Abstract
Background
The intensity of personality traits can significantly differentiate amateur, competitive, and professional athletes who use different approaches to practicing sports but compete against each other in the same competitions. Therefore, the objective of this article is to ascertain the extent to which personality traits and sporting levels are manifested in athletes who compete together in modern sports.
Methods
The study involved Polish athletes (N = 341), including historical fencers (n = 161), streetball players (n = 90), and modern dancers (n = 90). The NEO-FFI personality questionnaire was employed as the instrument of choice. The statistical analysis was conducted using the IBM SPSS Statistics 29.0 software package. The level of significance was assumed to be α = 0.05.
Results
The results demonstrated that there were statistically significant differences between the representatives of the various sporting disciplines in the intensity of all personality traits, with the exception of the difference in the intensity of neuroticism between historical fencers and modern dancers. Furthermore, when comparing all subjects by sporting level, significant differences were observed in the intensity of neuroticism (amateurs vs. competitive, amateurs vs. professional), extraversion (amateurs vs. professional) and conscientiousness (amateurs vs. professional, competitive vs. professional). Furthermore, it was found that lower intensities of neuroticism and higher extraversion were associated with higher levels of sport among historical fencers, whereas lower intensities of neuroticism and higher extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness and conscientiousness were associated with higher levels of sport among streetball players.
Conclusions
Among the surveyed population of athletes, the greatest differences occur in the intensity of neuroticism, extroversion, and conscientiousness. In addition, the most significant correlation is between low neuroticism and the level of training in a sport. Only extroversion intensity is not related to advancing to a higher level of sports performance. The intensity of all personality traits is important, but the intensity of neuroticism plays a leading role.
Keywords: Amateurs, Competitive athletes, Professional athletes, Sport theory, Sports psychology
Introduction
Contemporary research on personality in sport addresses both psychological constructs and physical issues, understood as athlete efficacy [1]. The pivotal role of the environment in the formation of the personality of athletes is underscored here [2]. The principle of individualisation in sport was formulated on these assumptions [3]. It is based on the concept of being guided by the individual characteristics and qualities of athletes, with a particular focus on their strengths in training processes [4]. Consequently, it is a crucial rationale for the ongoing conduct and dissemination of research results on the personality of athletes [5].
In the fields of sport psychology and sport theory, research on personality is conducted using the Big Five theoretical approach [6]. The model posits that personality is constituted by five primary traits: neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness [7]. Recent research findings suggest that athletes’ individual personality traits exert a significant influence on their sporting performance [1, 2, 8]. Furthermore, athletes’ self-esteem is also related to their personality [9]. Additionally, personality traits have been linked to long-term sporting success [10]. Moreover, neuroticism is significantly correlated with athletes’ emotional and physiological responses to anxiety, arousal, and confidence [11]. The specific intensity of an athlete’s personality traits is contingent upon the demands of the sport in question, as these traits are related to the specifics of the sport competition [12–14]. The personality traits of athletes, understood as mental skills, can exert an indirect influence on their sporting performance [15]. A lesser degree of neuroticism is observed in successful athletes, who also display enhanced emotional stability and reasoning abilities during competitive events [16, 17]. Additionally, elevated levels of extraversion and conscientiousness have been linked to enhanced athletic performance [18]. Moreover, sporting experience has been found to shape more expressive personality traits in athletes, which are often sought by coaches [19]. Additionally, the personality traits of athletes differentiate their approaches to sport engagement and mental preparation styles [20]. The personality traits of athletes manifest to varying degrees in relation to their sport level [21]. They do not, however, act as a moderator of the effect of energy expenditure on physical functioning [22]. The personality traits of athletes are also a significant determinant of their sporting level. This ranges from amateurs and competitive athletes to professional athletes, with lower neuroticism levels indicating a higher level of performance [23]. This is also evident in comparisons with elite athletes (Olympic champions) [24]. This may indicate an important role for neuroticism in studies of athlete personality [25, 26].
In the studies cited above, it was assumed that athletes from different sporting levels – amateur, competitive, professional – compete in other organisations that publicise sporting competitions for athletes from a given sporting level. This is significant because training in a specific sport at a given level is associated with a particular lifestyle [27]. Amateur athletes engage in a range of occupations, and their engagement in sport and competitive activities represents an additional leisure pursuit. Competitive athletes, on the other hand, engage in a range of occupations, yet training in sport and competing represents an additional activity undertaken with the objective of attaining the highest possible sporting performance. In contrast, for professional athletes, training in sport and competing is a full-time occupation with the objective of achieving the greatest possible sporting performance [28]. It should be noted that there are also modern sports that run competitions within individual (specific) associations. In such sports, amateurs, competitive and professional athletes – that is to say, athletes who are defined by a different approach to sport – compete together [29]. A research query revealed that this area has not yet been explored.
Accordingly, the objective of this study is to ascertain the intensity of personality traits and sporting levels of athletes who compete together in modern sports. In order to achieve this, the following hypotheses were formulated and subsequently tested:
There are no statistically significant differences between the groups of athletes that have been the subject of study.
No correlation is evident between the intensities of personality traits and sporting levels in the groups of athletes that have been the subject of study.
No relationship can be identified between the intensities of personality traits and progression to a higher sporting level.
Methods
People surveyed
The study involved Polish athletes (N = 341) aged between 18 and 53, including 142 women and 199 men. The first group consisted of historical fencers (n = 161) as representatives of a modern combat sport, which has developed under the influence of the popularity of films and games of the fantasy world. In this sport, competitions are held for adults in which participants compete in suitable protective equipment for symbolic prizes, divided by gender and by competition: one-handed sword fighting and two-handed sword fighting. Additionally, tournaments are held in historical fencing, wherein competitors engage in combat while wearing full knightly attire, vying for traditional titles. Moreover, historical fencers engage in reconstructions of medieval battles during the tourist season, which serves as a form of assessment of their sword-fighting abilities. The respondents included 62 amateur historical fencers, 67 competitive historical fencers, and 32 professional historical fencers.
The second group comprised streetball players (n = 90), representing a contemporary team sport that emerged following the influence of basketball’s popularity on backyard courts. In this sport, competitions are held for adults, with prizes and titles awarded on the basis of gender. Streetball is played with one basket, with each team comprising three players on the court. The game lasts 10 min, but can be completed before time runs out when one team scores 21 points first. The group of people surveyed included 30 amateur streetball players, 30 competitive streetball players, and 30 professional streetball players.
The third group comprised modern dancers (n = 90), representing a modern individual sport that has evolved in response to the growing popularity of diverse forms of movement expression with music. In this sport, competitions are held for adults for prizes and symbolic titles, divided into the following categories: solo, duet, small formation, and formation; and styles: art dance, freestyle, high heels, reggaeton, and street dance. The duration of each performance in a given competition is contingent upon the elimination stage. The test subjects were divided into three groups: 30 modern amateur dancers, 30 modern competitive dancers, and 30 modern professional dancers.
All the aforementioned groups of athletes are affiliated with Polish associations of the respective sports.
Research tool
The study employed the NEO-FFI personality questionnaire, which is a widely utilized instrument in the domain of personality research in sport psychology. The NEO-FFI is a shortened version of NEO-PI-R, which means that this questionnaire is shorter and less detailed, but equally reliable in measuring basic personality dimensions. It is therefore reasonable to continue disseminating the results of the study using the NEO-FFI, as the results obtained will be effectively relatable to previously published work [30].
The NEO-FFI is the most widely used instrument for the assessment of personality in accordance with the Big Five model, which encompasses the following five personality traits: neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. The degree of intensity associated with each of the aforementioned traits is defined in relation to two opposing poles. Consequently, neuroticism can be understood as a reflection of emotional adaptation versus emotional imbalance. Extraversion refers to the quality and quantity of social interactions, defined in terms of the individual’s level of social engagement, either high or low. Openness to experience indicates the tendency to value life experiences positively or negatively, as indicated by a high or low score on the scale. Agreeableness describes positive or negative attitudes towards other people, as manifested in altruism or antagonism. Conscientiousness captures the individual’s degree of organisation, persistence and motivation in goal-oriented activities, in the juxtaposition of conscientiousness versus non-conscientiousness [31].
It should be noted that the NEO-FFI is a condensed version of the NEO-PI-R comprising 60 self-report statements. The degree of veracity ascribed to the statements by the athletes is evaluated on a five-point scale. Each scale comprises 12 items. For each response, subjects were awarded a score between 0 and 4 points, with the exception of certain statements, where the scoring was reversed. On each scale, the raw score ranged from 0 to 48 points, with a higher numerical score indicating a greater severity of a personality trait. The complete personality trait data for the athletes under investigation were entered into a database based on the scores obtained from all items of the questionnaire and the final scores. The NEO-FFI has been demonstrated to meet al.l the criteria for goodness of fit tests, including objectivity, standardisation, reliability, validity, normalisation and adaptation. The questionnaire has separate norms for men and women across five age groups: 15–19 years, 20–29 years, 30–39 years, 40–49 years, and 50–80 years [32]. However, in the present study, all analyses were conducted on raw scores. The data obtained demonstrated satisfactory internal consistency for the NEO-FFI measurement scales employed, as indicated by Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of 0.69 for neuroticism, 0.82 for extraversion, 0.54 for openness to experience, 0.67 for agreeableness, and 0.75 for conscientiousness.
Procedure
The research was conducted between October 2023 and June 2024 in accordance with the positive approval of the Senate Committee for Research Ethics at the Wroclaw University of Health and Sport Sciences (number 20/2019). All Polish athletes participating in the selected sports had the same opportunity to take part in the study. The criteria for inclusion in the study included a written statement of voluntary participation in the study, presentation of documents confirming achievements in a given sport, and a written statement of the sporting level in a given sport. Those who did not meet the aforementioned criteria were excluded from the study. The paper-and-pencil study was conducted in groups of up to 15 participants in well-lit, acoustically isolated rooms and lasted up to one hour. Prior to the study, all subjects provided consent for the processing of their personal data and the results obtained to be used for scientific purposes at the Wroclaw University of Health and Sport Sciences. Before the survey, all respondents declared their greatest sporting achievements. The participants then received the NEO-FFI personality questionnaire and were informed that they could withdraw from the study at any time. All methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations. The collected data were entered into a database and coded in accordance with the principles of anonymity and scientific ethics.
Statistical analysis
The statistical analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics 29.0 software. The programme performed a series of analyses, including those of basic descriptive statistics, the Kruskal-Wallis test, Spearman’s rho pairwise correlation analyses and ordinal logistic regression. The level of statistical significance was set at α = 0.05. In order to calculate the minimum sample size, a priori analysis was performed using G*power 3.1.9.7. It was calculated that assuming moderate effect size, Cohen’s f = 0.25 for the comparison of three groups, and assuming statistical power corresponding to 95% power and α = 0.05, a minimum sample size of N = 252 is required.
Results
In the initial stage of the investigation, basic descriptive statistics were conducted in conjunction with a normality test of the distribution (Table 1). The raw results were employed in the subsequent analyses. As part of the analytical process, it was discerned that the distribution of the variables deviated in shape from the normal distribution (p < .05).
Table 1.
Descriptive statistics of personality traits with the Kolomogorov-Smirov test of normality of distribution
| M | Mdn | SD | Sk. | Kurt | Min | Max | K-S | p | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Neuroticism | 31.24 | 32.00 | 7.31 | -0.86 | 0.93 | 5.00 | 46.00 | 0.10 | < 0.001 |
| Extraversion | 36.85 | 38.00 | 8.45 | -0.76 | 0.01 | 10.00 | 51.00 | 0.11 | < 0.001 |
| Openness | 33.48 | 34.00 | 6.33 | -0.49 | 0.61 | 15.00 | 54.00 | 0.13 | < 0.001 |
| Agreeableness | 36.29 | 36.00 | 6.53 | -0.30 | -0.33 | 16.00 | 49.00 | 0.07 | < 0.001 |
| Conscientiousness | 37.17 | 39.00 | 7.48 | -0.94 | 0.36 | 14.00 | 50.00 | 0.16 | < 0.001 |
M – mean; Mdn – median; SD – standard deviation; Sk – skewness; Kurt – kurtosis; Min – the lowest value of the set; Max – the highest value of the set; K-S – Kolmogorov–Smirnov test; p – significance level
In the subsequent phase of the study, the intensity of individual personality traits was compared between historical fencers (n = 161), streetball players (n = 90) and modern dancers (n = 90). As the groups were not of equal size, a non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis test for independent samples was employed to compare the intensity of individual personality traits, given that the chi-squared test (2-df) yielded a significant result (χ2(2) = 27.33, p < .001). The dependent variable was personality traits, while the independent variable was sports discipline. The analysis revealed that there were significant differences between sports representatives in the intensity of all personality traits (Table 2).
Table 2.
Comparison of athletes of given sports in terms of intensity of personality traits
| Historical fencing (n = 161) |
Streetball (n = 90) |
Modern dance (n = 90) |
||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dependent variable | M | Mdn | M | Mdn | M | Mdn | K-W | p |
| Neuroticism | 33.41 | 33.50 | 26.98 | 28.00 | 31.69 | 33.00 | 35.12 | < 0.001 |
| Extraversion | 41.01 | 41.00 | 29.85 | 29.00 | 36.53 | 38.00 | 89.93 | < 0.001 |
| Openness | 35.97 | 36.00 | 31.24 | 30.00 | 33.16 | 34.00 | 51.27 | < 0.001 |
| Agreeableness | 39.37 | 40.00 | 31.24 | 31.00 | 35.93 | 36.00 | 85.50 | < 0.001 |
| Conscientiousness | 40.96 | 41.00 | 30.42 | 30.00 | 37.27 | 38.50 | 96.07 | < 0.001 |
M – mean; Mdn – median; K-W – Kruskal-Wallis’s test; p – significance level
A post-hoc analysis with correction for multiple comparisons using the Bonferroni method demonstrated that there were statistically significant differences in the severity of neuroticism between historical fencers and streetball players, as well as between streetball players and modern dancers. However, no significant difference was observed between historical fencers and modern dancers. Additionally, post-hoc comparisons revealed that all groups of athletes exhibited notable differences in the intensity of extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness (Table 3).
Table 3.
Multiple comparisons of the level of intensity of individual personality traits among given groups of athletes
| Discipline | Neuroticism | Extraversion | Openness | Agreeableness | Conscientiousness |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Historical fencing - Streetball | -5.88a | -9.47a | -7.13a | -9.21a | -9.80a |
| Historical fencing - Modern dance | -1.40 | -3.98a | -3.19a | -4.07a | -3.71a |
| Streetball - Modern dance | 3.95a | 4.91a | 3.47a | 4.53a | 5.37a |
a – significant difference between groups (p < .001) adjusted by the Bonferroni method.
In the subsequent phase of the study, the intensity of individual personality traits was compared between the three sporting levels (all athletes were included in the study together) using a mixed-methods approach. The levels were: (1) amateur (n = 123), (2) competitive athletes (n = 127), and (3) professionals (n = 91). The groups under comparison were found to be unequal (χ2(2) = 27.33, p < .001). Given these considerations and the failure to meet the assumption of normality of distribution, comparisons of the intensity of individual personality traits were conducted using the non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis test for independent samples. In the comparative analysis, the dependent variable was personality traits, while the independent variable was sporting level. Significant differences were observed between athletes of different levels in the intensity of neuroticism (H(2) = 101.31, p < .001), extraversion (H(2) = 13.65, p < .001) and conscientiousness (H(2) = 9.51, p < .009) (Table 4).
Table 4.
Comparison of athletes of different sporting levels in terms of intensity of personality traits
| Amateurs (n = 123) |
Competitive athletes (n = 127) |
Professionals (n = 91) |
||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dependent variable | M | Mdn | M | Mdn | M | Mdn | K-W | p |
| Neuroticism | 36.08 | 36.00 | 30.00 | 30.00 | 26.43 | 30.00 | 101.31 | < 0.001 |
| Extraversion | 35.02 | 37.00 | 36.73 | 39.00 | 39.47 | 41.00 | 13.65 | < 0.001 |
| Openness | 32.28 | 34.00 | 33.92 | 35.00 | 34.48 | 35.00 | 5.26 | 0.072 |
| Agreeableness | 35.65 | 36.00 | 35.98 | 36.00 | 37.60 | 37.00 | 4.75 | 0.107 |
| Conscientiousness | 36.37 | 38.00 | 36.45 | 39.00 | 39.26 | 41.00 | 9.51 | 0.009 |
M – mean; Mdn – median; K-W – Kruskal-Wallis’s test; p – significance level
A post-hoc analysis with correction for Bonferroni’s multiple comparisons (Table 5) revealed a significant difference in neuroticism severity between amateur and competitive athletes, as well as between amateur and professional groups. In contrast, no significant difference was observed between competitive and professional athletes. It is noteworthy that a significant difference was also observed in the intensity of extraversion between amateurs and professionals. Furthermore, a significant difference was observed in the intensity of conscientiousness between amateurs and professionals, and between competitive and professional athletes.
Table 5.
Multiple comparisons of the level of intensity of individual personality traits among athletes of different sporting levels
| Discipline | Neuroticism | Extraversion | Openness | Agreeableness | Conscientiousness |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Amateurs – Competitive athletes | 7.79a | -1.61 | -1.71 | -0.21 | -0.30 |
| Amateurs - Professionals | 9.27a | -3.69a | -2.15 | -1.96 | -2.86b |
| Competitive athletes - Professionals | 1.16 | -2.23 | -0.58 | -1.78 | -2.60b |
a – significant difference between groups (p < .001) adjusted by the Bonferroni method; b - significant difference between groups (p < .05) adjusted by the Bonferroni method
The following step involved examining the relationship between the intensity of personality traits and sporting level. To this end, a series of Spearman’s rho correlation analyses were conducted. Analyses were conducted for each sport individually, including historical fencers, streetball players, and modern dancers. Additionally, a comprehensive analysis was performed to investigate the relationship between the intensity of personality traits and the sporting level of all athletes.
Among historical fencers, a notable negative correlation was observed between neuroticism and sporting level, while a relatively weak positive correlation was identified between extraversion and sporting level (Table 6).
Table 6.
Correlation matrix between intensity of personality traits and sporting level of historical fencers
| Variable | Level | Neuroticism | Extraversion | Openness | Agreeableness | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Neuroticism | Spearman’s rho | − 0.531** | ||||
| relevance | < 0.001 | |||||
| Extraversion | Spearman’s rho | 0.226** | -0.10 | |||
| relevance | 0.004 | 0.206 | ||||
| Openness | Spearman’s rho | 0.06 | -0.08 | 0.180* | ||
| relevance | 0.418 | 0.290 | 0.023 | |||
| Agreeableness | Spearman’s rho | 0.11 | 0.02 | 0.10 | 0.10 | |
| relevance | 0.158 | 0.829 | 0.228 | 0.230 | ||
| Conscientiousness | Spearman’s rho | 0.13 | − 0.159* | 0.351** | 0.290** | 0.02 |
| relevance | 0.108 | 0.044 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | 0.765 |
Furthermore, a significant negative correlation was observed between neuroticism and sporting level among streetball players. Additionally, a significant positive correlation of moderate strength was identified between extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness and conscientiousness and sporting level (Table 7).
Table 7.
Correlation matrix between severity of personality traits and sporting level of streetball players
| Variable | Level | Neuroticism | Extraversion | Openness | Agreeableness | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Neuroticism | Spearman’s rho | − 0.712** | ||||
| relevance | < 0.001 | |||||
| Extraversion | Spearman’s rho | 0.539** | − 0.291** | |||
| relevance | < 0.001 | 0.005 | ||||
| Openness | Spearman’s rho | 0.393** | -0.11 | 0.475** | ||
| relevance | < 0.001 | 0.294 | < 0.001 | |||
| Agreeableness | Spearman’s rho | 0.325** | -0.08 | 0.350** | 0.338** | |
| relevance | 0.002 | 0.449 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | ||
| Conscientiousness | Spearman’s rho | 0.458** | -0.12 | 0.449** | 0.15 | 0.327** |
| relevance | < 0.001 | 0.243 | < 0.001 | 0.156 | 0.002 |
Among modern dancers, only a negative relationship of moderate strength was observed between neuroticism and sporting level (Table 8).
Table 8.
Correlation matrix between intensity of personality traits and sporting level of modern dancers
| Variable | Level | Neuroticism | Extraversion | Openness | Agreeableness | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Neuroticism | Spearman’s rho | − 0.374** | ||||
| relevance | < 0.001 | |||||
| Extraversion | Spearman’s rho | 0.19 | 0.412** | |||
| relevance | 0.078 | < 0.001 | ||||
| Openness | Spearman’s rho | 0.12 | 0.387** | 0.569** | ||
| relevance | 0.260 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | |||
| Agreeableness | Spearman’s rho | 0.16 | 0.446** | 0.677** | 0.436** | |
| relevance | 0.141 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | ||
| Conscientiousness | Spearman’s rho | 0.12 | 0.394** | 0.673** | 0.508** | 0.508** |
| relevance | 0.260 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 |
Furthermore, among all the athletes studied together, a significant negative correlation was observed between moderate strength and neuroticism in relation to sporting level. Additionally, a weak positive correlation was identified between extraversion, openness to experience and conscientiousness and sporting level (Table 9).
Table 9.
Correlation matrix between intensity of personality traits and sporting level of all athletes
| Relevance | Level | Neuroticism | Extraversion | Openness | Agreeableness | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Neuroticism | Spearman’s rho | − 0.526** | ||||
| relevance | < 0.001 | |||||
| Extraversion | Spearman’s rho | 0.198** | 0.196** | |||
| relevance | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | ||||
| Openness | Spearman’s rho | 0.121* | 0.173** | 0.538** | ||
| relevance | 0.025 | 0.001 | < 0.001 | |||
| Agreeableness | Spearman’s rho | 0.10 | 0.268** | 0.543** | 0.418** | |
| relevance | 0.066 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | ||
| Conscientiousness | Spearman’s rho | 0.145** | 0.186** | 0.668** | 0.495** | 0.496** |
| relevance | 0.007 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 |
In the final step of the analysis, the relationship between individual personality traits and the probability of progression to a higher sporting level was investigated. To this end, an ordinal regression model was employed, wherein the dependent variable was the level of athletes (coded as 1 for amateur, 2 for competitive, and 3 for professional) and the independent variable was personality traits. The proposed model demonstrated an adequate fit to the data, with a pseudo R2 value of 0.46. The analysis demonstrated that an increase in neuroticism was significantly associated with a reduction in the probability of attaining a higher sporting level (OR = 0.70). In contrast, increases in the intensity of the traits openness to experience (OR = 1.05), agreeableness (OR = 1.08) and conscientiousness (OR = 1.10) are associated with an increase in the chance of entering a higher sporting level. The model demonstrates that extraversion is not associated with the likelihood of progressing to a higher sporting level (Table 10).
Table 10.
Ordinal regression to explain the transition to a higher sporting level
| Independent variable | β | SE | OR | 95% CI | p |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Neuroticism | -0.356 | 0.030 | 0.70 | 0.66–0.74 | < 0.001 |
| Extraversion | -0.052 | 0.031 | 0.95 | 0.89–1.01 | 0.089 |
| Openness | 0.046 | 0.021 | 1.05 | 1.01–1.09 | 0.026 |
| Agreeableness | 0.077 | 0.021 | 1.08 | 1.04–1.13 | < 0.001 |
| Conscientiousness | 0.092 | 0.030 | 1.10 | 1.03–1.16 | 0.003 |
| ** Threshold A - W | -6.241 | 1.017 | 0.001 | ||
| ** Threshold W-Z | -1.259 | 0.095 | 0.068 |
β - regression coefficient; SE - standard error of the coefficient; OR - Odds Ratio; 95% CI − 95% confidence interval; p - statistical significance of the Wald’s test
Discussion
The findings of the study yielded cognitively intriguing data that validated the hypotheses. Firstly, the data revealed statistically significant differences between the groups of athletes under study. The results demonstrate that there are differences between the representatives of these sports in the intensity of all personality traits, with the exception of the difference in the intensity of neuroticism between historical fencers and modern dancers (Tables 2 and 3). Furthermore, when all subjects are compared according to their level of sport, statistically significant differences emerge in the intensity of several personality traits. These include neuroticism, with differences observed between amateur and competitive athletes, as well as between amateur and professional athletes; extraversion, with differences evident between amateur and professional athletes; and conscientiousness, with differences apparent between amateur and professional athletes, as well as between competitive and professional athletes (Tables 4 and 5). The aforementioned data substantiate the assertion that athletes manifest distinctive intensities of personality traits that are contingent upon the specific sport in question [12–14, 19]. Furthermore, the data indicate that these specific personality traits exhibit slight variations in intensity contingent on the level of the sport. When the athletes were considered as a collective, significant differences were observed in the intensities of neuroticism, extraversion, and conscientiousness, which may substantiate the pivotal role of these personality traits among athletes [16–18].
Secondly, a correlation was identified between the intensities of personality traits and sporting levels in the sporting groups under investigation. The results indicated that lower levels of neuroticism (of moderate strength) and higher levels of extroversion (of low strength) were associated with higher levels of sporting level among historical fencers (Table 6). Furthermore, a higher intensity of extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness and conscientiousness (of moderate strength) and a lower intensity of neuroticism (of high strength) are associated with higher sporting levels of streetball players (Table 7). Furthermore, a lower intensity of neuroticism (of moderate strength) is associated with higher sporting levels among modern dancers (Table 8). Conversely, lower intensities of neuroticism (of moderate strength) and higher extroversion, openness to experience and conscientiousness (of weak strength) are associated with higher sporting levels for all the athletes studied collectively (Table 9). However, it is typically assumed that relationships of weak strength are not significant. It is therefore important to consider relationships of moderate or high strength in the context of this argument. This translates into the significance of neuroticism intensity for the sporting level of historical fencers, the significance of the intensity of all personality traits for the sporting level of streetball players, the significance of neuroticism intensity for the sporting level of modern dancers and the significance of neuroticism intensity for the sporting level of the studied athletes taken as a whole. The data substantiate the primacy of neuroticism intensity in determining sporting level. Conversely, the data pertaining to streetball players evince an acknowledgement of the intensity of all personality traits in relation to sporting level. This may be attributed to the existence of a highly cohesive group within this study group, or alternatively, it may signify the distinctive role of personality traits in this particular sport. However, the majority of the correlations between neuroticism intensity and sporting level (including high strength among streetball players and moderate strength in other groups) supported the hypothesis that this personality trait is a significant predictor of sporting level [16, 17, 23, 24, 26].
Thirdly, there is a correlation between the intensity of personality traits and the likelihood of progression to a higher sporting level (Table 10). Lower intensities of neuroticism and higher intensities of openness to experience, agreeableness and conscientiousness are associated with an increased probability of entering a higher sporting level. It was hypothesised that the specificity of the approach to sports coaching among athletes in modern sports, including amateurs, competitive athletes and professional athletes, is evident in the intensity of personality traits, with the exception of extraversion. As amateurs, competitive and professional athletes are characterised by similar intensities of extraversion, this may corroborate previous reports that athletes are generally extroverted [33].
In light of these findings, it can be concluded that the results align with those of previous research. The following issues are addressed: the preferred intensities of personality traits in different sports; the leading role of neuroticism, extraversion and conscientiousness; with the main focus on the attribute of neuroticism. In contrast, the novel contribution of this article is the demonstration that, among athletes engaged in modern sports, the intensities of personality traits (with the exception of extraversion) are related to the transition to a higher sporting level. This suggests that the intensities of personality traits vary between different categories of athletes, with amateur, competitive and professional athletes displaying differing profiles. Based on this observation, it was postulated that training for a modern sport at a given level is associated with leading a specific lifestyle, which in turn affects the intensity of the personality traits of athletes.
Limitations
The study is limited to the Polish population of athletes. Therefore, generalizations about athletes from other cultures than European are limited. In addition, all analyses were performed on raw NEO-FFI scores, and therefore the age of the participants does not affect the results. The age of the participants may be relevant when interpreting the scores of individual participants, but not the study population. Therefore, discussion of the possible influence of age on personality traits and physical fitness is excluded. Furthermore, a larger sample of historical fencers than streetball players and modern dancers indicates greater accuracy in the study environment of this sport. It is also important that all analyses are quantitative. From the point of view of the practical work of a sports psychologist, it is not possible to favour certain personality traits. In practice, a sports psychologist works with a person, not with statistics.
Conclusions
Modern athletes differ in the intensities of their personality traits depending on the sport they train. The strongest differences were observed in the intensities of neuroticism, extraversion and conscientiousness. But the most significant correlation was found between low neuroticism intensity and sports level among the subjects. But only the intensity of extraversion is not related to the transition to a higher sports level. Which indicates the importance of the intensity of all personality traits with the leading role of neuroticism.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to extend their gratitude to the historical fencers, streetball players and modern dancers who participated in the survey, demonstrating admirable selflessness in doing so.
Author contributions
P.A.P.: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Validation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Resources, Data Curation, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing, Visualization, Supervision, Project Administration, Funding Acquisition, N.M.: Resources, Data Curation, M.N.: Resources, Data Curation, T.T.: Resources, Data Curation, All authors have approved the submitted version (and any substantially modified version that includes the author’s contribution to the study).All authors agreed both to be personally responsible for the author’s contribution and to ensure that issues related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the paper, even those in which the author was not personally involved, would be adequately investigated, resolved, and the resolution documented in the literature.
Funding
This research received no external funding.
Data availability
No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Senate Committee for Research Ethics at the Wroclaw University of Health and Sport Sciences (Approval Number: 20/2019). Written informed consent was obtained from participants for participation in the study and publication of this article.
Consent for publication
No individual or indemnifiable data is being published as part of this manuscript.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Footnotes
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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Associated Data
This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.
Data Availability Statement
No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.