Motivational traits and values in teachers’ professional experience: exploring the nexus of work values and life satisfaction among Chinese educators

Abstract

Background

The interplay between motivational traits and work values is essential for understanding life satisfaction among Chinese high school English teachers. This study investigates how motivation and teaching work values relate to life satisfaction, situating the research within the unique context of Chinese educators.

Methods

Participants are Chinese High School English teachers (N = 742) who answered a self-reported questionnaire conducted online using a web survey during April-May 2024. The analysis included hypothesis testing using Model 4 of the PROCESS macro for SPSS, which examines both the direct and indirect effects of an independent variable (X) on a dependent variable (Y) through a mediator (M). This model was tested separately for each independent variable: personal mastery, competitive excellence, and motivation anxiety.

Results

The results indicated that personal mastery is positively associated with life satisfaction, and a significant positive relationship exists between personal mastery and work values. The findings also revealed a positive association between work values and life satisfaction, with mediation analysis showing that work values partially mediate the relationship between personal mastery and life satisfaction. While the direct effect of competitive excellence on life satisfaction was not significant, its indirect effect through work values was significant. Conversely, although the direct effect of motivation anxiety on life satisfaction was significant, the indirect effect through work values was not.

Conclusions

These results underscore the importance of aligning work environments with educators’ values to enhance their professional performance and overall quality of life. Practical implications include guiding school administrators and policymakers to foster environments that support teachers’ motivational traits and work values, which can lead to improved job satisfaction, reduced stress, and greater retention among educators.

Introduction

The exploration of individual differences as determinants of behavior has a rich history, with significant empirical foundations laid by early theorists. However, in recent years, there has been an increased focus on understanding how these differences influence motivation in educational settings, particularly within the context of teacher performance and satisfaction [1]. Some studies emphasized that intrinsic and extrinsic factors significantly shape motivation, impacting job satisfaction and work values among teachers [2, 3]. This aligns with the broader motivational theories that include cognitive-oriented perspectives such as self-efficacy [4], goal-setting [5], and trait motivation [6]. Motivational models remain central to understanding the behavior of educators. Recent research has highlighted the importance of individual differences in shaping these motivational outcomes [7]. This has been complemented by insights into how these factors contribute to teachers’ professional engagement and life satisfaction [8]. Theories emphasizing situational and dispositional influences, such as Bakker and Demerouti’s job Demands-Resources model [9, 10], continue to provide a relevant backdrop for analyzing motivation in work-related contexts.

Kanfer and Heggestad’s framework [11–14], which distinguishes between stable, trans-situational motivational traits and dynamic motivational skills, has been supported by recent empirical evidence. Recent studies demonstrated how motivational factors directly influence educators’ work performance and align with professional satisfaction [8, 15]. Understanding how intrinsic traits interact with workplace factors is critical, as it influences job satisfaction and educational outcomes [16]. Work values, similarly, play a vital role in shaping professional behavior. Current studies have shown that these values can mediate the relationship between motivational traits and job satisfaction [3]. This mediation is essential for understanding the behavior of educators, particularly in how their intrinsic motivation aligns with work engagement and life satisfaction [17].

The focus on Chinese high school teachers is justified by several unique cultural, societal, and professional factors that shape their work experiences and motivational dynamics. In China, the education system is highly valued as a means of social mobility and economic advancement, placing substantial pressure on teachers to perform at high standards. This societal emphasis often leads to distinct work values and motivational structures compared to those observed in other cultural contexts. Additionally, the Confucian heritage embedded within Chinese culture emphasizes collective responsibility, diligence, and respect for authority, which can significantly influence teachers’ approach to work and their overall job satisfaction. Studying this specific group allows for an examination of how these culturally driven values interact with motivational traits to impact life satisfaction and professional fulfillment, providing insights that may not be as pronounced in different educational or cultural environments. In summary, understanding the interplay between individual motivational traits, work values, and satisfaction is essential for enhancing educators’ well-being and performance. By aligning work environments with values that drive motivation, educators’ life satisfaction can be optimized. This revised focus sets the stage for exploring these dynamics in the context of Chinese high school English teachers, offering insights that can guide theoretical and practical improvements in educational settings.

Literature review

Motivational traits of Chinese high school english teachers

Motivational traits play a crucial role in influencing educators’ work engagement and satisfaction. Kanfer and Heggestad [13] provided a foundational framework for understanding these traits, proposing two higher-order complex traits: achievement and anxiety. Within the achievement trait, two main motivational aspects are distinguished: Personal Mastery, which relates to an individual’s standards for personal growth and improvement, and Competitive Excellence, which involves normative standards and comparisons with others. These traits motivate individuals to pursue excellence in their professional roles. In contrast, the anxiety trait encompasses Motivation Anxiety, which includes Failure Avoidance (a tendency to steer clear of achievement situations due to fear of failure) and Achievement Anxiety (a predisposition to feel anxious in achievement-oriented contexts). This differentiation helps explain how teachers may engage differently with their work, either striving toward success or managing avoidance behaviors due to anxiety. Recent studies have extended this foundational work, highlighting the importance of personal mastery and intrinsic motivation in educational settings, showing how these traits contribute positively to job satisfaction and life satisfaction [18, 19]. Teachers motivated by personal mastery are more likely to value professional development and show resilience in their teaching roles, leading to enhanced job performance [20]. Conversely, those with high achievement anxiety benefit from work environments that provide support and mitigate stressors [21, 22].

Work values among Chinese high school english teachers

The role of work values is crucial in shaping educators’ attitudes and responses to their work environments. These values, which include intrinsic and extrinsic components, significantly impact job satisfaction and overall well-being. Work values encompass beliefs and attitudes toward what is essential in a professional setting, influencing how individuals perceive their job roles. Scholars such as Super [23] and Dose [24] have provided early perspectives on work values, viewing them either as personal needs or as evaluative standards. Contemporary research has built upon these foundational ideas, underscoring that work values linked to professional growth, recognition, and job security are essential for sustaining high motivation among teachers [21, 22]. In Chinese educational settings, intrinsic values related to continuous professional development are particularly valued by teachers, contributing to their job satisfaction and retention [25, 26], as well as in other Chinese occupational fields [27].

Mediating role of work values in the relationship between motivational traits and life satisfaction

The relationship between motivational traits and life satisfaction is often mediated by work values. This mediation underscores how values influence the way motivational traits manifest in professional environments. For instance, teachers with high personal mastery often prioritize continuous learning and innovation, which leads to higher life satisfaction through a sense of achievement and growth [20]. Conversely, those with high motivation anxiety may seek environments that offer job stability and support to help mitigate stress and improve life satisfaction [28]. This dynamic has been reinforced by studies showing that work values serve as a bridge between intrinsic motivation and professional satisfaction. Research points to the importance of recognizing and supporting these work values in creating policies and practices that align with teachers’ motivational drivers [17, 26, 29].

Moreover, and centered specifically in China, one recent study by Su and Jiang [30] focused on bi-directional work-family conflict among Chinese university teachers, particularly female educators, and highlighted how organizational support plays a vital role in mitigating these conflicts. The findings under-scored the importance of work-life balance in enhancing job satisfaction, aligning with Chinese cultural values that prioritize family and professional harmony. In a similar way, Zang and Feng [31] found that job satisfaction among Chinese kindergarten teachers is significantly associated with work engagement, mediated by vocational delay of gratification. This suggests that intrinsic work values, such as patience and commitment, are critical for understanding job satisfaction and life satisfaction among educators in China.

Xu et al. [32] investigated the links between career satisfaction, professional identity, and job burnout among primary and secondary school teachers in China. The study emphasized that fostering a sense of competence and professional growth helps reduce burnout and enhances life satisfaction, highlighting the need for supportive work environments that cater to intrinsic and extrinsic work values. In a study on Chinese English as a Foreign Language teachers, Han [33] revealed that job satisfaction strongly predicts psychological well-being and resilience, factors that contribute to life satisfaction. This demonstrates the importance of resilience and a supportive professional setting in maintaining teacher well-being. Meng [34] explored how basic psychological needs, such as autonomy and competence, influence job and life satisfaction among Chinese university teachers. The findings suggested that satisfying these needs is essential for enhancing both professional and personal well-being.

Life satisfaction among Chinese high school english teachers

Life satisfaction encompasses both cognitive and emotional components of subjective well-being. While emotions relate to daily experiences, life satisfaction reflects a more stable evaluation of one’s overall life. Diener et al. [35] identified that life satisfaction can be influenced by personal achievements and social circumstances. In educational contexts, motivational traits and work values play significant roles in shaping life satisfaction. Recent research has linked life satisfaction among teachers with their motivational traits, indicating that intrinsic motivation such as personal mastery leads to a greater sense of fulfillment [28]. Teachers who prioritize personal growth and align their work with intrinsic values experience enhanced professional and personal well-being. Conversely, external factors like job security and recognition contribute to the satisfaction of teachers with high achievement anxiety, further reinforcing the interplay between work values, motivational traits, and life satisfaction [36, 37].

To sum up, the complex relationship between motivational traits, work values, and life satisfaction among Chinese high school English teachers underscores the importance of supportive work environments that align with educators’ values. Understanding these interactions provides insight into strategies that can improve teacher well-being, retention, and overall performance.

Hypotheses development and rationale

Individuals with a high sense of personal mastery are likely to feel more in control of their lives and capable of overcoming challenges, leading to higher life satisfaction. Those who believe in their ability to control outcomes may place higher importance on work values, seeing them as instrumental to achieving personal and professional goals. For these individuals, valuing work highly and aligning work with personal values can contribute to overall life satisfaction through a sense of purpose and fulfillment in one’s career. Hence, the positive impact of personal mastery on life satisfaction may be partly explained by the work values individuals hold. High personal mastery might enhance the importance and fulfillment derived from work, thereby increasing life satisfaction. To sum up, the following hypotheses are proposed:

• H1a: Personal mastery is positively associated with life satisfaction.

• H2a: Personal mastery is positively associated with work values.

• H3a: Work values are positively associated with life satisfaction.

• H4a: Work values mediate the relationship between personal mastery and life satisfaction.

This first set of hypotheses is displayed in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1.

Personal Mastery as independent variable and related hypotheses. Note: The black arrows display direct effects. Red line displays indirect effect through work values.

Individuals who achieve high levels of competitive excellence may experience a sense of accomplishment and recognition, leading to higher life satisfaction. Those who strive for and achieve competitive excellence may place greater importance on work values, seeing them as crucial for maintaining and enhancing their competitive edge. Among this teachers, valuing work highly and aligning work with personal values can contribute to overall life satisfaction through a sense of purpose and fulfillment in one’s career. The positive impact of competitive excellence on life satisfaction may be partly explained by the work values individuals hold. Achieving competitive excellence might enhance the importance and fulfillment derived from work, thereby increasing life satisfaction.

To sum up, the following hypotheses are proposed:

• H1b: Competitive excellence is positively associated with life satisfaction.

• H2b: Competitive excellence is positively associated with work values.

• H3b: Work values are positively associated with life satisfaction.

• H4b: Work values mediate the relationship between competitive excellence and life satisfaction.

This second set of hypotheses is displayed in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2.

Competitive excellence as independent variable and related hypotheses. Note: The black arrows display direct effects. Red line displays indirect effect through work values.

On the opposite side, individuals with high motivation anxiety may experience stress and worry related to their performance and achievements, which can negatively impact their overall life satisfaction. Those who experience high levels of motivation anxiety may find it challenging to maintain positive work values, as their anxiety can undermine their confidence and commitment to their work. Valuing work highly and aligning work with personal values can contribute to overall life satisfaction through a sense of purpose and fulfillment in one’s career. The negative impact of motivation anxiety on life satisfaction may be partly explained by the work values individuals hold. High motivation anxiety might diminish the importance and fulfillment derived from work, thereby reducing life satisfaction.

• H1c: Motivation anxiety is negatively associated with life satisfaction.

• H2c: Motivation anxiety is negatively associated with work values.

• H3c: Work values are positively associated with life satisfaction.

• H4c: Work values mediate the relationship between motivation anxiety and life satisfaction.

This third set of hypotheses is displayed in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3.

Competitive excellence as independent variable and related hypotheses. Note: The black arrows display direct effects. Red line displays indirect effect through work values.

Method

Participants

The participants of this study were 742 Chinese high school English teachers who voluntarily completed an online self-reported questionnaire. The sampling procedure used was a convenience sampling. The survey was conducted via a web-based platform, ensuring accessibility and convenience for the respondents.

The sample included 472 male teachers (63.6%) and 270 female teachers (36.4%), representing a diverse gender distribution. The average age of the participants was 27.73 years, with a standard deviation of 5.75 years. The ages ranged from 23 to 45 years. Regarding their tenure at their current school, the average length of service was 6.45 years, with a standard deviation of 7.73 years. The tenure ranged from less than a year to 28 years. In terms of educational background, the majority of participants were graduates, with 398 holding undergraduate degrees. Additionally, 329 teachers (44.3%) had obtained a Master’s degree, and 15 teachers (2.0%) possessed a Ph.D. The participants were employed in various types of schools. A significant portion, 499 teachers (67.3%), worked in public schools. Private school teachers comprised 221 of the respondents (29.8%), while community-based school teachers accounted for 10 participants (1.3%). The remaining 12 teachers (1.6%) were employed in other types of educational institutions.

Regarding their professional roles, the majority of respondents were classroom teachers, with 544 individuals (73.3%) identifying as such. Additionally, 118 participants (15.9%) were in middle management positions, such as department heads or grade level coordinators. There were 49 participants (6.6%) who were principals or senior administrators, and 5 (0.7%) held other directorial roles. The remaining 26 participants (3.5%) were classified under other professional categories within the school system. In terms of employment status, 675 teachers (91.0%) reported working full-time, while 51 teachers (6.9%) were employed part-time. The remaining 16 participants (2.2%) fell into other employment categories.

The size of the schools where the participants worked varied. A total of 170 teachers (22.9%) worked in schools with 0 to 9 teachers, 63 teachers (8.5%) were in schools with 10 to 49 teachers, 113 teachers (15.2%) worked in schools with 50 to 199 teachers, and the largest group, 396 teachers (53.4%), were employed in schools with more than 200 teachers.

Procedure

An online self-reported questionnaire was administered using Questionnaire Star, a web-based survey platform, during April-May 2024. The questionnaire was disseminated among Chinese high school English teachers through various social networks, including WeChat, and educational forums, to ensure broad participation. Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the School of Foreign Languages at Zhejiang Gongshang University. The study was conducted in accordance with the Helsinki Declaration and local regulations, ensuring ethical standards were maintained throughout the research process.

At the beginning of the questionnaire, participants were presented with three informed consent questions to confirm their voluntary participation. The content of the informed consent included the following information: Purpose of the Study (participants were informed that the study aimed to examine the relationships between personal mastery, work values, and life satisfaction among Chinese high school English teachers); Confidentiality (participants were assured that their responses would be kept confidential and used solely for research purposes. Data would be anonymized to protect their identities); Voluntary Participation (participants were informed that their participation was entirely voluntary and that they could withdraw from the study at any time without any negative consequences).

The three informed consent questions were: Do you understand the purpose of this study and agree to participate? Do you agree that your responses will be kept confidential and used only for research purposes, and Do you acknowledge that your participation is voluntary and that you can withdraw at any time without penalty? Only participants who answered “Yes” to all three questions were allowed to proceed with the questionnaire. This ensured that informed consent was obtained from all participants before they took part in the study.

Instruments

Motivational traits

To assess work-related goals and motivation, we utilized the Motivational Trait Questionnaire (MTQ-Short form), developed by Heggestad and Kanfer [6] and Kanfer and Ackerman [11]. This instrument comprises 48 items designed to evaluate three dimensions: Personal Mastery (16 items), Competitive Excellence (13 items), and Motivation Anxiety (19 items). Participants responded to each item using a six-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Very untrue of me) to 6 (Very true of me).

For Personal Mastery, a sample item is: When I become interested in a task, I try to learn as much about it as I can. An example item for Competitive Excellence is: It really upsets me when someone does something better than I do. For Motivation Anxiety, an example item is: When working on important tasks, I get concerned that I will make a mistake.

The reliability of the questionnaire was confirmed with high Cronbach’s alpha values for each dimension. Personal Mastery had a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.89, Competitive Excellence had a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.88, and Motivation Anxiety had a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.90, indicating strong internal consistency for the scales used. A back-translation procedure was used to adapt this scale to Chinese language [38]. The scale was first translated from the English language to Chinese by one of the authors, acting a bilingual translator, given he is fluent in both languages and familiar with the subject matter. The second author translated the Chinese version into English and both, the original and back-translated versions were compared to identify differences. The discrepancies were discussed and resolved by the translators.

Work values

This study also employed a sub-scale of work value scales, consisting of 9 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (unimportant) to 5 (very important). A higher score on this scale indicates stronger work values among the respondents. The scale used was adapted from an existing version [39] and modified by various scholars to better fit Chinese samples [40]. This adapted version has demonstrated high reliability, validity, and confidence in previous studies with Chinese participants. In the current study, the work values scale showed excellent internal consistency, with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.96.

Teachers’ life satisfaction

To assess the cognitive aspect of an individual’s subjective well-being, this study employed the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) developed by Diener et al. [35]. The SWLS consists of five items that measure overall life satisfaction. Since its development, the SWLS has been widely utilized and its psychometric properties have been thoroughly investigated, supporting its internal consistency and test-retest reliability [41], reliability generalization [42], as well as construct, convergent, and discriminant validity [43]. Beyond basic reliability and validity evaluations, the SWLS has been tested for measurement invariance across various demographics such as gender [44], age [45], culture [46], and over time [47]. Specifically, Bai et al. [48] applied the SWLS to a large, nationally representative sample in China, examining its internal consistency reliability, the factorial validity of a single factor, and measurement invariance across several demographic variables. Despite that this is a short scale, reliability in the present study reached a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.76.

Sociodemographic data included gender, age, tenure, type of school, professional category and number of teachers at each school.

Data analyses

The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and correlation matrices to explore the relationships between the study variables: work values, personal mastery, competitive excellence, motivation anxiety, and life satisfaction. The analysis included hypothesis testing using Model 4 of the PROCESS macro for SPSS [49, 50], which examines mediation effects. This model allows for the examination of both direct and indirect effects of an independent variable (X) on a dependent variable (Y) through a mediator (M). This model was tested separately for each independent variable: personal mastery, competitive excellence, and motivation anxiety. The Lower Level Confidence Interval (LLCI) and Upper Level Confidence Interval (ULCI) are used to assess the precision and significance of the estimated effects. These intervals provide a range within which the true effect is expected to lie with 95% confidence. If the confidence interval does not include zero, the effect is considered statistically significant.

Results

Descriptive statistics and correlation matrix

The descriptive statistics and correlation matrix for the variables under study are presented below. The means and standard deviations indicate the central tendency and dispersion for each variable. The correlation matrix provides insight into the relationships between these variables.

Work values had a moderately high mean score, indicating that on average, participants reported relatively high work values. Personal mastery also had a high mean, suggesting that participants generally perceived themselves as having a strong sense of personal mastery. Competitive excellence had a lower mean compared to work values and personal mastery, while motivation anxiety had a mean score that was relatively moderate. Life satisfaction had a mean score indicating that participants generally felt satisfied with their lives.

The correlation matrix, shown in Table 1, revealed several significant relationships. Work values were positively correlated with personal mastery and competitive excellence, but not significantly related to motivation anxiety. Personal mastery was positively correlated with competitive excellence, but the relationship with motivation anxiety was not significant. Competitive excellence was positively correlated with motivation anxiety. Life satisfaction was positively correlated with work values and personal mastery, and negatively correlated with motivation anxiety. These correlations suggest that higher work values and personal mastery are associated with higher life satisfaction, while higher motivation anxiety is associated with lower life satisfaction.

Table 1.

Descriptive statistics and correlation matrix

Variables	Mean	SD	1	2	3	4
1. Work values	3.93	0.73	--
2. Personal mastery	3.81	0.65	0.612**	--
3. Competitive excellence	2.92	0.66	0.230**	0.107**	--
4. Motivation anxiety	3.17	0.47	− 0.005	0.044	0.451**	--
5. Life Satisfaction	3.50	0.50	0.645**	0.784**	0.152**	− 0.095**

**p <.01

Hypotheses testing

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between personal mastery, work values, and life satisfaction. Four hypotheses were tested: H1a stated that personal mastery is positively associated with life satisfaction. H2a proposed that personal mastery is positively associated with work values. H3a posited that work values are positively associated with life satisfaction. H4a suggested that work values mediate the relationship between personal mastery and life satisfaction.

Personal mastery as independent variable: hypothesis 1a, 2a, 3a and 4a.

Applying the PROCESS macros Model 4, the results indicated that personal mastery is positively associated with life satisfaction, as Table 2 displays. The model summary for life satisfaction as the outcome variable revealed an R-squared value of 0.6590 (F(2, 739) = 713.9236, p <.0001), indicating that 65.9% of the variance in life satisfaction is explained by personal mastery and work values. Additionally, there is a significant positive association between personal mastery and work values. The model summary for work values as the outcome variable revealed an R-squared value of 0.3743 (F(1, 740) = 442.6645, p <.0001), indicating that 37.43% of the variance in work values is explained by personal mastery. The findings also demonstrated a positive association between work values and life satisfaction. Furthermore, the mediation analysis revealed that work values partially mediate the relationship between personal mastery and life satisfaction, as Table 3 displays. Overall, the findings provide strong support for the proposed hypotheses, suggesting that personal mastery enhances life satisfaction directly and indirectly through its positive impact on work values.

Table 2.

Regression coefficients for model 4 with personal mastery as predictor variable.

Predictor Variable	Coefficient	SE	t	LLCI	ULCI
Outcome Variable: Work values
Personal mastery	0.6872	0.0327	21.0396	0.6231	0.7513
Outcome Variable: Life satisfaction
Personal mastery	0.4812	0.0210	22.9256	0.4400	0.5224
Work values	0.1819	0.0187	9.7345	0.1452	0.2186

Table 3.

Direct and indirect effects of personal mastery on life satisfaction

Effect Type	Effect	SE	t	p	LLCI	ULCI
Direct Effect	0.4812	0.0210	22.9256	0.0000	0.4400	0.5224
Indirect Effect (via Work values)	0.1250	0.0134			0.1002	0.1533

Competitive excellence as independent variable: hypothesis 1b, 2b, 3b and 4b.

In the following step, with Competitive excellence as predictor variable, four hypotheses were tested: H1b stated that competitive excellence is positively associated with life satisfaction. H2b proposed that competitive excellence is positively associated with work values. H3b posited that work values are positively associated with life satisfaction. H4b suggested that work values mediate the relationship between competitive excellence and life satisfaction. As Tables 4 and 5 show, the results indicated that competitive excellence is not directly associated with life satisfaction (H1b). However, there is a significant positive association between competitive excellence and work values (H2b). The model summary for work values as the outcome variable revealed an R-squared value of 0.0528 (F(1, 740) = 41.2893, p <.0001), indicating that 5.28% of the variance in work values is explained by competitive excellence. The model summary for life satisfaction as the outcome variable revealed an R-squared value of 0.4164 (F(2, 739) = 263.6470, p <.0001), indicating that 41.64% of the variance in work values is explained by competitive excellence, but not due to the contribution of this variable. Additionally, the findings demonstrate a positive association between work values and life satisfaction (H3b). The mediation analysis revealed that work values mediate the relationship between competitive excellence and life satisfaction (H4b). Although the direct effect of competitive excellence on life satisfaction was not significant, the indirect effect through work values was significant. Overall, the findings suggest that while competitive excellence does not directly enhance life satisfaction, it does so indirectly through its positive impact on work values.

Table 4.

Regression coefficients for model 4 with competitive excellence as predictor variable.

Predictor Variable	Coefficient	SE	t	LLCI	ULCI
Outcome Variable: Work values
Competitive excellence	0.2527	0.0393	6.4257	0.1755	0.3300
Outcome Variable: Life satisfaction
Competitive excellence	0.0028	0.0218	0.1268	− 0.0401	0.0457
Work values	0.4434	0.0199	22.3184	0.4044	0.4824

Table 5.

Direct and indirect effects of competitive excellence on life satisfaction

Effect Type	Effect	SE	t	p	LLCI	ULCI
Direct Effect	0.0028	0.0218	0.1268	0.8991	− 0.0401	0.0457
Indirect Effect (via Work values)	0.1121	0.0170			0.0800	0.1455

Motivation anxiety as independent variable: hypothesis 1c, 2c, 3c and 4c

Finally, considering Motivation Anxiety as predictor, four hypotheses were tested: H1c stated that motivation anxiety is negatively associated with life satisfaction. H2c proposed that motivation anxiety is negatively associated with work values. H3c posited that work values are positively associated with life satisfaction. H4c suggested that work values mediate the relationship between motivation anxiety and life satisfaction.

The results indicated that motivation anxiety is negatively associated with life satisfaction (H1c). However, there was no significant association between motivation anxiety and work values (H2c), as Table 6 displays. The model summary for work values as the outcome variable revealed an R-squared value of 0.0000 (F(1, 739) = 0.0204, p =.8864), indicating that percentage of the variance in work values explained by Motivation anxiety is negligible. On the other hand, the findings demonstrate a positive association between work values and life satisfaction (H3c). The model summary for life satisfaction as the outcome variable revealed an R-squared value of 0.4284 (F(2, 739) = 272.8846, p <.0001), indicating that 42.48% of the variance in life satisfaction is explained by Motivation Anxiety and work values. The mediation analysis revealed that work values do not mediate the relationship between motivation anxiety and life satisfaction (H4c). While the direct effect of motivation anxiety on life satisfaction was significant, the indirect effect through work values was not, as Table 7 displays. Overall, the findings suggest that motivation anxiety directly reduces life satisfaction, but this effect is not mediated by work values.

Table 6.

Regression coefficients for model 4 with motivation anxiety as predictor variable.

Predictor Variable	Coefficient	SE	t	LLCI	ULCI
Outcome Variable: Work values
Motivation anxiety	− 0.0080	0.0563	−0.1429	− 0.1186	0.1025
Outcome Variable: Life satisfaction
Motivation anxiety	− 0.0966	0.0294	−3.2861	− 0.1543	− 0.0389
Work values	0.4437	0.0192	23.1119	0.4060	0.4814

Table 7.

Direct and indirect effects of motivation anxiety on life satisfaction

Effect Type	Effect	SE	t	p	LLCI	ULCI
Direct Effect	− 0.0966	0.0294	−3.2861	0.0011	− 0.1543	− 0.0389
Indirect Effect (via Work values)	− 0.0036	0.0272			− 0.0546	0.0522

Discussion

The present study aimed to explore the relationships between personal mastery, work values, and life satisfaction among Chinese educators, testing various hypotheses to understand the dynamics of these factors.

Personal mastery and its impact

Hypotheses 1a through 4a focused on personal mastery as the independent variable. The findings confirmed that personal mastery is positively associated with life satisfaction (H1a). This is consistent with the broad literature suggesting that individuals who perceive a high degree of control over their professional and personal environments tend to report higher life satisfaction. The significant R-squared value underscores the substantial influence of personal mastery on life satisfaction, indicating that personal mastery and work values together explain the majority of the variance in life satisfaction.

The findings of this study align with a significant body of existing research highlighting the importance of personal mastery in enhancing life satisfaction. For instance, research by Judge and Bono [51] demonstrated that individuals with a high sense of personal control report higher levels of life satisfaction and well-being. This is consistent with our finding that personal mastery positively impacts life satisfaction, both directly and indirectly through work values. Similarly, Skaalvik and Skaalvik [52] found that teachers with a high sense of personal efficacy are more likely to experience job satisfaction and general well-being, which parallels our results regarding the positive influence of personal mastery on work values and life satisfaction.

Moreover, the study found a positive association between personal mastery and work values (H2a), indicating that personal mastery explains 37.43% of the variance in work values. This suggests that educators who possess a strong sense of personal mastery are likely to hold strong work values. Additionally, work values were positively associated with life satisfaction (H3a), highlighting the role of intrinsic and extrinsic work values in enhancing overall life satisfaction. The mediation analysis supported H4a, indicating that work values partially mediate the relationship between personal mastery and life satisfaction. This mediation effect suggests that personal mastery contributes to life satisfaction not only directly but also indirectly through its impact on work values.

Furthermore, the mediating role of work values in the relationship between personal mastery and life satisfaction is supported by previous studies. Judge and Bretz [53] emphasized the importance of work values in shaping job satisfaction and overall well-being. Their research suggested that intrinsic work values, such as a sense of achievement and personal growth, are crucial for enhancing life satisfaction, aligning with our findings that work values mediate the relationship between personal mastery and life satisfaction.

In a related vein, Chang [54] explored the roles of social mastery-approach and social work-avoidance goals in teachers’ psychological adjustment, applying the job demands-resources (JD-R) model. The findings indicated that teachers prioritizing the development of meaningful teacher-student relationships (social mastery-approach goals) experienced greater confidence in their teaching abilities, perceived higher student engagement, and reported more positive teacher-student relationships. These teachers also demonstrated better work engagement and psychological adjustment. Conversely, those focusing on fulfilling minimal interaction requirements (social work-avoidance goals) experienced higher burnout and lower work engagement, job satisfaction, and well-being. Our finding that personal mastery positively impacts life satisfaction aligns with Chang’s emphasis on social mastery-approach goals. Both studies suggest that a proactive, mastery-oriented approach to work—whether through personal mastery in our study or social mastery-approach goals in Chang’s—leads to greater job satisfaction and overall well-being. This correlation highlights the importance of fostering personal efficacy and mastery in enhancing educators’ life satisfaction and psychological adjustment. Furthermore, Chang’s focus on the development of teacher-student relationships can be connected to our study’s emphasis on work values. Teachers with high personal mastery likely value meaningful work, which includes fostering positive relationships with students. This intrinsic work value aligns with the findings that strong work values mediate the relationship between personal mastery and life satisfaction. The development of meaningful relationships (an intrinsic work value) enhances teachers’ engagement and satisfaction, thereby improving their life satisfaction, as supported by both studies.

Further supporting this, Kim and Shin [55] demonstrated in their moderated mediation model that teachers’ motivation and job competence directly impact life satisfaction, with work values acting as significant mediators. This aligns with our finding that work values are key to connecting personal mastery with life satisfaction. Additionally, Sari and Yetkiner [56] explored the intricate relationships between job satisfaction, motivation, and life satisfaction, concluding that intrinsic motivation and job satisfaction are positively linked to life satisfaction, further corroborating our study’s conclusions. Moreover, Leal and Baniel [57] emphasized the role of work commitment and motivation in teachers’ quality of life, illustrating that those with strong personal mastery and commitment to their work report higher life satisfaction. Munda and Gache (2024) also highlighted that work-life balance and motivation are determinants of job satisfaction and commitment, supporting the idea that educators’ intrinsic values significantly contribute to life satisfaction and professional well-being. Finally, Dorji [15] analyzed factors affecting teachers’ motivation and found that motivation and supportive work values are critical for enhancing life satisfaction, echoing the results of our mediation analysis. These additional studies collectively reinforce the importance of work values as mediators in the relationship between personal mastery and life satisfaction, underscoring the role of intrinsic motivation and strong work ethics in fostering teachers’ well-being and job satisfaction.

Competitive excellence and life satisfaction

The examination of competitive excellence (H1b through H4b) revealed different dynamics. Hypothesis 1b, which posited a direct positive association between competitive excellence and life satisfaction, was not supported. The direct effect was insignificant, indicating that competitive excellence does not directly contribute to life satisfaction. However, competitive excellence was positively associated with work values (H2b), with a modest R-squared value of 0.0528, suggesting that competitive excellence explains a small but significant portion of the variance in work values.

Despite the lack of a direct effect, work values were again positively associated with life satisfaction (H3b), and the mediation analysis revealed that work values mediate the relationship between competitive excellence and life satisfaction (H4b). This implies that competitive excellence can enhance life satisfaction indirectly by fostering strong work values, even though it does not have a direct effect.

In contrast to our findings, some studies have presented divergent views on the role of competitive excellence in life satisfaction. Our study found that competitive excellence does not directly enhance life satisfaction but does so indirectly through work values. However, research by Deci and Ryan on self-determination theory suggests that the pursuit of competitive excellence, if driven by extrinsic motivation, can undermine intrinsic motivation and reduce overall well-being [58]. This contrasts with our finding that competitive excellence positively influences work values, which in turn enhances life satisfaction. The discrepancy could be attributed to cultural differences, as our study focuses on Chinese educators, whereas Deci and Ryan’s research was conducted in Western contexts.

Motivation anxiety and its negative effects

The analysis of motivation anxiety (H1c through H4c) painted a starkly different picture. Motivation anxiety was found to be negatively associated with life satisfaction (H1c), which aligns with existing research that highlights the detrimental effects of anxiety on overall well-being. The significant negative association indicates that higher levels of motivation anxiety lead to lower life satisfaction.

However, unlike personal mastery and competitive excellence, motivation anxiety did not have a significant association with work values (H2c). The negligible R-squared value for this relationship indicates that motivation anxiety does not significantly influence work values among Chinese educators.

Despite this, work values remained positively associated with life satisfaction (H3c), consistent with the findings from the other hypotheses. The mediation analysis revealed that work values do not mediate the relationship between motivation anxiety and life satisfaction (H4c). Therefore, while motivation anxiety directly reduces life satisfaction, this effect is not channeled through work values.

Moreover, the negative association between motivation anxiety and life satisfaction observed in our study is supported by existing literature. For example, studies by Lazarus and Folkman and Pekrun et al. have shown that anxiety negatively impacts both job satisfaction and overall life satisfaction [59, 60]. However, our finding that motivation anxiety does not significantly affect work values contradicts some previous research. For instance, a study by Eysenck suggested that anxiety can influence work-related attitudes and values by affecting individuals’ perceptions of their work environment and their engagement levels [61]. This discrepancy might be due to different operational definitions of motivation anxiety or variations in the study populations.

The negative effects of motivation anxiety found in our study can be compared to the impacts of social work-avoidance goals in Chang’s research. Both sets of findings indicate that avoidance-oriented motivations—whether avoiding anxiety or fulfilling only minimal social interaction requirements—lead to negative outcomes such as higher burnout and lower job satisfaction. This similarity reinforces the notion that negative motivational traits and avoidance goals detract from overall well-being and life satisfaction.

Related to theory development, Etchinson [62] posits that individual differences in motivational traits are influenced by the social context. She demonstrated that the social context actively shapes how individuals approach their goals, thereby influencing their motivational orientations. Specifically, she argued that the evaluative nature of the social context leads to predictable changes in motivational orientations. Moreover, the negative impacts of motivation anxiety found in our study are mirrored by the effects of social work-avoidance goals observed by Chang. Both findings suggest that avoidance-oriented motivations, whether driven by anxiety or the desire to fulfill only minimal social interaction requirements, lead to negative outcomes like higher burnout and lower job satisfaction. Etchinson’s theory that the social context can shape these orientations helps explain why a supportive or evaluative environment is crucial in mitigating these negative effects.

Limitations and suggestions for future research

This study has several limitations that should be acknowledged. Firstly, the use of an online self-reported questionnaire may introduce self-selection bias, as only those teachers who are comfortable with technology and have access to the internet were able to participate. This might limit the generalizability of the findings to all Chinese high school English teachers.

Secondly, the data collection method relied on self-reported measures, which can be subject to social desirability bias. Participants might have responded in a manner they believed to be more socially acceptable rather than reflecting their true feelings and experiences. This could affect the accuracy of the data on personal mastery, work values, and life satisfaction.

Thirdly, the cross-sectional design of the study limits the ability to make causal inferences. While associations between variables were identified, it is not possible to determine the directionality or causality of these relationships. Longitudinal studies would be needed to establish causal links and examine changes over time.

Additionally, the sample was composed entirely of Chinese high school English teachers, which may limit the applicability of the findings to other cultural or educational contexts [63]. Differences in educational systems, cultural values, and societal expectations can influence the relationships between personal mastery, work values, and life satisfaction.

Future research should address these limitations by employing a more diverse sampling method to ensure a broader representation of the teaching population. This could include reaching out to teachers through various channels beyond social networks, such as professional organizations and educational institutions, to minimize self-selection bias.

To reduce the impact of social desirability bias, future studies could incorporate a combination of self-reported measures and objective assessments, such as peer evaluations or administrative data on teacher performance and student outcomes. This approach would provide a more comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing teachers’ life satisfaction.

Longitudinal studies are recommended to explore the causal relationships between personal mastery, work values, and life satisfaction. Tracking changes over time would help identify the long-term effects of professional development initiatives and other interventions aimed at enhancing teachers’ well-being.

Expanding the research to include teachers from different cultural and educational contexts would provide valuable insights into how these relationships may vary across different settings [64]. Comparative studies involving teachers from various countries and educational systems could highlight cultural influences and identify universal versus context-specific factors affecting teacher satisfaction [65].

Finally, future research should consider additional variables that may influence the relationships examined in this study. Factors such as school climate, administrative support, and teacher autonomy could be integrated into the research model to provide a more nuanced understanding of the dynamics affecting teachers’ professional and personal well-being.

Theoretical implications

The findings of this study contribute to the existing body of literature on motivation and work values by reinforcing and extending theoretical models related to educators’ motivation and life satisfaction. This research supports and builds upon Kanfer and colleagues’ framework [66], emphasizing the distinction between stable motivational traits and dynamic motivational skills. By demonstrating the significant role of personal mastery and its mediation through work values, the study underscores the importance of integrating motivational traits into models of job satisfaction and well-being. The study also enriches the theoretical understanding of how intrinsic work values function as mediators between motivational traits and life satisfaction. Khindri and Tanwar [67] explored the role of trait competitiveness and life satisfaction, highlighting that hard work can moderate the relationship between these traits and overall life satisfaction. This supports our findings that intrinsic factors such as personal mastery are key contributors to life satisfaction, further emphasizing the need to incorporate personal effort and values into theoretical frameworks. Furthermore, Chen et al. [68] discussed how personality traits moderate the impact of motivational potential on job satisfaction. Their findings align with our study’s emphasis on personal mastery as a trait that influences life satisfaction through work values, reinforcing the idea that personality-driven motivators play a significant role in job satisfaction.

The study also contributes to theories such as the job demands-resources (JD-R) model, demonstrating how personal mastery (a personal resource) contributes to work engagement and life satisfaction. This aligns with Gupta and Singh’s [69] examination of quality of work life and motivational theories, which supports the integration of intrinsic motivation and work values as essential components for understanding job satisfaction and well-being in professional settings. Additionally, Peters et al. [70] emphasized the importance of work-related values and work control in career satisfaction among professionals, reinforcing our finding that work values mediate the relationship between motivational traits and job satisfaction. This further suggests that fostering positive work values and autonomy in professional settings can enhance career satisfaction and overall life contentment. These theoretical implications highlight that personal mastery should be viewed not only as an isolated motivational trait but as a critical factor that interacts with work values to enhance educators’ job satisfaction and life satisfaction. Integrating these insights and supporting evidence into motivational models can provide a more nuanced understanding of how these dynamics contribute to professional and personal fulfillment in educational contexts.

Suggestions for teachers’ professional development

Based on the comprehensive findings from this study and the integration of related research, several recommendations can be made to enhance teachers’ professional development, aiming to improve their work engagement, job satisfaction, and overall life satisfaction.

Professional development programs should prioritize the enhancement of personal mastery among teachers. This can be achieved through workshops and training sessions focused on building teachers’ skills in managing classroom challenges and adapting to changing educational demands. By fostering a sense of control and efficacy in their professional roles, teachers are more likely to experience higher job satisfaction and well-being. Encouraging reflective practices and providing opportunities for teachers to set and achieve personal goals can further strengthen their sense of personal mastery.

Professional development initiatives should include training on effective communication, conflict resolution, and strategies for creating inclusive and supportive classroom environments. Mentorship programs that pair experienced teachers with novices can provide additional support and guidance in developing these crucial skills. By fostering strong teacher-student relationships, teachers can enhance their work engagement and psychological adjustment, as supported by our study.

Our study found that work values play a significant role in mediating the relationship between personal mastery and life satisfaction. Professional development should focus on reinforcing intrinsic work values among teachers, such as the sense of achievement and personal growth. Activities that highlight the importance of meaningful work, student-centered teaching practices, and collaborative projects can help teachers find greater satisfaction in their roles. Providing opportunities for teachers to engage in professional learning communities and participate in school decision-making processes can enhance their sense of value and contribution to the educational community. Recognizing and celebrating teachers’ achievements can further reinforce positive work values and job satisfaction.

To mitigate the negative effects of motivation anxiety, professional development programs should include components that address stress management and mental health. Workshops on mindfulness, resilience building, and work-life balance can help teachers manage anxiety and reduce burnout. Providing access to counseling services and creating a supportive school culture where teachers feel comfortable seeking help can also alleviate anxiety and promote well-being. The negative impacts of motivation anxiety, as observed in our study, underscore the need for targeted interventions in this area.

Creating a supportive and evaluative environment is crucial for shaping positive motivational orientations. Professional development programs should foster a collaborative and collegial atmosphere where teachers feel valued and supported. Encouraging peer observation, feedback, and constructive dialogue can help create an evaluative culture that promotes continuous improvement. Schools should implement policies that recognize and reward teachers’ efforts and contributions, thereby enhancing their motivation and job satisfaction.

Professional development programs should aim to balance job demands with adequate resources. Ensuring that teachers have access to necessary materials, administrative support, and professional growth opportunities can help mitigate the stress associated with job demands. Providing sufficient planning time, reducing administrative burdens, and promoting a healthy work-life balance are essential strategies for preventing burnout and enhancing work engagement.

By implementing these strategies, schools can create an environment that supports teachers’ professional development and well-being. Emphasizing personal mastery, fostering positive relationships, enhancing work values, addressing motivation anxiety, leveraging social context, and balancing job demands with resources can collectively contribute to higher life satisfaction and more effective teaching practices.

Practical implications

The findings of this study have several important practical implications for educational institutions, administrators, and policymakers aiming to enhance teacher satisfaction and overall professional well-being. By understanding the significant role of personal mastery and work values in influencing life satisfaction, targeted strategies can be developed to improve job satisfaction and teacher retention. Firstly, schools can foster a culture that supports personal mastery and intrinsic motivation through structured professional development programs and mentorship opportunities. Fernandez-Aviles et al. [71] demonstrated that motivational traits could be objectively measured and influenced using innovative tools, suggesting that schools might leverage technology and gamified learning environments to nurture these traits among educators.

Additionally, creating supportive environments that align with intrinsic and extrinsic work values is crucial. Chan et al. [72] highlighted the connection between personality traits and self-determination, suggesting that fostering a sense of autonomy and competence can improve educators’ job satisfaction and reduce stress. Practical steps could include allowing teachers more control over their lesson planning and classroom management, which can align with their values and contribute to greater life satisfaction. Moreover, the application of frameworks such as the Competing Values Framework, as examined by Grabowski et al. [73], can guide schools in balancing competing demands and fostering an organizational culture that values both productivity and personal fulfillment. This balance can help teachers maintain work engagement and satisfaction by aligning organizational practices with individual work values. In conclusion, by emphasizing personal mastery and fostering environments that align with teachers’ intrinsic and extrinsic work values, schools can significantly improve teacher satisfaction, well-being, and performance. Such practices not only benefit educators but also contribute to the overall effectiveness and stability of educational institutions.

Conclusion

Overall, the study provides valuable insights into how different motivational traits and values impact the professional and personal lives of Chinese educators. Personal mastery emerges as a critical factor, directly and indirectly enhancing life satisfaction through its positive influence on work values. Competitive excellence contributes to life satisfaction indirectly, mediated by work values, while motivation anxiety directly undermines life satisfaction without significant mediation by work values. These findings underscore the importance of fostering personal mastery and strong work values in educational environments to enhance life satisfaction among educators.

Abbreviations

ANOVA

Analysis of Variance

CF

Confidence Interval

CVF

Competing Values Framework

EFL

English as a Foreign Language

JD-R

Job Demands–Resources

LLCI

Lower Level Confidence Interval

MTQ

Motivational Trait Questionnaire

SD

Standard Deviation

SE

Standard Error

SPSS

Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

SWLS

Satisfaction with Life Scale

ULCI

Upper Level Confidence Interval

Authors’ contributions

AQ and GH have made substantial contributions to the conception and design of the work; contributed to the acquisition, analysis, and interpretation of data; and have drafted the work and substantively revised it. Both authors have approved the submitted version and agreed both to be personally accountable for the author’s own contributions.

Funding

This work was supported by the National Social Science Fund Project, named “Research on the Innovative Teacher-Student Interaction Model Enhanced by Generative Artificial Intelligence in Chinese Higher Foreign Language Education”(NO.24BYY125).

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the Zhejiang Gongshang University, but restrictions apply to the availability of these data, which were used under license for the current study and so are not publicly available. The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the School of Foreign Languages at Zhejiang Gongshang University, with Approval ID: -ZJGSU-SFL-23.11. The study was conducted in accordance with the Helsinki Declaration and local regulations, ensuring ethical standards were maintained throughout the research process. At the beginning of the questionnaire, participants were presented with three informed consent questions to confirm their voluntary participation. The content of the informed consent included the following information: Purpose of the Study (participants were informed that the study aimed to examine the relationships between personal mastery, work values, and life satisfaction among Chinese high school English teachers); Confidentiality (participants were assured that their responses would be kept confidential and used solely for research purposes. Data would be anonymized to protect their identities); Voluntary Participation (participants were informed that their participation was entirely voluntary and that they could withdraw from the study at any time without any negative consequences).

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.