Cyberbullying, its associated factors, and coping mechanisms among female health science students in Hawassa City, Sidama, Ethiopia, 2025

Abstract

Background

Cyberbullying has emerged as a concern in recent years, especially due to the widespread use of smartphones. Gaining insight into these dynamics is essential for creating effective interventions to support those affected and foster a safer digital environment in academic settings. This issue is particularly impactful among female university students, who are especially vulnerable to such harassment. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the prevalence of cyberbullying, its contributing factors, and coping strategies among female health science students in Hawassa City.

Methods

A cross-sectional study design was conducted among 422 Female Health Science students in Hawassa City from April 23, 2025, to June 02, 2025. Simple random sampling was used to select participants. The data was analyzed by SPSS version 26. Binary and multivariable logistic regression analyses were used to identify factors associated with cyberbullying. P-value < 0.05 with 95% CI was considered to declare association.

Results

The finding of this study shows that overall, 54.8% of students experience cyberbullying, and verbal or written forms were the most frequently reported by the participants. Among those who experienced cyberbullying, the most common coping strategies were seeking support from close contacts and ignoring the situation, with 79.6% and 71.6% of participants, respectively, employing these methods. Attending in private institution (AOR = 2.28, 95% CI:1.35–3.83), being a first-year student (AOR = 2.22, 95% CI:1.21–4.05), using internet for non-academic purpose (AOR = 3.42, 95% CI:1.18–9.92) and spending three to five hours (AOR = 2.33, 95% CI:1.39–3.91) and more than six hours (AOR = 3.51, 95% CI:1.82–6.75) daily on internet were factors significantly associated with cyberbullying.

Conclusion

More than half of the students in this study experienced cyberbullying, highlighting the importance of targeted awareness and digital literacy programs, particularly for first-year students, to promote purposeful internet use and address the issue.

Background

Cyberbullying is defined as “intentional harmful behavior carried out by a group or individuals, repeated over time, using modern digital technology to target a victim who is unable to defend themselves” [1]. It is also referred to as internet harassment, online aggression, and electronic aggression [2]. This form of bullying has become a widespread concern in recent years, as smartphones are now accessible to nearly everyone, making it easier to carry out such harassment [3].

Cyberbullying represents one of the most concerning aspects of advancing digital society [4]. In contrast to traditional bullying, victims of cyberbullying can be subjected to harassment at any time of day or night, often spanning extensive geographical distances [5]. The perpetrators usually maintain anonymity, and the harmful content they spread through digital platforms is difficult to remove, which exacerbates the prevalence and persistence of this issue [3, 5, 6].

A survey on internet usage found that 95% of young adults between 18 and 29 years old were regular internet users, spending several hours online, which may increase their vulnerability to cyberbullying [4, 7]. University students in particular face cyberbullying as they adapt to new environments and unfamiliar social groups, potentially raising their risk of being bullied. Moreover, their independence from parental supervision leads to more time spent online, further elevating their cyberbullying risk [8, 9]. Furthermore, Studies have indicated that females are more often victims of cyberbullying compared to males, and they typically experience heightened emotional distress, anxiety, and social isolation as a consequence. This highlights the importance of evaluating gender-specific experiences of cyberbullying [10, 11].

Cyberbullying is a recent topic of research interest, expanding beyond its initial focus on adolescents to include adults, such as college students, the general population, and office workers [12]. In 2019, 54.3% of youth aged over nineteen experienced bullying both in educational settings and online, with one-fifth of these incidents occurring on social media platforms [13]. A meta-analysis encompassing 80 studies estimated that traditional bullying victimization is approximately 36%, while the prevalence of cyberbullying victimization is around 15% [14].

Literature on cyberbullying among university students from Nepal and Malaysia reveals that 34.7% and 66% of students, respectively, have experienced cyberbullying, with harmful or threatening text messages being the most prevalent form [4, 15]. Similarly, a study from Egypt indicates that 27.3% of nursing students and 27.5% of non-nursing students reported experiencing online harassment in the previous year [16]. Female university students are particularly susceptible to cyberbullying at a recognizable rate [15, 16].

In recent years, studies have shown that cyberbullying can have severe consequences on both physical and mental health, including increased somatic issues, anxiety, depression, and suicidal tendencies [17, 18]. Furthermore, cyberbullying leads to heartbreak, embarrassment, and marginalization [19, 20]. Among university students who are cyberbullied, 61.5% experienced academic problems such as school absenteeism and poor grades, 57.7% encountered psychological issues, and 48.1% faced social difficulties [4].

Addressing cyberbullying requires comprehensive approaches involving the collaboration of mental health professionals, educators, and digital experts. Prevention and intervention tools should be developed, implemented, evaluated, and integrated to effectively combat cyberbullying [21]. Various interventions and strategies have been developed worldwide to tackle this issue. These include incorporating short-term and ongoing training into the curriculum to keep students informed about cyberbullying and increase their awareness [8]. Moreover, strategies emphasizing educational collaboration among schools and families, as well as technology-based practices used for cyberbullying prevention [21].

In Ethiopia, various legal frameworks are in place to prevent and tackle cyberbullying and similar online misconduct. Important legislations like the Civil Code, Criminal Code, Hate Speech and Disinformation Prevention and Suppression Proclamation, and the Computer Crime Proclamation No. 958/2016 include measures to combat harmful online activities [22]. Specifically, the Computer Crime Proclamation serves as a significant legal framework for addressing cyberbullying and online harassment, with provisions that criminalize acts such as intimidation, threats, defamation, and the unauthorized sharing of explicit or private content via computer systems [23].

Despite these legal protections, research by Information Resilience has found that women in Ethiopia face targeted abuse and hate speech on platforms such as Telegram, Facebook, and X. The report indicates that over 78% of women interviewed reported experiencing fear or anxiety after encountering online abuse. The study identified more than 2,000 hateful words used against women in English and three Ethiopian languages: Amharic, Tigrigna, and Afan Oromo [24]. Although these studies and legal measures have highlighted the prevalence and nature of cyberbullying in Ethiopia, there is still a limited understanding of its contributing factors and the coping strategies used by victims, especially among vulnerable groups like female students. This study adds new insights to the existing literature by investigating the prevalence of cyberbullying, identifying key factors linked to it, and exploring the coping mechanisms adopted by female students in Ethiopia.

Methods

Study area and period

The study was conducted in academic institutions offering Health Science programs in Hawassa City from April 23, 2025, to June 2, 2025.

Hawassa is located 275 km from Addis Ababa, the capital city of Ethiopia, and serves as the capital of the Sidama region. The city is home to two government institutions and three private institutions that offer health science programs.

Study design and population

A Cross- Sectional Study design was conducted among female health science students of Hawassa City. Randomly selected female undergraduate students were included in the study, and female Master’s degree students in the institution were excluded.

Sample size and sampling procedure

The sample size was calculated by using Epi-Info version 7 software, considering the following assumptions: the proportion of cyberbullying 50%, a 95% confidence interval with a 5% margin of error. Based on these assumptions, the sample size becomes 384, and by considering a non-response rate of 10%, the final sample size was 422.

The study was conducted in all Health Science institutions found in Hawassa city, these are Hawassa University, Pharma University, Rift Valley University, Yanet Health Science College, and Hawassa Health Science College. Initially, a comprehensive list of all female students at each institution was obtained from the registrar’s office. Subsequently, the sample size (422) was proportionally allocated to each institution based on the number of female students enrolled. Finally, a simple random sampling method, utilizing a computer-generated number system, was employed to select study participants from each college. In addition, one female data collector was selected and trained for each institution. These data collectors explained the purpose of the study, potential risks, confidentiality measures, and benefits to the participants, and obtained informed consent before data collection. The data were then collected in digital form using the data collectors’ mobile phones.

Data collection tools and procedures

The data is collected in a structured, pretested questionnaire and has four parts: sociodemographic characteristics, pattern of internet utilization, cyberbullying, and coping mechanisms of cyberbullying components. The sociodemographic section included questions about age, high school residence, year of study, and current institution type. The section on internet use covered daily internet usage duration, purpose of internet use, training related to internet use, and social media utilization. The cyberbullying was measured in the Cyberbullying Victimization Scale. It consists of 27 items divided into three subscales of verbal/written victimization, visual/sexual victimization, and social exclusion victimization. Respondents are asked to indicate how often they have been cyberbullied by others during the past year. Each item was rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = not at all to 5 = very often. The verbal/written victimization subscale includes 10 Likert-scale items, the visual/sexual victimization subscale also consists of 10 items, and the social exclusion victimization subscale comprises 7 Likert-scale items [25]. The coping mechanisms for cyberbullying were assessed using the Coping with Cyberbullying Questionnaire, a 35-item instrument with responses on a 5-point Likert scale. The questionnaire includes seven subcomponents: Distal Advice (5 items), Close Support (5 items), Retaliation (4 items), Assertiveness (5 items), Active Ignoring (5 items), Helplessness (5 items), and Technical Coping (6 items) [26]. Cronbach’s alpha was used to assess the reliability of the tools. The Cronbach’s alpha values were 0.757 for the cyberbullying tool and 0.912 for the coping mechanisms of the cyberbullying tool, indicating acceptable reliability.

Five data collectors and two supervisors were involved in the data collection process, and an explanation was given to all respondents on the purpose and importance of their involvement.

Operational definition

Cyberbullying

Cyberbullying is a form of bullying or harassment carried out online with the intent to harm others, mainly using social media sites. It will be assessed by 27 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = not at all to 5 = very often. The outcome variable is categorized as yes for cyberbullying if a participant answers rarely, sometimes, often, or very often for any of the outcome measurement questions. Similarly, for each subcomponent (verbal/written victimization, visual/sexual victimization, and social exclusion victimization). participants who responded rarely, sometimes, often, or very often were categorized as experiencing cyberbullying within that specific component [10, 25, 27, 28].

Data quality control

The questionnaire was initially developed in English and then translated into Amharic. To ensure consistency and accuracy, it was subsequently back-translated into English by a team of experts fluent in both Amharic and English. To determine the clarity and understandability of the data collection instrument, a pretest was conducted on 42 students (10% of the sample size).

Data processing and analysis

The collected data were analyzed in SPSS version 26 statistical package software. Summary statistics, such as percentages and frequencies, were computed, and tables and graphical techniques were utilized. Binary and multivariable logistic regression analyses were used to identify associated factors, and adjusted odds ratio with 95% Confidence intervals was used to express the associated factors. The level of statistical significance was declared at a p-value < 0.05. Hosmer and Lemeshow’s model of fitness test was used to indicate the goodness of the final model, and model fitness is assured with the P value of 0.134. The multicollinearity assumption was checked using the Variance Inflation Factor, and all the values were below five, indicating the absence of multicollinearity.

Result

Sociodemographic characteristics of participants

A total of 409 participants were included in this study, resulting in a response rate of 96.46%. The participants’ ages ranged from 18 to 35 years, with a mean age of 21.94 years (SD ± 2.76). Of the total study participants, 330 (80.7%) completed their high school education in urban areas, and 259 (63.3%) of them currently attend their education in government institutions (Table 1).

Table 1.

Characteristics of the study participants in Hawassa City health science colleges, Ethiopia, 2025 (n = 409)

Variable	Category	Frequency	percent
Age	≤ 20	155	37.9
	21–25	201	49.1
	≥ 26	53	13.0
Institution	Government	259	63.3
	Private	150	36.7
Year of study	First year	66	16.1
	Second year & above	343	83.9
Level of study	Diploma	75	18.3
	Degree	334	81.7
Aim of internet utilization	Academic purpose	25	6.1
	Both Academic & Non -Academic	326	79.7
	Non -Academic	58	14.2
Daily internet usage duration	≤ Two hours	178	43.5
	Three to five hours	157	38.4
	≥ Six hours	74	18.1
Training on internet utilization	Yes	17	4.2
	No	392	95.8

Internet utilization-related characteristics of participants

The average duration of internet usage per day ranged from one to nine hours, with a mean duration of 3.4 hours (SD ± 1.85). Additionally, 392 (95.8%) of participants hadn’t received any training on how to use the internet (Table 1). Out of the total participants, 347 (84.8%) had utilized more than one social media platform. The most commonly used social media platforms were Telegram, TikTok, Facebook, and Instagram, with 393 (96.1%), 233 (57%), 200 (48.9%), and 145 (35.5%) of participants utilizing them, respectively (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1.

Pattern of social media utilization of students in Hawassa city health science colleges, Ethiopia, 2025

Cyberbullying

In this study, the magnitude of cyberbullying was found to be 224 (54.8%) (95% CI: 49.9–59.7). Verbal or written bullying was the most prevalent form, affecting 154 (37.7%) participants, followed by social exclusion bullying, which impacted 146 (35.7%) participants, and visual or sexual bullying, affecting 139 (34%) participants (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2.

Components of cyber bullying in Hawassa city health science colleges, Ethiopia, 2025

Coping mechanisms of cyberbullying

Among those who experienced cyberbullying, the most frequently used coping strategies were seeking close support and actively ignoring the situation, with frequencies of 79.6% and 71.6%, respectively. In contrast, retaliation and feelings of helplessness or self-blame were the least utilized coping mechanisms, reported at 34.9% and 34.1% of participants. Within the close support category, discussing the situation with friends and spending time with them were the most utilized approaches, at 86.6% and 84.4%, respectively. As for active ignoring, the most common strategies were avoiding contact with the bully and ignoring messages, with 91.5% and 71.4% of participants using these methods (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3.

Coping Mechanisms of cyber bullying in Hawassa city health science colleges, Ethiopia, 2025

Factors associated with cyberbullying

In the multivariable logistic regression analysis, the type of educational institution, year of study, aim of internet utilization, and duration of daily internet usage were identified as statistically significant variables associated with cyberbullying.

Students attending private institutions had 2.3 times higher odds of experiencing cyberbullying compared to those attending government institutions (AOR = 2.28, 95% CI:1.35–3.83). First-year students had 2.2 times higher odds of encountering cyberbullying compared to students in their second year or above (AOR = 2.22, 95% CI:1.21–4.05).

Furthermore, the odds of experiencing cyberbullying were 3.4 times higher among students who use the internet only for non-academic purposes compared to those who use it for academic purposes (AOR = 3.42, 95% CI:1.18–9.92). Students who used the internet for three to five hours per day and more than six hours per day had 2.3 times (AOR = 2.33, 95% CI: 1.39–3.91) and 3.5 times (AOR = 3.51, 95% CI: 1.82–6.75) higher odds of experiencing cyberbullying, respectively, compared to those who used the internet for less than two hours per day (Table 2).

Table 2.

Factors associated with cyber bullying in Hawassa City health science colleges, Ethiopia,2025

Variable	Category	Cyberbullying		COR (95% CI)	AOR (95% CI)	P-value
		Yes	No
Age	≤ 20	69	86	0.62(0.33–1.15)	0.68(0.33–1.39)	0.296
	21–25	125	76	1.26(0.68–2.33)	1.25(0.64–2.43)	0.514
	≥ 26	30	23	1	1
Residence	Rural	46	33	1.19(0.724–1.956)	1.65(0.91–2.99)	0.100
	Urban	178	152	1	1
Educational Institution	Private	98	52	1.99(1.31–3.01)	2.28(1.35–3.83)	0.002*
	Government	126	133	1	1
Level of study	Diploma	33	42	0.59(0.36–0.98)	0.77(0.39–1.47)	0.424
	Degree	191	143	1	1
Year of study	First year	41	25	1.43(0.84–2.46)	2.22(1.21–4.05)	0.010*
	Second year & above	183	160	1	1
Aim of internet utilization	Academic & Non-academic	175	151	2.06(0.89–4.79)	1.96(0.77–4.96)	0.160
	Non-Academic	40	18	3.95(1.47–10.61)	3.42(1.18–9.92)	0.024*
	Academic	9	16	1	1
Daily internet usage duration	≤ Two hours	85	93	1	1
	Three to five hours	91	66	1.51(0.97–2.32)	2.33(1.39–3.91)	0.001*
	≥ Six hours	48	26	2.02(1.15–3.54)	3.51(1.82–6.75)	< 0.001*
Training on internet utilization	No	220	172	4.16(1.33–12.98)	3.02(0.86–10.18)	0.075
	Yes	4	13	1	1

* = p < 0.05: statistically significant, and 1 = reference group

Discussion

The findings of this study reveal that 54.8% (95% CI: 49.9–59.7) of participants have encountered cyberbullying. This finding is significantly higher than the rates observed in studies of college students from Egypt, Nepal, India, and Saudi Arabia, where the prevalence of cyberbullying ranges from 20.7% to 34.7% [16, 29–31]. The high prevalence may be attributed to a combination of interconnected behavioral and social factors. The high growth in internet and smartphone access among young adults, coupled with insufficient digital literacy, heightens their vulnerability to cyberbullying. Moreover, many young Ethiopian adults exhibit problematic internet usage patterns, often spending extended hours online and using social media mainly for entertainment, which further exposes them to cyberbullying [32, 33]. Furthermore. Additionally, the issue is worsened by the low levels of communication between parents and adolescents in Ethiopia, as victims frequently hesitate or are unable to report cyberbullying incidents or seek help. This absence of guidance and oversight enables perpetrators to persist in their abusive actions without consequence [34] [32, 33]. Furthermore, the manifestation of cyberbullying can vary across countries, influenced by differences in internet access and usage patterns [35].

The study also indicates that verbal or written bullying is the most common form of cyberbullying. This observation aligns with studies from Jordan and Nepal, which also identify verbal or written bullying as the most prevalent [27, 33, 36]. This suggests that a significant number of students’ experience bullying through harmful, threatening, or insulting messages.

Regarding cyberbullying coping mechanisms, seeking close support (talking to friends about the situation and spending time with them) and active ignoring (avoiding contact and ignoring messages) were the most common strategies among participants. Previous studies have similarly indicated that discussing the situation with friends, as well as blocking or ignoring the bully, are the most common coping strategies reported by victims of cyberbullying [29, 37].

Studies examining the effectiveness of various coping strategies underscore the critical role of social support as a protective measure for cyberbullying. Social support strategies are identified as the most effective methods for coping with cyberbullying, as they correlate with reduced depressive symptoms and enhanced emotional health [38, 39]. Conversely, avoidant coping mechanisms, such as trying to ignore the bully, are less effective. Such avoidance mechanisms may not only fail to address the issue but can also worsen the psychological impact of cyberbullying, leading to a higher risk of ongoing victimization and emotional distress [38, 40]. The current study found that the type of educational institution, year of study, aim of internet utilization, and duration of daily internet usage were factors associated with cyberbullying.

Participants who attended private institutions were more likely to have experienced cyberbullying. The finding is consistent with a study from Nepal, which indicates a greater prevalence of cyberbullying in private educational institutions [36]. This could be due to the greater access to high-speed internet among private institution students, which increases their online presence and vulnerability to cyberbullying. Furthermore, having fewer regulatory mechanisms in private institutions, where many students reside off-campus in rented accommodations, may contribute to their exposure to cyberbullying.

First-year students were found to be at a higher risk of cyberbullying compared to those in their second year or beyond. This observation is supported by previous research indicating that first-year students are more susceptible to cyberbullying [41]. The reason could be that first-year students are often away from parental support for the first time and are eager to explore new experiences, form college friendships, and share personal information, which may increase their risk of cyberbullying [41, 42].

In this study, students who used the internet for non-academic purposes were more likely to experience cyberbullying than those who used it for academic reasons. This may be because students using the internet for non-academic purposes often engage with various social media platforms that allow harmful and aggressive content, and they may share personal information like ideas and photos, making them vulnerable to cyberbullying [43, 44].

Furthermore, students with daily internet usage of three to five hours and more than six hours were more likely to experience cyberbullying, compared to those with less than two hours of internet usage. Previous studies also suggest that increased daily internet usage is associated with a higher likelihood of experiencing cyberbullying [16, 45]. This could be because extended internet use increases exposure to social media platforms where cyberbullying is common. Additionally, spending more time online can lead to reduced privacy and more frequent interactions with strangers, heightening the risk of cyberbullying [46, 47].

Strengths and limitations of the study

This study addresses the emerging issue of cyberbullying among the most at-risk group, female students, using a standardized questionnaire. A limitation of the study is that it assesses the level of cyberbullying only quantitatively, which may not fully capture the real-life experiences of the victims. Furthermore, the study did not account for participants’ previous bullying experiences or mental health status, both of which could potentially influence the observed associations and overall findings.

Conclusion

The results of this study indicate that over half of the students encounter cyberbullying, with verbal and written forms being the most prevalent. Key factors that significantly contribute to cyberbullying include attending a private institution, being a first-year student, using the internet solely for non-academic purposes, and spending extended hours online daily. These results underscore the necessity for targeted awareness programs and digital literacy initiatives in private educational settings, particularly focusing on new students and encouraging balanced and purposeful internet use.

Authors’ contributions

TGT conceived and designed the research and performed the analysis, and SSK, DED and GAA prepared the draft of the manuscript and participated in data analysis. All the authors read and approved the final manuscript for publication.

Funding

Dasesa Research provided financial and administrative support for this study. The funding organization has no role in the study design, data collection, data analysis, or manuscript development.

Data availability

All the data used for analysis are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

This study was conducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Ethical clearance letter was obtained from the Institutional Review Board of Hawassa University, College of Medicine and Health Sciences (reference no: IRB/411/16). A letter of permission to conduct the study was obtained from each institution. Written and signed consent was obtained from each participant. Study participants were informed about their right to withdraw at any stage of the study. Confidentiality and anonymity will be ensured throughout the process of the study.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.