to Yu et al. (2024), diabetes not only negatively affects pancreatic activity but also influences other organs of the body, i.e., eyes (diabetic retinopathy), nerves (diabetic neuropathy), kidneys (diabetic nephropathy), and feet (diabetic foot). Therefore, medicinal plants, such as hibiscus, have been implemented in rodent trials to confirm their antidiabetic potential. The α‐amylase suppressive activity was assessed by a calorimetric method to determine the antidiabetic activity of hibiscus, and it has been proven that the hypoglycemic potential of hibiscus was obtained by inhibiting α‐amylase activity (Harini 2024). The neutralizing effect of H. rosa‐sinensis was determined by Sharma et al. (2023) against α‐amylase and α‐glucosidase activity, and it was observed that higher α‐amylase and α‐glucosidase attenuating activity was shown by ethyl acetate extract with IC50 values of 83 μg/mL and 53.33 μg/mL. Previously, Ansari et al. (2020) used the ethanolic extract of H. rosa‐sinensis to investigate the hypoglycemic effect in type 2 diabetic rats. The attenuation in blood glucose, triglycerides, and cholesterol has been observed, along with improved HDL cholesterol and hepatic glycogen, by administering 250/500 mg/kg body weight of H. rosa‐sinensis . Additionally, H. rosa‐sinensis inhibited the HPP‐IV enzyme to significantly improve glucose tolerance by lowering glucose absorption and postprandial hyperglycemia. Studies evidencing the antidiabetic potential of H. rosa‐sinensis are mentioned in Table 2.

TABLE 2.

Antidiabetic and hypoglycemic potential of H. rosa‐sinensis .

Study	Part used	Extract	Subjects	Dose	Upregulation	Downregulation	References
In vitro	Petals		RIN‐m5F pancreatic β‐cells	—	Insulin excretion, Ucn‐3, Pdx‐1, MafA, foxO‐1, and Nkx6.1 expression	NF‐κB translocation	Pillai and Mini (2018)
In vitro	Flowers	Ethyl acetate	3 T3‐L1 cells	25 & 50 μg/mL	AMPK, β‐oxidation of fatty acids	Triglycerides, PPAR‐γ, C/EBPα, SREBP‐1c, acetyl‐CoA carboxylase	Lingesh et al. (2019)
In vivo	Flowers	Aqueous	Female Wistar rats	300 mg/kg body weight (BW)/day	Maternal and fetal weight	atherogenic index, coronary artery risk index	Afiune et al. (2017)
In vivo	Flower	Ethanol	Streptozotocin induced rats	250 mg/kg BW	HDL‐cholesterol, insulin release	Blood glucose and insulin levels, cholesterol, triglycerides	Sachdewa and Khemani (2003)
In vivo	flowers	Hydroalcoholic	Alloxan‐induced diabetic Wister rats	50, 100, and 200 mg/kg BW	Size, necrosis and atrophy of Islets cell	Total cholesterol and triglycerides	Pethe, Yelwatkar, Gujar, et al. (2017)
In vivo	leaves	Aqueous methanol	Streptozotocin‐induced diabetic rats	400 mg/kg BW	HDL‐cholesterol, insulin release	LDL‐cholesterol, total cholesterol, triglycerides	Zaki et al. (2017)
In vivo	leaves	Ethanol	Alloxan‐infused diabetic rats	0.5, 1, and 2 mg/kg BW	HDL‐cholesterol	Glucose levels, total cholesterol, triglycerides, LDL‐cholesterol	Mamun et al. (2013)
In vivo	Roots		alloxan induced diabetic rats	500 μg	Insulin secretion	Blood glucose and lipids concentrations, triglycerides	Kumar et al. (2013)
In vivo	flowers	Ethanol	alloxan induced diabetic rabbits	50, 100, and 200 mg/kg BW	Dyslipidemia	Lipids particularly total cholesterol and triglycerides	Pethe, Yelwatkar, Manchalwar, and Gujar (2017)
In vivo	flowers	Aqueous	Streptozotocin induced diabetic rats	250–500 mg/kg BW	Hypoglycemia	Serum glucose, glycosylated hemoglobin, lipids levels	Bhaskar and Vidhya (2012)
In vivo	leaves	Aqueous	Streptozotocin induced diabetic rats	250 mg per kg BW	Glucose tolerance, hypoglycemia	Blood glucose levels	Sachdewa et al. (2001)
In vivo	flowers	Aqueous	Pregnant diabetic rats	100, 200, and 400 mg/kg BW	Hypolipidemia and hypo‐insulinemia	HDL‐cholesterol, ALT and triglycerides	Silva et al. (2015)
In vivo	flowers	Ethanol	Streptozotocin‐induced Wister albino rats	125 mg/kg BW	Necrosis and degeneration of pancreatic β‐cells	Blood sugar and lipids	Chauhan and Rani (2024a)
In vitro and In silico	Flower	Ethyl acetate	—	—	Hypolipidemic effect	α‐glucosidase and α‐ainilase enzymes	Sharma et al. (2023)
In vivo	Petals	Acidified methanol	Streptozotocin induced diabetes in male Sprague–Dawley rats	50 mg/kg BW	Antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione)	Glucose, glycated hemoglobin, lipids, oxidative stress	Kalpana et al. (2021)
In vivo	Flowers	Aqueous	Streptozotocin‐triggered diabetic rats	50, 100, 200, and 1000 mg/kg BW	Body weight	IL‐6, IL‐1β, TNF‐α, blood sugar levels	Oluwamodupe et al. (2024)

9.4. Anti‐Inflammatory and Cardioprotective Properties

Inflammation is the response of immune cells in case any foreign pathogen enters the body. T‐cells play a beneficial role in killing these pathogens, which are involved in the progression of certain inflammatory disorders, i.e., inflammatory bowel disease, multiple sclerosis, diabetes, cancer, autoimmune disorders, cardiovascular disorders, and rheumatoid arthritis. The CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ cells differentiate self or foreign proteins, which helps T cells advance their activity (Chen et al. 2024; Mahdy et al. ²⁰²⁴). The comparative study investigated the anti‐inflammatory potential of ethanolic extract of H. rosa‐sinensis var alba (white Hibiscus) and H. rosa‐sinensis L. flowers and leaves by supplementing 5, 50, 100, and 1000 mg/kg extract in carrageenan‐induced paw edema. The results showed significant alleviation of inflammatory markers, particularly cyclooxygenase levels (Guddeti et al. 2015; Raduan et al. ²⁰¹³).

In another study, Singh et al. (2018) revealed that the tea made from H. rosa‐sinensis has inflammation‐alleviating properties, reducing cartilage destruction and preventing inflammation‐induced arthritis. Previously, Kandhare et al. (2012) investigated the ameliorating potential of Hibiscus leaves' hydroalcoholic extract in acetic acid‐stimulated colitis in male Wistar rats by administering 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg of H. rosa‐sinensis . It has been observed that oxidative stress, MDA, MPO, NO, and TNF‐α reduced while SOD and GSH levels improved by 100 and 200 mg/kg doses of Hibiscus. Similarly, Sruthi et al. (2021) conducted an in vitro study to determine the anti‐inflammatory and anti‐arthritic potential of H. rosa‐sinensis leaves' ethanolic extract. The results depicted that H. rosa‐sinensis stabilizes the membrane (94%) and suppresses protein denaturation (89%) within the specific dose of 500 μg/mL, thereby showing effectiveness against inflammation and arthritis. Moreover, the ethanolic extract of H. rosa‐sinensis roots was employed to investigate the analgesic and anti‐inflammatory potential in carrageenan‐induced paw edema by supplementing 250 and 500 mg/kg root extract and concluded that pain and inflammation were significantly attenuated as the concentration of the extract was increased, revealing a dose‐dependent effect (Begum et al. 2018).

Additionally, Gupta et al. (2014) depicted that the oral supplementation of ~250 mg/kg aqueous root extract of H. rosa‐sinensis ameliorated inflammation in carrageenan‐induced paw edema in Swiss albino rats in a dose‐dependent manner. Gulati (2022) assessed the anti‐inflammatory mechanism of H. rosa‐sinensis and Piper nigrum using a bronchial asthma model and by supplementing 100 and 250 mg/kg H. rosa‐sinensis and 30 and 100 mg/kg Piper nigrum for 2 weeks. Significant reductions in IgE, TNF‐α, and P‐enh levels were observed, and these plants also ameliorated all the blood and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid parameters, ultimately relieving inflammation and bronchospasm in bronchial asthma. The adipogenic potential of H. rosa‐sinensis ethyl acetate flower extract was investigated in 3 T3‐L1 cells by Lingesh et al. (2019), who administered 25 and 50 μg/mL and found the modulated AMP‐activated protein kinase (AMPK), and reduced expression of triglycerides, lipolysis, PPAR‐γ, Sterol regulatory element‐binding protein‐1c (SREBP‐1c), Acetyl‐CoA carboxylase, and fatty acid synthase. Later, Jeevan Kumar and Rajeshkumar (2022) reported the anti‐inflammatory property of silver nanoparticles synthesized from H. rosa‐sinensis , which was 79% at the concentration of 50 μL. A previous study conducted by Somchit et al. (2008) showed that the leaves of H. rosa‐sinensis have dose‐dependent amelioration of prostaglandin D2‐induced inflammation from the paw.

In addition, Gauthaman et al. (2006) conducted a study to assess the potential of 2% CMC‐suspended H. rosa‐sinensis flower against inflammation and oxidative stress‐induced myocardial ischemic reperfusion injury in Wister albino rats of 150–200 g by supplementing hibiscus suspension at the specific dosage of 125, 250, and 500 mg/kg for 6 days a week for 1 month. It has been evident that thiobarbituric acid reactive substances and SOD are significantly improved in the 250 mg/kg administered group, while GSH and CAT levels are relatively alleviated. However, no significant influence was observed in the 125 and 500 mg/kg treated groups.

Previously, Khandelwal et al. (2011) investigated the effect of Hemidesmus indicus and H. rosa‐sinensis at 90, 180, and 360 μg/mL concentrations against ischemia–reperfusion injured rats. Short‐term improvements in left ventricular developed pressure and coronary flow were observed by Hemidesmus indicus. However, H. rosa‐sinensis significantly enhances left ventricular developed pressure and coronary flow, having more vasodilatory, inotropic, and cardioprotective potency than Hemidesmus indicus. In another trial, the impact of anthocyanins from H. rosa‐sinensis against hypertension and deoxycorticosterone acetate‐salt‐induced oxidative stress was evaluated in rats by supplementing 100 and 300 mg/kg hibiscus for a month. The results revealed that the supplementation significantly ameliorated systolic blood pressure, oxidative stress, and vascular reactivity changes (Mohan et al. 2011).

Furthermore, Amtaghri et al. (2022) investigated the hypotensive and vasodilatory potential of H. rosa‐sinensis in hypertensive rats by providing 100 mg/kg aqueous flower extract of H. rosa‐sinensis for 7 days. The results showed that oral consumption of hibiscus flower extract attenuated arterial blood pressure. Moreover, the modulation of angiotensin‐converting enzyme‐2 and the Ca²⁺ channel suppression pathway promoted vasodilation and ultimately reduced hypertension. The anti‐inflammatory and cardioprotective role of H. rosa‐sinensis is illustrated in Figure 3.

FIGURE 3.

Anti‐inflammatory and Cardioprotective potential of Hibiscus rosa‐sinensis via modulating hypertension, suppressing pro‐inflammatory markers and oxidative stress, inhibiting IgE, improving antioxidant enzymes, and reducing PPAR‐ γ.

9.5. Antimicrobial Properties

Microorganisms are found all over the world with their distinct and versatile nature. Some of them, such as Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus, have beneficial effects and play their role in improving the health of individuals. Fermentation, the process to enhance and improve the bioavailability of nutrients, is driven by the beneficial microbial population. However, Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus are harmful and pathogenic, causing numerous health disorders. Various antimicrobial drugs are commercially employed to reduce their severity. The antimicrobial attributes of H. rosa‐sinensis have been reported in multiple studies. Chai (2020) evaluated the antibacterial potential of orange, white, and hybrid hibiscus leaves and flowers against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli . It was observed that the largest zone of inhibition was shown by the hybrid flower (18.67 mm) and the orange flower (16 mm) for the respective bacterial strains, i.e., Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli . In another study, Abate and Belay (2022) investigated the antimicrobial activity of H. rosa‐sinensis against E. coli , S. aureus , K. pneumoniae , and S. epidermidis . The growth inhibitory effect was recorded to be 6.33–11.50 mm for S. aureus and S. epidermidis , while it was 6.67–13 mm against E. coli and K. pneumoniae . Similarly, Ruban and Gajalakshmi (2012) conducted an in vitro study to inquire about the antimicrobial potential of H. rosa‐sinensis flower extract by disc and agar diffusion methods. It has been found that the growth of Bacillus subtilis and Escherichia coli was alleviated by cold extraction of hibiscus with an inhibition zone of 17 and 14.50 mm, respectively. Additionally, the methanol extract of hibiscus showed the maximum bactericidal effect against B. subtilis and E. coli , having a zone of inhibition of 18.86 and 18 mm, respectively. However, the ethanol extract showed the maximum zone of inhibition at 20.40 mm against Salmonella species. Furthermore, using the agar disc diffusion method, Mak et al. (2013) investigated the antibacterial attributes of H. rosa‐sinensis and Senna bicapsularis flower extracts. H. rosa‐sinensis ameliorated the growth of food‐borne pathogens, including Salmonella typhimurium and Staphylococcus aureus , while Senna bicapsularis suppressed the growth of Bacillus cereus and Klebsiella pneumoniae . Further studies regarding the antimicrobial agent of H. rosa‐sinensis are presented in Table 3.

TABLE 3.

Antimicrobial properties of H. rosa‐sinensis .

Part	Extract/particles	Method	Pathogen/Microorganism	Zone of inhibition	References
Flowers	Petroleum ether	Disc diffusion	methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus	18.6 mm	Arullappan et al. (2009)
Flowers	Ethanol and methanol	Agar disc diffusion	Staphylococcus sp., Bacillus sp., and Escherichia coli	12.75 mm to 16.75 mm	Khan et al. (2014)
Leaves	Solvent	Agar disc diffusion	Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus	18.82 mm and 11 mm	Udo et al. (2016)
Leaves and flowers	Ethanol	Agar well diffusion and bacteriological enumeration	S. aureus and Salmonella typhimurium	Flowers have more inhibition zone than leaves	Uddin et al. (2010)
Flowers	Ethanol & ethyl acetate	24‐well plates with Brucella agar medium	Helicobacter pylori	MIC = 0.2–0.25 mg/mL	Ngan et al. (2021)
Flowers	Iron oxide nanoparticles	Agar well diffusion	Staphylococcus aureus , Pseudomonas aeruginosa , Klebsiella pneumonia, and Escherichia coli	2 mm to 6 mm	Buarki et al. (2022)
Leaves	Zinc oxide and titanium dioxide nanoparticles	Disc diffusion	E. coli and S. aureus	82.3 mm for E. coli and 54.3 mm for S. aureus	Abd El‐Kader et al. (2021)
Leaves and flowers	Ethanol	Agar disc diffusion	Staphylococcus epidermidis , Staphylococcus aureus , and Staphylococcus epidermidis	MIC = 20 mm for Staphylococcus epidermidis , and Staphylococcus aureus , while Minimum Bactericidal Concentration = 20 mg/mL for Staphylococcus epidermidis	Seyyednejad et al. (2010)
leaves	CoFe2O4 nanoparticles	Disc diffusion method	S. aureus‐9779 and E. coli‐745	8 mm and 12 mm for respective S. aureus‐9779 and E. coli‐745	Velayutham et al. (2022)
Leaves	Silver (Ag) and gold (Au) nanoparticles	Agar well diffusion	Pseudomonas aeruginosa , Bacillus subtilis Micrococcus luteus , Staphylococcus epidermidis , Staphylococcus aureus , Enterobacter aerogenes , Escherichia coli , Streptococcus pneumoniae , and Aeromonas hydrophilia	Inhibition zone (0.04 cm to 0.41 cm) by silver nanoparticles and 0.09 cm to 0.23 cm by gold nanoparticles	Tyagi et al. (2017)
Flowers	Aqueous	Agar well diffusion	P. aeruginosa , Serratia, Micrococcus, Enterobacter, and Salmonella	Inhibition zone ranges from 33 mm to 62 mm	Al‐Alak et al. (2015)
Leaves	Zinc oxide nanoparticles	Agar well diffusion	Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus	Growth inhibition zone is 35 mm for Escherichia coli and 20 mm for Staphylococcus aureus	Elemike et al. (2021)
Leaves	NiSe nanoparticles	Well diffusion	Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus	10 and 15 mm for the respective Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus	Velayutham et al. (2023)
Flowers	Ethanol	Well diffusion	Staphylococcus aureus MTCC 87, Bacillus cereus MTCC 430, Clostridium perfringens MTCC 450, Listeria monocytogenes MTCC 657, Escherichia coli MTCC 43, Salmonella typhi MTCC 1264, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa MTCC424	16 mm, 13 mm, 10 mm, 14 mm, 17 mm, 12 mm, and 11 mm for Staphylococcus aureus MTCC 87, Bacillus cereus MTCC 430, Clostridium perfringens MTCC 450, Listeria monocytogenes MTCC 657, Escherichia coli MTCC 43, Salmonella typhi MTCC 1264, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa MTCC424 respectively	Karnwal (2022)
Flowers	Silver nanoparticles	Agar well diffusion	A. hydrophila	16 mm	Surya et al. (2016)
Leaves	Aqueous	Well diffusion	Streptococcus pyogenes and Klebsiella pneumoniae	1.5 and 1.7 cm for the respective Klebsiella pneumoniae and Streptococcus pyogenes	Vignesh and Nair (2018)
Flowers	Co3o4 nanoparticles	Diffusion	Staphylococcus aureus , Streptococcus mutans , Klebsilla pneumonia, E. coli , Aspergillus flavus, and Aspergillus niger	—	Anuradha and Raji (2019)
Leaves	Ethyl acetate	Agar diffusion	Staphylococcus aureus , Bacillus subtilis , Streptomyces alboniger , Micrococcus luteus , Staphylococcus epidermis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa , and Bordetella bronchiseptica	Orange cultivars revealed MIC values for Staphylococcus aureus (20 mg/mL), Bacillus subtilis (2.5 mg/mL), Streptomyces alboniger (10 mg/mL), Micrococcus luteus (2.5 mg/mL), Staphylococcus epidermis (2.5 mg/mL), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (1.25 mg/mL), and Bordetella bronchiseptica (1.25 mg/mL)	Nagar (2012)
Petals	Silver nanoparticles	Disc diffusion	Escherichia coli , Staphylococcus aureus , and Klebsiella pneumonia	E. coli (98%), S. aureus (30%), and K. pneumonia (37%)	Nayak et al. (2015)
Flowers	Copper oxide nanoparticles	Well diffusion	Klebsiella pneumoniae , E. coli , Shigella flexneri , and Bacillus subtilis	—	Rajendran et al. (2018)
Flowers	Methanol and ethanol	Disc diffusion	Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli	Hybrid flowers showed maximum zone of inhibition (18.67 mm) for Staphylococcus aureus while orange flowers revealed maximum inhibition zone (16 mm) for Escherichia coli	Tong and Tee (2022)
Leaves	Ethanol	Agar well diffusion	Streptococcus mutans and Lactobacillus acidophilus	6.25 μg/mL and 25 μg/mL for S. mutans and L. acidophilus	Nagarajappa et al. (2015)
Leaves, flowers, and roots	Methanol and aqueous	Agar well diffusion	Streptococcus aureus	Methanolic leaves extract revealed highest zone of inhibition (29 mm), subsequently methanol flower extract (17 mm), aqueous flower extract (14 mm), and methanolic root extract (13 mm)	Priya and Sharma (2021)
Leaves	Aqueous	Agar well diffusion	Escherichia coli , Salmonella typhimurium , Bacillus subtilis , and S. aureus	14.5 mm, 14 mm, 11.50 mm, and 16 mm for E. coli , S. typhimurium , B. subtilis , and S. aureus	Dowara et al. (2024)
Leaves essential oil	essential oil	Disc plate and agar well diffusion	Klebsiella sp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa , and Fusarium oxysporum	18.5, 11.5, and 23 μg/mL for Klebsiella sp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa , and Fusarium oxysporum	Sidhu et al. (2023)
Leaves	Silver nanoparticles	Agar well diffusion	Aeromonas hydrophilia	11 mm	Vijayaraj and Kumaran (2017)
Leaves	Ethanol	Agar well diffusion	E. coli and Staphylococcus aureus	2.5 and 5 mg for E. coli and S. aureus	Ghadigaonkar (2023)
Flowers	Aqueous	Well diffusion	Streptococcus sanguinis	6.35 mm	Farasayu et al. (2021)
Leaves	Water	Disc diffusion and micro‐dilution	Limosilactobacillus fermentum MA‐7	6.85 mm to 10.74 mm	Sağlam et al. (2023)
Stem bark	Methanol	Agar well diffusion	Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli	50 and 200 mg/mL for S. aureus and E. coli	Umar et al. (2024)
Flower	Water and methanol	Agar disc diffusion	Bacillus cereus , Staphylococcus aureus , Salmonella typhimurium , E. coli , and K. pneumonia	11 mm, 15 mm, 9 mm, 14 mm, and 12.5 for the respective microbes	Rassem et al. (2024)
Seeds	Oil	Agar well diffusion	K. pneumonia	6 mm at 10 μg/mL, 16 mm at 25 μg/mL, and 25 mm at 50 μg/mL	Yang et al. (2020)
Leaves	CoFe2O4 nanoparticles	Disc diffusion	S. aureus , B. Subtillis, and E. coli	15, 20, and 7 μg/mL at 100 mm concentration for the respective strains	Singaravelan et al. (2024)
Leaves	Ethanol	Disc diffusion	Candida albicans , Candida tropicalis , and Candida glabrata	9 mm, 8 mm, and 9 mm respectively	Zuhaira et al. (2020)
Flowers	Chloroform	Agar well diffusion	Candida albicans	26.6 mm	Mohana et al. (2024)
Flowers	Aqueous	Diffusion	Staphylococcus aureus , Bacillus Subtilis , Pseudomonas Aeruginosa , and Escherichia coli	17, 17, 16, and 18 mm for the selected strains at 100 μg/mL	Magalakshmi et al. (2022)
Flowers	Ethanol	Disc diffusion	Taphylococcus epidermidis and Staphylococcus saprophyticus	—	Patrice et al. (2017)

9.6. Hepatoprotective Potential

The liver performs various functions, including detoxification of toxins, drugs, and other deleterious metabolites; metabolism of nutrients; digestion and absorption by producing bile; storage of glucose, vitamins, and minerals; and hormone regulation in the body to modulate the homeostatic environment (Rakhi et al. 2022). Medicinal plants such as H. rosa‐sinensis are investigated for improving liver health, whose evidence is described comprehensively here. Kumar (2020) examined the hepatoprotective effect of ethanolic and aqueous flower extract of H. rosa‐sinensis in carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) induced liver injury in rats. It has been shown that alanine transaminase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), aspartate transaminase (AST), triglycerides (TG), bilirubin, and cholesterol levels were significantly alleviated by the administration of ethanol (200 mg/kg) and aqueous (400 mg/kg) flower extract of hibiscus. The comparative study determined the role of aqueous leaf extract of H. rosa‐sinensis and aqueous peel extract of pomegranates against liver disorders and CCl4‐induced oxidative stress in male albino rats. It has been shown that the supplementation of aqueous extract of H. rosa‐sinensis leaf (250, 500, and 750 mg/kg body weight) and pomegranate peel (100, 200, and 300 mg/kg body weight) has a similar influence in the alleviation of liver functional parameters. ALT levels were reduced from 29.55 to 20.15 U/L, AST from 47.97 to 30.99 U/L, ALP from 305.96 to 170.55 U/L, and total bilirubin from 3.11 mg/dL to 2.21 mg/dL (El‐Sayed ²⁰¹⁸).

Similarly, Sattar Ali (2022) evaluated the hepatic protective effect of H. rosa‐sinensis zinc oxide nanoparticles and hibiscus extract on liver tissue and DNA fragmentation in adult male Wister rats (n = 35). The results showed that the subcutaneous administration of zinc oxide nanoparticles (75 and 100 mg/kg body weight) has comparatively increased AST, ALP, and ALT activity compared to zinc oxide nanoparticles at a 25 mg/kg body weight concentration. However, hibiscus extract has a limited attenuating impact on AST, ALP, and ALT. Previously, Biswas et al. (2014) explored the hypocholesterolemic potential of aqueous flower extract of H. rosa‐sinensis in diet‐induced hypercholesterolemia in 180–230 g male Wister rats (n = 42). It has been observed that body weight, AST, ALT, ALP, total protein, and MDA levels were reduced by consuming 240 mg/kg of body weight per day for a month. Lu et al. (2022) also synthesized silver nanoparticles from H. rosa‐sinensis and checked their impact on managing hepatic carcinoma. Silver nanoparticles showed dose‐dependent cytotoxic activity against hepatocellular cancer (SNU‐387), Morris hepatoma (McA‐RH7777), hepatic ductal carcinoma (LMH/2A), and Novikoff hepatoma (N1‐S1 Fudr).

Furthermore, Nwibo et al. (2016) evaluated the potential of H. rosa‐sinensis leaf extract on hyperlipidemic rats' liver and blood indices. They concluded that the leaf extract had not influenced the hematological parameters (hemoglobin, packed cell volume, and red blood counts). However, total cholesterol and LDL levels were significantly attenuated, and the hibiscus leaf extract improved HDL levels. In another study, Sahu (2016) determined the protective effect of H. rosa‐sinensis alcoholic leaf extract against piroxicam‐induced liver toxicity in adult Swiss albino mice (n = 60) by administering 30 mg/kg alcoholic leaf extract for 2 weeks. The outcomes demonstrated that the leaf extract of H. rosa‐sinensis decreased elevated ALT, AST, ALP, and hepatic lipid peroxidation levels. Similarly, Hussain et al. (2017) revealed that the cadmium‐induced hepatic toxicity in adult male albino rabbits was significantly ameliorated by the flavonoid‐enriched H. rosa‐sinensis leaves and flowers (200 mg/kg/day for 2 months), thereby demonstrating the hepatoprotective potential. Previously, Gomathi et al. (2008) exposed that the flower petals of H. rosa‐sinensis lowered the levels of monosodium glutamate, which triggered elevation of free fatty acids, TG, TC (total cholesterol), LDL, and VLDL (very low‐density lipoprotein). Similar results were observed in triton and atherogenic diet‐induced hyperlipidemic rats by the oral supplementation of 500 mg/kg body weight ethanolic flower extract of H. rosa‐sinensis (Sikarwar Mukesh and Patil ²⁰¹¹).

Recently, Dayal et al. (2022) used an aqueous extract of H. rosa‐sinensis and Butea monosperma in their hepatoprotective investigation against ferric nitrilotriacetate‐induced toxicity in rats. Liver functional biomarkers (ALT, AST, and ALP), triglycerides, lipids, proteins, and oxidative markers were alleviated by both extracts. In another investigation, Han et al. (2020) described that the methanolic extract of H. rosa‐sinensis improved aminopyrine metabolism by elevating hepatic CYP3A4 activity. In a similar year, Adil and Manampiring (2020) inquired about the potential of 1 mL polar (0.075 g mg/200 g BB/day in 0.5% CMC suspension) and non‐polar flowers extract of hibiscus (0.075 mg/200 g BB/day in 1% CMC suspension) on paracetamol‐stimulated hepatic toxicity in male white rats for 8 days. It has been observed that polar and non‐polar hibiscus extracts maintain the levels of SGOT and SGPT. Similarly, Rajavelu and Bs (2024) showed that the ethanolic leaf extract of H. rosa‐sinensis ameliorated liver cancer by inducing apoptosis through modulating BAX and BCL‐2. The hepatoprotective activity of H. rosa‐sinensis is shown in Figure 4.

FIGURE 4.

Hepatoprotective mechanism of Hibiscus rosa‐sinensis via reducing liver enzymes, alleviating oxidative stress, modulating CYP3A4 activity, regulating BCL‐2 and BAX expression, and lowering LDL, VLDL, TGs.

9.7. Antidepressants and Neuroprotective Activity

Anxiety and neurodegenerative disorders are reducing the healthy and normal life expectancy of individuals. Oxidative stress and inflammation are provoked by several factors, such as processed and fried food consumption, prolonged and repeated infections, aging, neuroinflammation, and heavy metals exposure, which induce neurodegenerative disorders (Castillo‐Rangel et al. ²⁰²³; Angelopoulou et al. ²⁰²²; Dolgacheva et al. ²⁰²²). The effect of H. rosa‐sinensis in mitigating neurological symptoms and its associated disorders has been reported. Shewale et al. (2012) proposed a study to evaluate the antidepressant capability of methanolic flower extract of flavonoid (anthocyanins) enriched H. rosa‐sinensis (30 and 100 mg/kg) by tail suspension and forced swim test. It has been observed that the duration of Haloperidol, Prazosin, and p‐chlorophenyl alanine‐stimulated immobility was decreased in both tests, confirming antidepressant activity. Similarly, Khalid et al. (2014) inquired about the antidepressant activity of ethanol flower extract of H. rosa‐sinensis at 100, 250, and 500 mg/kg doses by conducting forced‐induced swimming, tail suspension, and open field tests. The results revealed that all the supplemented dosages reduced immobility duration in forced‐induced swimming and tail suspension tests, while no significant effect was observed in open field tests.

Moreover, Sheikhar et al. (2024) assessed the antidepressant potential of H. rosa‐sinensis leaves in Swiss albino mice of 20 to 35 g by administering 200 and 400 mg/kg extract for 2 weeks and concluded that the ethanolic extract (400 mg/kg) of H. rosa‐sinensis leaves has antidepressant potential. Sucharitha and Nagamani (2021) conducted a forced swimming test, tail suspension test, and sleep‐induced test to determine the anxiolytic role of ethyl acetate flower and hibiscus leaf extract. The immobility time was attenuated dose‐dependently in all the selected tests with the oral intake of 100 and 200 mg/kg extract dose, demonstrating anxiolytic effects through adrenergic, dopaminergic, and serotonergic mechanisms. The antidepressant effect of ethanolic hibiscus extract (500 mg/kg) was revealed in mice by suppressing ionotropic GABA receptors (Begum and Younus 2018). In another study, Vijayanand et al. (2018) prepared solid lipid nanoparticles from H. rosa‐sinensis . They evaluated their antidepressant activity in male Swiss albino mice and found that solid lipid nanoparticles ameliorated immobility time more than their crude extract.

The neuroprotective capability of methanolic extract of H. rosa‐sinensis against the bilateral common carotid artery (BCCA) occlusion model of global cerebral ischemic‐reperfusion was evaluated by supplementing 100, 200, and 300 mg/kg/day for six consecutive days. The outcomes revealed that SOD, CAT, and GSH activity was reduced by hibiscus extract, ultimately reducing anxiety as well as modulating learning and memory (Nade et al. 2010). Previously, Nade et al. (2009) demonstrated that the methanolic roots extract of H. rosa‐sinensis (100 to 300 mg/kg) lowered lipid peroxidation and upregulated SOD, CAT, and GSH levels in reserpine‐induced neurobehavioral modifications in the brain. Recently, Shen et al. (2021) showed that the Quercetin 3‐O‐sophoroside isolated from H. rosa‐sinensis improved learning and memory in Alzheimer‐affected mice. Moreover, neuronal impairment in the hippocampal CA1 region and SCOP‐induced reduction in ChAT and ACh expression and AChE expression were improved and reversed by Quercetin 3‐O‐sophoroside.

10. Miscellaneous Properties

H. rosa‐sinensis has several other health‐promoting properties besides its antioxidant, antimutagenic, anti‐inflammatory, antimicrobial, cardioprotective, and neuroprotective characteristics. Soni and Gupta (2011) assessed the aqueous root extract of H. rosa‐sinensis as an antipyretic agent against yeast‐provoked pyrexia in Swiss albino rats using the flicking method. The results showed that the intake of 250 mg/kg body weight aqueous root extract has a dose‐dependent effect in attenuating pyrexia. Previously, Sawarkar et al. (2009) revealed the temperature‐lowering potential of aqueous (100 mg/kg) and alcoholic (200 mg/kg) extract of H. rosa‐sinensis in pyretic Wister rats. Moreover, Daud et al. (2016) demonstrated the antipyretic property of aqueous extract (500 mg/kg body weight) of H. rosa‐sinensis . Similarly, Aziz et al. (2021) inquired about the underlying temperature ameliorating potential of the ethanolic extract of white and red colored H. rosa‐sinensis . It has been noticed that the administration of 5 and 50 mg/kg white flower extract significantly alleviated the total temperature in rats.

Vasudeva and Sharma (2008) described that the ethanolic root extract of H. rosa‐sinensis at the concentration of 400 mg/kg body weight has potent anti‐implantation and uterotropic activity. Similarly, Jana et al. (2013) demonstrated that the crude flower extract of H. rosa‐sinensis at 300 mg/kg for 30, 45, and 60 days resulted in the deteriorating germinal epithelium of testes, consequently revealing antifertility in male albino rats (n = 84). Additionally, Kareem et al. (2022) and AL‐Azawi and Al‐hady (2020) demonstrated that the nanoparticles of H. rosa‐sinensis and the flower extract of H. rosa‐sinensis reduced fertility in male albino rats. Furthermore, Gupta and Yadav et al. (2024) investigated the potential of oral supplementation of H. rosa‐sinensis aqueous, ethanol, and benzene leaf extract (100 mg/kg body weight per day for 35 days) on the reproductive health of male albino rats. It has been shown that the benzene extract modified the testis, seminal vesicle, and epididymis and ameliorated spermatogenesis and fertility.

The petroleum ether leaves and flower extract of H. rosa‐sinensis were employed by Rose et al. (2020) to evaluate their effect on the hair growth of Dawley Sprague rats for 7 weeks. It has been noticed that the leaf extract has comparatively excessive hair growth compared to the flower extract of H. rosa‐sinensis . Later, Lailiyah (2023) used ethanol leaf extract of H. rosa‐sinensis in his study to prepare the cream for hair growth and investigated its impact on the hair growth of white rabbits and concluded that the cream at 20% concentration produced more hairs than at other concentrations, i.e., 10% and 15%. In a recent investigation, Khadasare et al. (2024) formulated a serum by combining hibiscus flowers and leaves, olive oil, peppermint oil, amla powder, vitamin E, curry leaves, lavender oil, and coconut oil, which promoted hair growth, hair quality, and strengthened them. Similarly, Parihar et al. (2024) revealed that the formulations made by H. rosa‐sinensis flowers, Allium cepa bulbs, Eclipta alba leaves, and Trigonella foenum‐graecum seeds improved hair growth as well as ameliorated hair fall.

11. Synergistic Role With Other Plants

The potency and effectiveness of plants and compounds are significant challenges directly or indirectly influenced by various factors, such as genetics, bioavailability, administration route, dose, and formulations. Recent debates have continued developing novel alternative strategies for improving the efficiency of plants. Multiple studies have been conducted on evaluating the synergetic significance of plants and compounds, and it has been observed that the plants/compounds supplemented in combination have comparatively better outcomes than plants/compounds supplemented alone. For instance, the antimicrobial potential of H. rosa sinensis leaves oil and its metabolite, dioctyl phthalate, was evaluated synergistically against Klebsiella species, Pseudomonas aeruginosa , and Fusarium oxysporum using disc plate and agar well diffusion method. The results revealed higher antimicrobial activity by exhibiting MICs of 18.5, 11.5, and 23 μg/mL against the respective bacterial and fungal strains (Sidhu et al. 2023).

Moreover, diabetes mellitus is prevailing throughout the world, which affects other organs of the body, particularly reproductive health among males. Chauhan and Rani (2024b) investigated the combination effect of H. rosa sinensis and camel milk on reproductive health in diabetic Wistar rats for 4 weeks. The results showed that pancreatic and seminiferous tubule damage caused by diabetes was significantly alleviated by the synergistic provision of camel milk and H. rosa sinensis. Furthermore, the supplementation has improved sperm motility, count, and viability, thereby modulating the reproductive health of males. Another study described that the blend prepared by H. rosa sinensis flower and Maranta arundinacea L. was used as a rice substitute owing to its low bulk density (0.83 g/mL) and starch digestibility (0.62 g/mL) as compared to rice (Antari et al. 2024). Diseases caused by oxidative stress are increasing globally, which can be managed by consuming antioxidant‐enriched products. Tea consumption is prevailing worldwide due to its soothing and relaxing properties. Herbal tea is formulated by combining green tea with Ocimum gratissimum , Cymbopogon citratus , Cymbopogon flexuosus , and H. rosa sinensis, and its antioxidant potential was evaluated by conducting DPPH and ABTS. The results depicted strong DPPH and ABTS scavenging activity by showing the respective EC50 values of 38.8 and 5.43 μg/mL, 53.6 and 11.6 μg/mL, 155.4 and 57.5 μg/mL, 295.3 and 49.1 μg/mL by H. rosa sinensis, O. gratissimum , C. flexuosus , and C. citratus , thereby could be used as a chemotherapeutic agent (Farooq and Sehgal 2019). Table 4 highlights the synergic role of H. sinensis with other medicinal plants.

TABLE 4.

Synergistic studies of Hibiscus rosa Sinensis with other plants.

Disease	Plants	Supplementation and specimen	Outcomes	References
Diabetes mellitus	Matricaria Chamomilla	Peach drinks enriched with H. rosa sinensis and Matricaria Chamomilla , and rats	↑serum insulin, ↑HDL levels, ↓fasting blood glucose, ↓random blood glucose, ↓LDL, ↓TC, ↓TG	Yasin et al. (2025)
Antibacterial activity	Chrysanthemum indicum , and Calendula officinalis flower	Gram‐positive ( Bacillus cereus MTCC 430, Staphylococcus aureus MTCC 87, Listeria monocytogenes MTCC 657, Clostridium perfringens MTCC 450) and gram‐negative ( Escherichia coli MTCC 43, Salmonella typhi MTCC 1264, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa MTCC424) strains	MIC = 3.75%–7.5%, and MBC (minimum bactericidal concentration) = 1.9%–3.8%	Karnwal (2022)
Hepatic CYP3A4 activity	Brassica oleracea and Tradescantia zebrina	Rat liver microsomes	↑CYP3A4 activity, interact with aminopyrine metabolism	Han et al. (2020)
Anti‐inflammatory potential	Hibiscus sabdariffa	Endothelial cells (HUVECs) as a model for RAGE‐mediated inflammation screening	↓inflammation, ↓TNF‐α, ↓IL‐6, and ↓VCAM‐1	Lima (2022)
Wound healing activity	Curcuma longa rhizomes	Ointment prepared from H. rosa sinensis and Curcuma longa rhizome extracts, applied daily on Sprague Dawley rats for 20 days	↑wound contraction (93%)	Mustaffa et al. (2020)
	Centella asiatica	Combination application of Centella asiatica and H. rosa sinensis extract on 24 rats	↑wound healing, ↑COL53A, ↑CXCL11, ↑CSF2, ↑IL6ST, ↑CXCL5, ↑ITGA5, ↑PLAT, and ↑WISP1	Zulkurnain et al. (2025)
Body scrubber	Citrofortunella macrocarpa and Psidium guajava	Citrofortunella macrocarpa, Psidium guajava , and H. rosa sinensis extract prepared with sea salt, coconut oil, honey, and powdered milk	↓dry skin, ↓dead skin cells	Alfante et al. (2019)
Stress‐induced alopecia	Baccaurea Racemosa	H. rosa‐sinensis L. and B. racemosa extracts in male Wistar albino rats	↑hair length, ↑hair density, and ↑hair follicles	Indrayoni and Padmiswari (2022)

12. Molecular Docking

Molecular docking predicts how two molecules, such as a ligand and a protein, bind together by exploring conformations. It uses computational algorithms to estimate binding affinities, guiding drug design and virtual screening. Docking accelerates the identification of potential therapeutics by modeling intermolecular interactions and optimizing complementarity and structural precision. The current section contains molecular docking of various bioactive compounds of H. sinensis , like rutin, quercetin, and myricetin, against different proteins such as α‐glucosidase and superoxide dismutase (SOD) to evaluate the antidiabetic and hepatoprotective role of H. sinensis . The ligands, i.e., rutin (CID 5280805), quercetin (CID: 5280343), and myricetin (CID: 5281672), were accessed in 3D SDF format through the PubChem database. While, proteins, i.e., α‐glucosidase and SOD, were retrieved from Protein Data Bank (PDB) with the following PDB IDs 5DKZ (2.40 Å) and 1P7G (1.80 Å), in PDB format, respectively. Moreover, PyRx (AutoDock Vina) and Discovery Studio software were used to analyze binding affinity and visualize structures. The following grid box dimensions (X: 1.6825, Y: 129.1842, Z: 139,9902) for rutin (X: 0.0352, Y: 132.1277, Z: 159.8043) for quercetin, and (X: 122.2965, Y: 102.3505, Z: 25.0000) for myricetin and exhaustiveness (Akhtar et al. 2022) were observed during the docking of 5DKZ. While the 1P7G protein exhibited X: 190.4571, Y: 328.5863, Z: 19.0058 for rutin, X: 162.9047, Y: 329.2597, Z: 25.0000 for quercetin, and X: 141.6282, Y: 337.9629, Z: 25.0000 for myricetin, with exhaustiveness: 8.

The docking of ligands with proteins and their binding affinity is displayed in Figures 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, as well as Tables 5 and 6.

FIGURE 5.

Rutin and α‐glucosidase interaction, (a) 2‐D structure, (b) 3‐D interaction, and (c) hydrogen bond surface.

FIGURE 6.

Quercetin and α‐glucosidase interaction, (a) 2‐D structure, (b) 3‐D interaction, and (c) hydrogen bond surface.

FIGURE 7.

Myricetin and α‐glucosidase interaction, (a) 2‐D structure, (b) 3‐D interaction, and (c) hydrogen bond surface.

FIGURE 8.

Rutin and SOD interaction, (a) 2‐D structure, (b) 3‐D interaction, and (c) hydrogen bond surface.

FIGURE 9.

Quercetin and SOD interaction, (a) 2‐D structure, (b) 3‐D interaction, and (c) hydrogen bond surface.

FIGURE 10.

Myricetin and SOD interaction, (a) 2‐D structure, (b) 3‐D interaction, and (c) hydrogen bond surface.

TABLE 5.

Residues with types of interaction and distance along with binding affinity of investigated molecules.

Protein	Compound	Amino acids	Distance (Å)	Category	Types	Energy (Kcal/mol)
α‐glucosidase	Rutin	ASP303	2.19926	Hydrogen Bond	Conventional Hydrogen Bond	−8.2
		HIS34	2.10947	Hydrogen Bond	Conventional Hydrogen Bond
		TRP517	2.53231	Hydrogen Bond	Conventional Hydrogen Bond
		ASP633	3.76315	Electrostatic	Pi‐Anion
		PHE305	5.74975	Hydrophobic	Pi‐Pi Stacked
		TRP515	4.96748	Hydrophobic	Pi‐Alkyl
	Quercetin	HIS34	2.1427	Hydrogen Bond	Conventional Hydrogen Bond
		HIS693	3.68684	Hydrogen Bond	Carbon Hydrogen Bond	−8
		ASP633	3.86745	Electrostatic	Pi‐Anion
		MET557	5.33197	Other	Pi‐Sulfur
		PHE563	4.02503	Hydrophobic	Pi‐Pi Stacked
		TRP517	5.27173	Hydrophobic	Pi‐Pi T‐shaped
	Myricetin	HIS693	3.65464	Hydrogen Bond	Carbon Hydrogen Bond	−8.6
		ASP633	4.39916	Electrostatic	Pi‐Anion
		PHE305	5.43286	Hydrophobic	Pi‐Pi Stacked
		TRP415	5.67302	Hydrophobic	Pi‐Pi Stacked
		PHE666	4.8258	Hydrophobic	Pi‐Pi Stacked

TABLE 6.

Residues with types of interaction and distance along with binding affinity of investigated molecules.

Protein	Compound	Amino acids	Distance (Å)	Category	Types	Energy (Kcal/mol)
SOD	Rutin	HIS46	2.29024	Hydrogen Bond	Conventional Hydrogen Bond	−10.5
		ARG74	1.92328	Hydrogen Bond	Conventional Hydrogen Bond
		ARG190	2.29096	Hydrogen Bond	Conventional Hydrogen Bond
		GLU179	2.25398	Hydrogen Bond	Conventional Hydrogen Bond
	Quercetin	ARG74	2.20032	Hydrogen Bond	Conventional Hydrogen Bond	−8.4
		ARG190	4.05366	Electrostatic	Pi‐Cation
		GLU137	3.29044	Hydrogen Bond	Carbon Hydrogen Bond
		GLU179	2.19554	Hydrogen Bond	Conventional Hydrogen Bond
	Myricetin	ARG190	4.25339	Electrostatic	Pi‐Cation	−8.3
		HIS83	4.81584	Hydrophobic	Pi‐Pi T‐shaped
		GLU137	3.66604	Hydrogen Bond	Carbon Hydrogen Bond
		ARG74	2.40734	Hydrogen Bond	Conventional Hydrogen Bond
		TRY182	2.44405	Hydrogen Bond	Conventional Hydrogen Bond

13. Safety and Toxicity

The safety of plants and compounds is a fundamental consideration in the healthcare and food industries before their implementation in markets. Excessive and long‐term consumption of compounds poses several adverse health consequences in the form of carcinogens, cognitive impairment, hepatotoxicity, renal failure, and dermatological and gastrointestinal disorders. Limited investigations regarding the safety of plants and their derived compounds are conducted, which provide limitations in their implementations. Regarding the safety of H. rosa‐sinensis , it is safe to use and even effective in curing various prevailing health disorders among individuals. Meena et al. (2014) investigated the acute toxicity of the methanolic flower extract of H. rosa‐sinensis in Balb/c mice by providing different doses, i.e., 100, 200, 400, 800, and 1600 mg/kg body weight of extract through oral gavage. It has been observed that the methanolic flower extract did not produce any adverse effects in the form of behavior abnormality, respiratory symptoms, reduced food and water consumption, and hair loss up to 800 mg/kg body weight. However, ~20% mortality cases were observed in Balb/c mice consuming 1600 mg/kg H. rosa‐sinensis extract.

Furthermore, Valdivié and Martínez (2022) and Nath and Yadav (2014) revealed the toxicity of the methanolic leaves extract of H. rosa‐sinensis in mice, which were supplemented with an 800 mg/kg body weight dose for 2 weeks. The elevated ALT, ALP, AST, urea, creatinine, and bilirubin levels were observed at the 800 mg/kg body weight dose. However, the extract's safe and lethal dose (LD50) was recorded up to the doses of 400 and 2000 mg/kg body weight, respectively. Recently, a study on albino rats revealed that the LD50 for the methanolic extract of the stem bark of H. sinensis was 5000 mg/kg, showing its acceptance and tolerability at such a high dose (Umar et al. 2024). Considering all this, it has been verified that H. sinensis could be safe up to 400 mg/kg body weight for 14 days; however, 800 mg/kg for 14 days might cause hepato‐renal adverse effects. Moreover, the LD50 for the leaves extract is 2000 mg/kg, while for the stem extract it is 5000 mg/kg.

14. Industrial Applications

Industries have been utilizing natural resources for the last few years to develop sustainable and eco‐friendly environmental products that are cost‐effective and healthy for consumers. Medicinal plants have gained importance in various pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, cosmetic, food and beverage industries. H. rosa‐sinensis has found its applications in various sectors due to the presence of unique bioactive compounds. A study by Khan et al. (2017) and Baranova et al. (2012) reported that H. rosa‐sinensis has been employed as a flavoring agent in preparing jams, soups, and spices. Another study by Pieracci et al. (2021) employed H. rosa‐sinensis flowers in the beer industry. They evaluated its aroma and sensory properties, which revealed the floral and fruity notes enriched with esters and alcohol in Hibiscus beer. At the same time, the control beer had malty and hoppy notes. Additionally, the red color of H. rosa‐sinensis is fundamental owing to the presence of anthocyanins, which are used as coloring agents in food industries along with cyanidin‐3‐O‐glucoside and delphinidin (Mejía et al. 2023; Sinha and Asimi ²⁰⁰⁷).

The antioxidant, anticancer, hypoglycemic, hepatoprotective, hypotensive, and anti‐depressive attributes of H. rosa‐sinensis enable it to synthesize drugs and supplements in the nutraceutical and pharmaceutical industries. The polymers of gums and mucilage are prepared for H. rosa‐sinensis , which are employed in drug preparation and enhance their bioavailability (Yahaya et al. 2023; Weerasingha et al. ²⁰²¹). Anthocyanins are extracted in abundance by preparing a methanolic solution of 4% citric acid, which is then used as a natural dye by maintaining a standard pH of 4. However, cotton and silk dyes' rapid properties were achieved with stannous mordanted fabrics (Vankar and Shukla 2011; Vankar and Srivastava ²⁰⁰⁸). The industrial applications of H. rosa‐sinensis are displayed in Figure 11.

FIGURE 11.

Industrial applications of H. rosa‐sinensis .

15. Conclusion and Future Perspectives

Due to versatile biomedical applications contributing significantly to health maintenance, there has been an increased demand for improving the endurance and subsistence of individuals through medicinal plants, as well as H. rosa‐sinensis . The bioactive compounds, such as quercetin, kaempferol, anthocyanins, saponins, alkaloids, and essential oils, enhance the therapeutic potential of H. rosa‐sinensis . These compounds reduce oxidative and oxidative stress‐induced disorders by attenuating free radicals and inflammatory markers. Various in vitro and in vivo studies have confirmed the antidiabetic, hypolipidemic, hypotensive, neuroprotective, and cardioprotective properties. Moreover, the anticancer activity of H. rosa‐sinensis via modulation of inflammatory markers (IL‐6, IL‐1β, TNF‐α) and genes like ESR1 and HER2 has also been reported. Studies have also reported the safety of H. rosa‐sinensis in nutraceuticals, supplements, and functional foods, with few adverse impacts. Its adaptogenic ability to diverse environments makes it an excellent choice for industrial applications. Its flowers and plant extracts are used as a coloring and flavoring agent in food industries and as a tonic to slow aging and promote hair growth. Despite its substantial pharmaceutical and nutraceutical applications there is a lack of clinical trials on safety and therapeutic potential, thus hindering its significance and future implications. Moreover, H. rosa‐sinensis contains diverse bioactive compounds like anthocyanins, which are sensitive and unstable towards light, temperature, pH, and even oxygen. Therefore, further clinical investigations are required to validate its efficacy, extraction methods, and industrial applications. In addition, the handling of this plant needs special attention and effective techniques to obtain its maximum bioactives yield. In the last, the synergistic interaction with other plants, compounds, standard drugs, and therapeutic approaches can enhance H. rosa‐sinensis pharmacological potential.

Author Contributions

Hassan Raza: writing – original draft. Muhammad Tauseef Sultan: supervision. Khalil Ahmad: supervision. Muhammad Maaz: writing – original draft. Shehnshah Zafar: writing – reviewing. Ahmad Mujtaba Noman: writing – review and editing. Entessar Mohammad Al Jbawi: writing – review and editing.

Funding

The authors have nothing to report.

Ethics Statement

The authors have nothing to report.

Consent

All authors are agreed to publish this work.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Raza, H. , Sultan M. T., Ahmad K., et al. 2025. “ Hibiscus rosa‐sinensis : A Multifunctional Flower Bridging Nutrition, Medicine, and Molecular Therapeutics.” Food Science & Nutrition 13, no. 12: e71254. 10.1002/fsn3.71254.

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.