Abstract
近年的研究表明,视皮层在成年期仍具有可塑性,即使错过视觉发育关键期的成年弱视患者仍有可能提高视力和双眼视功能。目前,能够增强视皮层可塑性的药物和非侵入性方法作为新兴的弱视治疗手段,尚未广泛应用于临床。因此,深入研究视皮层可塑性的潜在机制对于开发治疗弱视的新策略具有重要意义。本文总结了引起视皮层可塑性变化的机制,包括兴奋性-抑制性神经活动的平衡、细胞外基质重塑、可塑性相关抑制因子、神经营养因子多种因素的调控。随着各种神经成像技术的持续发展,未来研究可进一步探索控制关键期开启与关闭的精确机制,阐述参与视皮层可塑性调控的各种因素如何在不同细胞和信号通路中共同发挥作用,从而为弱视治疗提供新的手段和策略。
Keywords: 可塑性, 视皮质, 弱视, 综述
Abstract
A growing body of evidence indicates that the visual cortex retains a considerable degree of plasticity well into adulthood, suggesting that the visual acuity and binocular visual function of adult amblyopic patients can be improved even beyond the critical period of visual development. Currently, as novel treatment options for amblyopia, pharmacological and non-invasive methods that can enhance the plasticity of the visual cortex have not yet been widely applied in clinical practice. Therefore, it is of critical importance to investigate the underlying mechanisms of visual cortex plasticity to pave the way for the development of new therapeutic strategies for amblyopia. This paper reviews current research progress on mechanisms contributing to changes in visual cortical plasticity, including the regulation of the balance between excitatory and inhibitory neural activities, extracellular matrix remodeling, inhibitory factors associated with plasticity, and neurotrophic factors. With the continued advancement of various neuroimaging technologies, future research should aim to elucidate the precise mechanisms that control the initiation and closure of the critical period, and to clarify how the various factors involved in the regulation of visual cortical plasticity act jointly across different cell types and signaling pathways. Such investigations will provide new approaches and strategies for the treatment of amblyopia.
Keywords: Plasticity, Visual cortex, Amblyopia, Review
视皮层的神经联系和突触结构能够根据环境刺激而发生显著改变,这种对环境刺激的敏感性被称为视皮层可塑性。在刚出生时哺乳动物视觉系统处于尚未发育成熟的状态,在生命早期内视觉系统展现出非常大的可塑性,视皮层的发育易受外界环境影响,这段时期称为关键期。若在视觉发育关键期内,视网膜缺乏清晰的图像刺激将导致视觉系统神经发育障碍,临床上表现为单眼或双眼最佳矫正视力低下,称为弱视。既往普遍认为视皮层可塑性在成年后完全丧失,弱视患者的视力损伤也难以恢复。然而,近年来的研究对这一观点提出了挑战。即使在成年期,视皮层仍保留了一定程度的神经可塑性,并且可以被重新激活,促进弱视康复[1]。关键期后视皮层可塑性的重新诱导为成人弱视的治疗带来了新的曙光。至今,已证实兴奋性-抑制性神经活动的平衡、细胞外基质重塑、可塑性相关抑制因子、神经营养因子等多种因素参与了视皮层可塑性关键期的调控过程(图1)。现将视皮层可塑性机制的研究进展进行总结,旨在为探索和创新弱视治疗的有效方法提供科学的理论依据。
图 1.
Various factors are involved in regulating the time course of the critical period based on current understanding of visual cortical plasticity
多种因素参与视皮层可塑性关键期调控机制
The transition from the pre-critical period to the critical period is induced by alterations in the excitatory–inhibitory (E/I) balance, in which N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) and α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptors, postsynaptic density protein-95 (PSD-95), γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1) play pivotal roles. Downstream of the E/I trigger, structural rearrangements ultimately consolidate plasticity. Altering the E/I balance from a consolidated to an immature state to reopen the critical period represents a promising strategy for treating amblyopia. Remodeling the extracellular matrix, through mechanisms involving perineuronal nets (PNNs), tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 (MMP-2), or MMP-9, and the removal of molecular brakes such as neurite outgrowth inhibitor A (Nogo-A), paired immunoglobulin-like receptor B (PirB), Ly-6/neurotoxin-like protein 1 (Lynx1), and histone deacetylase (HDAC) are also promising strategies.
1. 兴奋性-抑制性神经活动平衡
兴奋性-抑制性神经活动的平衡对视皮层的经验依赖性发育至关重要,已成为视皮层可塑性研究的焦点[2]。α-氨基-3-羟基-5-甲基-4-异恶唑丙酸(alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid, AMPA)受体和N-甲基-D-天冬氨酸(N-methyl-D-aspartic acid, NMDA)受体是介导兴奋性神经递质传递的两种主要的谷氨酸离子型受体。AMPA受体激活后可使原来填充于NMDA受体通道中的Mg2+移出,使大量Na+和Ca2+进入细胞内,从而产生长时程增强[3]。因此,NMDA受体和AMPA受体的共存是突触产生信号冲动的重要条件。既往的研究发现,阻断NMDA受体会降低眼优势可塑性[4]。短时间内的单眼剥夺就会导致初级视皮层(V1)中央区域的AMPA受体长期减少,这也许是弱视患者中央视力受损更大的原因[5]。此外,XU等[6]发现,在眼优势可塑性的关键期,突触后密度蛋白-95(postsynaptic density protein-95, PSD-95)在视皮层的表达增加,并促进仅表达NMDA受体而不表达AMPA受体的沉默突触逐渐成熟,从而导致眼优势可塑性关键期的终止。而PSD-95的缺失使沉默突触成熟受阻,让成年小鼠视皮层也具有幼年样可塑性,表明PSD-95对经验依赖性突触成熟和稳定具有重要作用[7]。
γ-氨基丁酸(gamma-aminobutyric acid, GABA)作为大脑中关键的抑制性神经递质,可与GABA受体特异性结合,抑制神经元的兴奋性[8]。GABA能抑制性回路在调节关键期开启和关闭中的“门控”作用已被广泛深入研究。目前的研究表明,GABA需要达到一定阈值水平才能开启关键期[9]。然而,随着皮层内GABA浓度的增加,眼优势可塑性逐渐消失,皮层内抑制的完全成熟诱导了关键期的关闭[10]。此外,有研究发现弱视眼对对侧眼的抑制较弱与较低水平的视皮层内GABA浓度有关,表明GABA在平衡眼间抑制中也发挥重要作用[11]。因此,改变兴奋性-抑制性神经活动的平衡,重新激活视皮层可塑性,是目前治疗成人弱视的研究热点。
2. 细胞外基质重塑
有研究指出,在关键期结束时,可塑性的下降与细胞外基质(extracellular matrix, ECM)中发生的关键结构变化密切相关[12]。ECM的逐渐成熟影响了树突棘的形态结构,阻碍了突触可塑性[13]。树突棘是主要神经元树突的微小突起,可以通过改变形状及密度,影响神经元的连接,是神经可塑性的结构基础[14]。作为ECM的主要成分,硫酸软骨素蛋白多糖(chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans, CSPGs)在眼优势可塑性中发挥重要作用。CSPGs在发育过程中形成网状复合物,称为神经元周围网络结构(perineuronal nets, PNNs),其主要围绕在小清蛋白(parvalbumin, PV)阳性的GABA能中间神经元周围,抑制轴突的生长和再生,标志GABA能神经元及其抑制性回路发育逐渐走向成熟[15]。CSPGs凝集成PNNs的过程开始于视觉发育后期,这与视皮层可塑性关键期的结束相一致[16]。使用软骨素酶ABC(chondroitinase ABC, chABC)降解成年弱视大鼠大脑中的PNNs,可重新激活眼优势可塑性,表明富含PNNs的成熟ECM限制了眼优势可塑性[17]。虽然去除CSPGs/PNNs会促进眼优势移位,但在酪氨酸激酶受体B(tyrosine kinase receptor B, TrkB)减少的PV阳性抑制性神经元中,这种作用被消除,这表明PV阳性抑制性神经元中的TrkB活性是chABC诱导的可塑性所必需的[18]。
在ECM降解、突触重构、树突棘动态变化过程中,多种酶发挥了重要作用。组织型纤溶酶原激活物(tissue plasminogen activator, tPA)广泛存在于机体的各种组织内,其作用底物除了纤维蛋白溶酶原外,还包括ECM蛋白、生长因子、膜受体及细胞黏附分子等。tPA可能通过降解ECM蛋白,促进关键期内ECM结构重塑,从而参与调控经验依赖性可塑性。既往研究发现,阻断tPA功能会抑制幼猫眼优势柱的转换[19]。tPA基因敲除小鼠的眼优势可塑性也受到强烈抑制,而直接补充外源性tPA能使其恢复[20]。ORAY等[21]发现tPA/纤溶酶系统通过降解ECM蛋白,为树突棘的动态变化创造了有利的细胞外环境条件,提高了树突棘能动性,从而模拟眼优势可塑性效应。以ECM中的蛋白质为主要底物的基质金属蛋白酶(matrix metalloproteinases, MMPs)也参与ECM重塑。MMPs是一组Zn2+依赖型的内肽酶家族,包括20多种不同的亚型,对神经可塑性十分重要[22]。研究发现,基因敲除MMP-9使小鼠视皮层兴奋性突触密度和树突棘密度下降,眼优势可塑性减弱[23]。RIBOT等[24]发现,成熟的星型胶质细胞通过RhoA-ROCK信号通路抑制MMP-9的表达,促进抑制性神经回路成熟,诱导关键期结束。此外,特异性抑制成年小鼠视皮层中MMP-2和MMP-9的活性可导致PNNs增多,眼优势可塑性减弱[25]。因此,细胞外环境,特别是ECM,已被证明是控制视皮层可塑性的重要调节因子。值得注意的是,ECM/PNNs和神经元兴奋性之间存在复杂关系,并且在不同脑区和不同神经元之间存在差异[26]。
3. 可塑性相关抑制因子
重新开启视皮层可塑性的关键期被认为是有效治疗成人弱视的关键。大脑中多种可塑性相关抑制因子在发育和成年期间作为可塑性的负调节者,限制了视皮层可塑性,去除它们是重新开启关键期、增强可塑性、促进弱视恢复的有效途径。
3.1. 轴突生长抑制因子A
轴突生长抑制因子A(neurite outgrowth inhibitor A, Nogo-A)是一种被广泛研究的髓磷脂相关蛋白,通过轴突生长抑制因子受体(neurite outgrowth inhibitor receptor, NgR)发挥抑制轴突生长和突触功能、抑制脊髓损伤后神经再生的作用[27]。既往有关Nogo-A/NgR信号通路的研究成果已逐渐应用于促进损伤后视神经的轴突再生[28]以及调节视皮层可塑性中[29-30],初步揭示了视皮层可塑性关键期的终止与NgR相关,然而,其机制目前尚不清楚。有趣的是,NgR似乎不参与调节GABA能抑制性回路或tPA/纤溶酶活性,而是在其下游或独立发挥作用,因为缺乏NgR蛋白对小鼠视皮层中的谷氨酸脱羧酶65或tPA活性没有影响[29]。
3.2. 配对免疫球蛋白样受体B
配对免疫球蛋白样受体B(paired immunoglobulin-like receptor B, PirB)是一种在免疫系统和神经系统广泛表达的抑制性受体,不仅参与多种免疫调节反应,还在整个生命过程中积极抑制皮层可塑性[31]。研究表明阻断PirB能够提高树突棘密度,促进新的功能性突触的形成与稳定,增强神经可塑性[32]。主要组织相容性复合体Ⅰ作为PirB的配体,广泛表达于几乎所有有核细胞,其经典组分H2-Kb和H2-Db的缺乏导致小鼠树突棘密度增加,皮质内连接和眼优势可塑性增强[33],这与PirB基因敲除小鼠中观察到的现象相似。此外,Nogo-A也是PirB的高亲和力配体,PirB可能参与Nogo/NgR信号传导以调控神经可塑性[34]。可见,PirB可以与其他分子平行或共同作用,抑制轴突与树突棘的生长,负向调节视皮层结构和功能的稳定性[35]。
3.3. Ly-6/神经毒素样蛋白1
Ly-6/神经毒素样蛋白1(Ly-6/neurotoxin-like protein 1, Lynx1)作为一种烟碱型乙酰胆碱受体(nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, nAChRs)的内源性抑制因子,在成年期的表达增加,限制了视皮层可塑性[36]。由于nAChRs参与调控兴奋性突触传递,Lynx1对nAChRs的调节会影响兴奋性神经元和抑制性神经元之间的平衡[37]。研究发现,在基因敲除Lynx1(Lynx1-KO)的成年小鼠中,树突棘的形成率和消失率几乎都增加了一倍,而树突棘的密度不受影响,这表明Lynx1限制树突棘的更替,抑制了突触可塑性[38]。BUKHARI等[39]发现,在经历短暂单眼剥夺后,Lynx1-KO成年小鼠中的tPA活性增强,并伴随眼优势转移,然而,当这些Lynx1-KO成年小鼠的tPA基因被进一步敲除后,则不会发生上述情况,这表明tPA-Lynx1可能是增强成年大脑可塑性的新的候选机制。
3.4. 组蛋白去乙酰化酶
研究指出,关键期后可塑性的下降与组蛋白乙酰化水平的下调同时发生,这可能是视皮层可塑性下降的原因[40]。丰富环境(environmental enrichment, EE)可以导致组蛋白乙酰化水平升高,重新开启成年大鼠的视皮层可塑性关键期[41]。组蛋白去乙酰化酶(histone deacetylase, HDAC)抑制剂可能通过增加环磷酸腺苷反应元件结合蛋白(cAMP response element-binding protein, CREB)介导的基因转录来重新激活成年皮层中与可塑性相关的基因表达[42]。在动物实验中,通过抑制HDAC来上调组蛋白乙酰化水平,可以提高视皮层可塑性,促进弱视的恢复[42]。抑制HDAC可能是治疗成人弱视的有效策略,然而HDAC抑制剂下游广泛的作用靶点所带来的潜在副作用也需要引起重视。
4. 神经营养因子
神经营养因子是一个涉及神经生长、分化及发育调控的蛋白家族,有众多分支和分类。其中脑源性神经营养因子(brain-derived neurotrophic factor, BDNF)和胰岛素样生长因子-1(insulin-like growth factor, IGF-1)被发现与眼优势可塑性密切相关。
4.1. BDNF
BDNF作为哺乳动物大脑中广泛分布的神经营养因子之一,在神经系统的发育中起重要作用,参与神经元生长、分化,突触形成、稳定和可塑性[43]。在视皮层发育的关键期,过量的BDNF传递或阻断BDNF信号通路都会导致眼优势可塑性的异常发育。在小鼠视皮层中,BDNF的过表达加速了视力发育,促进了GABA能抑制性回路的成熟,诱导了关键期的提前结束[44]。阻断BDNF信号传导抑制了单眼剥夺时眼优势的转变,可塑性减弱[45]。此外,研究发现BDNF可以增加NMDA受体通道开放概率,增强视皮层兴奋性突触的传递和可塑性[46]。SANSEVERO等[47]通过非侵入性鼻腔内给药增加了初级视皮层(V1)中BDNF浓度,成功诱导了成年弱视大鼠视力、眼优势及深度知觉的恢复,且这种恢复在药物治疗结束后维持了长达4周的时间。
近年来,越来越多的研究关注BDNF及其高亲和力受体TrkB,发现BDNF-TrkB信号通路在视皮层可塑性中起关键作用[18, 48-49]。BDNF的表达水平受到CREB的调控,CREB的高表达促进了BDNF的合成与释放,而BDNF通过与其高亲和力受体的结合调节CREB的磷酸化修饰,两者协同作用,共同维护神经系统的可塑性[50]。此外,有研究指出,BDNF基因启动子的组蛋白乙酰化水平可能是调节关键期内视皮层可塑性的潜在机制[41]。BDNF前体向成熟BDNF的转化过程由MMP-2和MMP-9等蛋白酶介导,即MMP-2和MMP-9参与调节BDNF活性[51]。同时,BDNF可以激活神经元中MMP-9的表达[52]。未来应进一步探究MMP-2和MMP-9在BDNF信号通路调节眼优势可塑性中的作用机制。
4.2. IGF-1
IGF-1是一种单链多肽,参与神经元生长发育和经验依赖性可塑性。研究发现,IGF-1可阻止小鼠单眼剥夺后的眼优势转移[53]。在成年大鼠视皮质中外源性注入IGF-1使皮质内GABA水平显著降低,重新激活了成年大脑的眼优势可塑性,也促进了视功能的恢复[54]。动物实验已证实EE能够增强视皮层可塑性,这种效果可能是由IGF-1调节皮层内抑制回路和PNNs的成熟介导[55-57]。可见,IGF-1可能通过调节皮层内抑制回路和细胞外环境变化,增强视皮层可塑性。
5. 总结与展望
越来越多的研究表明成年视皮层仍保留了一定程度的神经可塑性,而导致可塑性变化的机制十分复杂,涉及各种细胞和分子的直接或间接调控。现有研究结果尚不能完全阐述参与视皮层可塑性调控的各种因素如何在不同细胞和信号通路中共同发挥作用。改变兴奋性-抑制性神经活动的平衡来重启视皮层的可塑性,重塑细胞外环境来增强视皮层结构的可塑性,以及去除可塑性相关抑制因子,都能够有效增强成年视皮层的可塑性,促进弱视患者视功能的恢复。
传统的遮盖疗法或压抑疗法通过抑制对侧眼接受视觉刺激,强迫使用弱视眼,通常能够有效改善关键期内和低龄弱视儿童的视力,但对大龄儿童或成年患者效果较差。应用上述增强可塑性的方法或者与传统治疗方式联合运用,将为关键期结束后的弱视患者提供视力恢复的可能。然而,尽管这些新方法已经展现出良好的前景,但经过数十年的基础和临床研究后,由于临床疗效和剂量的不确定性以及相关副作用,能够增强视皮层可塑性的药物(如左旋多巴、氟西汀、胞磷胆碱)仍未获得广泛认可。
近年来,更易转化为临床治疗的非侵入性方法如EE、重复经颅磁刺激和经颅直流电刺激在减少皮层内抑制、增强成年视皮层可塑性中展现出巨大的潜力。值得注意的是,CHAN等[58]研究发现,关键期的长时间延长不利于双眼的图像整合,将阻碍立体视觉的正常发育。此外,随着视觉系统发育成熟,神经元之间的连接更加稳定,视皮层可塑性逐渐下降,若使成年大脑视皮层恢复幼年样可塑性,是否可能发生不可预料的副作用?总之,仍需大量实验深入探究导致视皮层可塑性变化的精确机制,并探索将其转化为实际临床应用的安全性和有效性。相信随着各种神经成像技术的持续发展,控制关键期开启与关闭的研究必将取得新的成果,从而大力推动视皮层可塑性甚至神经可塑性相关疾病的研究进展。
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作者贡献声明 董音妙负责论文构思、初稿写作和审读与编辑写作,刘陇黔负责论文构思、经费获取、监督指导和审读与编辑写作。所有作者已经同意将文章提交给本刊,且对将要发表的版本进行最终定稿,并同意对工作的所有方面负责。
Author Contribution DONG Yinmiao is responsible for conceptualization, writing--original draft, and writing--review and editing. LIU Longqian is responsible for conceptualization, funding acquisition, supervision, and writing--review and editing. Both authors consented to the submission of the article to the Journal. Both authors approved the final version to be published and agreed to take responsibility for all aspects of the work.
利益冲突 本文作者刘陇黔是本刊编委会编委,该文在编辑评审过程中所有流程严格按照期刊政策进行,且未经其本人经手处理。除此之外,所有作者均声明不存在利益冲突。
Declaration of Conflicting Interests LIU Longqian is a member of theEditorial Board of the journal. All processes involved in the editing andreviewing of this article were carried out in strict compliance with the journal's policies and there was no inappropriate personal involvement by the author. Other than this, both authors declare no competing interests.
Contributor Information
音妙 董 (Yinmiao DONG), Email: yinmiaodong@163.com.
陇黔 刘 (Longqian LIU), Email: b.q15651@hotmail.com.
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