Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Food Chemistry: X logoLink to Food Chemistry: X
. 2025 Dec 8;33:103390. doi: 10.1016/j.fochx.2025.103390

Multi-dimensional analysis of quality differences among four cultivars of bamboo shoots

Min Zhang a,c,1, Lin Chen a,c,1, Anhua Deng a,c, Liu Yang a,c, Hongling Li a,c, Shuguang Wang b, Fang Li a,c, Huan Kan a,c, Yun Liu a,c,⁎, Changwei Cao a,c,⁎
PMCID: PMC12765089  PMID: 41492506

Abstract

The quality differences and underlying reasons of 4 bamboo shoots (dendrocalamus brandisii, dendrocalamus latiflorus, pleioblastus amarus, and phyllostachys violascens) were systematically analyzed. Results showed that there were significant differences in nutritional content, edibility, color, and hardness among 4 bamboo shoots, with dendrocalamus brandisii having highest overall acceptance. HS-SPME-GC–MS identified 43 volatile flavor compounds from the 4 bamboo shoots, with 8 compounds being the primary cause of the flavor differences of 4 bamboo shoots. LC–MS/MS identified 403 non-volatile taste metabolites from the 4 bamboo shoots, with 259 metabolites showing significant differences, and most of these metabolites were found to have potential disease-preventive effects. Further analysis revealed that these differential metabolites were mainly involved in the metabolism of amino acids, carbohydrates, and fatty acids, indicating that the differences in amino acids, fats, carbohydrates, fibers, and bitter compounds might be the main reasons for the quality differences among 4 bamboo shoots.

Keywords: Bamboo shoot, Quality evaluation, HS-SPME-GC–MS, LC–MS/MS, Characteristic flavor compounds, Metabolic pathway

Highlights

  • •

    Traditional qualities of the 4 bamboo shoots differences significantly.

  • •

    8 volatile flavor components are the main reasons for the flavor differences.

  • •

    Non-volatile taste differences mainly involve amino acid, lipid, and carbohydrate.

  • •

    Amino acid, fat, carbs, fiber, and bitterness components cause quality difference.

1. Introduction

Bamboo is a fast-growing herb of the subfamily bambusoideae in the perennial poaceae family and is one of the world's most abundant forest resources (Jiang et al., 2024). Bamboo shoots are the buds of bamboo and are highly valued for their flavorful, nutritious, low-fat, and healthy properties, that they are known as the “king of forest vegetables” (Wang, Wu, Zhang, Liu, et al., 2024). They have become an important part of the Asian diets, particularly in India, China, Japan and Southeast Asia (Niyogi et al., 2025). In addition to their edibility, bamboo shoots are also rich in bioactive compounds including dietary fiber, phytosterols, polyphenols, and polysaccharides. These components exhibit antioxidant, lipid-lowering, prebiotic, anti-diabetic, and antimicrobial properties. They contribute to improved digestion, reduced hypertension, and the potential prevention of cancer and cardiovascular diseases (Ma et al., 2024; Zhang et al., 2024). Bamboo shoots come in a wide variety of species, although previous studies have shown that there are significant differences in morphology, size, flavor, and nutrient content between different cultivars of bamboo shoots (Wang et al., 2020; Fan et al., 2023). However, there has been a lack of sustained efforts to systematically evaluate the quality of bamboo shoots and to analyze the causes of quality differences in depth. Therefore, systematically analyzing the quality differences among various cultivars of bamboo shoots and revealing the causes and intrinsic connections of these quality differences is of vital importance for enhancing the quality and market competitiveness of bamboo shoots as well as for their deep processing and utilization.

The quality of bamboo shoots has been an important research topic in food science, bamboo biology, ecology, and cultivation, and is influenced by multiple factors such as bamboo cultivars, cultivation practices, growth stages, and environmental conditions (He, Cao, et al., 2024; Wang et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2020). With the growing market demand for high-quality bamboo shoots, selecting superior bamboo shoot cultivars and enhancing or preserving their quality has become a key goal in bamboo forest management, as well as a crucial strategy for boosting the economic value of bamboo forests. Previous studies have shown that carbohydrate metabolism is the key cause of postharvest quality changes in phyllostachys edulis bamboo shoots (Li et al., 2022). The metabolism of sugar and organic acids influences the palatability of phyllostachys violascens shoots with different culm sheath colors coverage, and culm sheath colors are closely related to metabolites affecting flavor and texture (Fan, Guo, & Chen, 2024). He, Cao, et al. (2024) showed that the palatability and metabolites of bambusa oldhamii shoots differed significantly at different growth stages. Among different cultivars, only Fan et al. (2023) compared and found significant differences in the nutritional composition and flavor quality of both bamboo shoot diaphragm and flesh of phyllostachys edulis shoots and phyllostachys violascens shoots. The other studies on bamboo shoots are mostly on the active ingredients of bamboo shoots (Dong et al., 2023) and post-harvest preservation techniques (Fan, Shen, et al., 2024). Systematic evaluation of the quality of bamboo shoots of different cultivars is still insufficient.

Plant metabolomics is a method that employs techniques such as liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC–MS), gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and high-resolution mass spectrometry (HR–MS) to comprehensively research the small molecule metabolites present in plant tissues or cells (Manickam et al., 2023). Recently, metabolome-related studies in bamboo shoots have been increasing. For example, He, Jian, et al., 2024 investigated the changes in volatile organic compounds during the fermentation of Guangxi bamboo shoot using GC–MS; The taste differences in pickled phyllostachys purpurea during fermentation process were system analyzed by Wei et al. (2025) using LC–MS; Transcriptomics and LC–MS were jointly used to investigate the regulatory mechanism of postharvest cryopreservation to inhibit lignification and the relationship between sheath color and palatability of phyllostachys violascens shoots (Fan, Guo, & Chen, 2024; Hou et al., 2022). As a refreshing and delicious ingredient, the flavor of fresh bamboo shoots has been overlooked, leading to a lack of research utilizing GC–MS and LC–MS systems to compare quality variations among fresh bamboo shoots. To a certain extent, this has limited the market value of bamboo shoots and their further processing utilization.

Therefore, this study combined traditional quality assessment with HS-SPME-GC–MS and LC–MS/MS non-targeted metabolomics techniques to systematically compare the quality differences among dendrocalamus brandisii, dendrocalamus latiflorus, pleioblastus amarus, and phyllostachys violascens shoots, and analyzes the material basis underlying these differences. This study aims to provide a theoretical basis for variety breeding, deep processing, and research on functional bioactive compounds in bamboo shoots.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Materials and chemicals

Fresh dendrocalamus brandisii (DB) were harvested from Puer (Yunnan), China. Fresh dendrocalamus latiflorus (DL), pleioblastus amarus (PA), and phyllostachys violascens (PV) were purchased from Guangzhou (Guangdong), Honghe (Yunnan), and Luzhou (Sichuan), China, respectively. Bamboo shoots that have emerged from the soil to a height of 5–10 cm are completely dug out, with 30 shoots collected per variety. From the 30 bamboo shoots collected per variety, 10 shoots of similar length and diameter were selected for experimental analysis. The shoots of DB, DL and PA are harvested in spring and summer, whereas the shoots of PV are harvested in spring and autumn. All chemicals used in this study were of analytical grade.

2.2. Sample processing

The fresh bamboo shoots were shelled and the highly lignified tissues were removed. Then, the shoots were washed repeatedly with distilled water to remove impurities and dirt from the surface. After draining the surface moisture, cut the middle part of the bamboo shoot, which is approximately 5 cm long, lengthwise into 2 × 2 × 2 cm cubes. Mix the cubes of each type of bamboo shoot thoroughly and divide them into 2 groups. One group was ground and stored at–80 °C for preservation, and the other group was dried in an oven at 60 °C until a constant weight was achieved, then crushed and sieved through a 60-mesh sieve for testing.

2.3. Sensory evaluation

Referring to the method described by Andersen et al. (2019), and making appropriate modifications in combination with the characteristics of bamboo shoots, sensory evaluations were carried out by 40 graduate and undergraduate students who possess knowledge and experience in sensory evaluation from food-related disciplines. Classify and label bamboo shoots (unshelled, shelled, sliced), and place them in a white porcelain dish evaluations the appearance, texture, sweetness, bitterness, astringency, fresh flavor, off-flavor, and overall acceptance of four cultivars of bamboo shoots were evaluated, with each index on a scale of 1 to 5 from low to high. The evaluation criteria for different cultivars of bamboo shoots are shown in Table S1. All participants voluntarily participated in the study, signed informed consent forms, and agreed to use their data as part of the research. This study has received ethical review approval from the School of Biology and Food Engineering at Southwest Forestry University.

2.4. Traditional nutrient composition analysis

Refer to the methods reported by Fan et al. (2023) and Kong et al. (2020) with appropriate modifications. The edibility, crude protein, total soluble sugar, crude fat, moisture, ash and crude fiber contents of bamboo shoots were determined by weighing, Kjeldahl determination, anthrone-sulphuric acid colorimetry, Soxhlet extraction, direct drying, high-temperature cauterization, and acid-alkali washing methods, respectively.

2.5. Color and texture analysis

The color of bamboo shoots was determined after making appropriate adjustments with reference to the method described by Fan et al. (2024). Take the middle part of fresh bamboo shoots and use a colorimeter (SC-80, a convenient color colorimeter) to measure the L*, a*, and b* values.

The hardness of the bamboo shoots was determined using a texture analyzer (NVOT-IPro, texture meter) and according to the method described by Liu et al. (2023), with a 2.0 mm probe.

2.6. Headspace solid-phase microextraction and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC–MS) analysis

The volatile flavor components (VFCs) were determined by referring to the methods previously reported by our laboratory (Wang et al., 2024). The frozen bamboo shoot samples were thawed at 4 °C for 12 h. 1.00 g of the samples were accurately weighed into a 20.00 mL headspace bottle, and the VFCs of 4 bamboo shoot juices were determined by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (7890B/5977B, Agilent Technologies, USA).

The peaks were searched by computer, matched by the NIST 14.0 standard mass spectral library, and the volatile components with similarity greater than 80 % were selected for the resolution of each peak, and the relative content of the peak area of each volatile component was obtained by the peak area normalization method. The VFCs obtained from the tested bamboo shoots were predicted by partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) for variable importance (VIP), and the relative odor activity value (ROAV) was used to evaluate the key VFCs of the four bamboo shoots. The VFCs defining ROAVstan = 100 contributed the most to the odor of bamboo shoots, and the ROAV of other VFCs was calculated according to Li et al. (2024).

ROAV≈CACmax×TmaxTA×100

Where: CA: The relative content (%) of each VFC in bamboo shoots. Cmax: The relative content (%) of the VFC that contributes the most to the overall flavor of bamboo shoots. TA: The threshold value (μg /L) corresponding to each VFC of bamboo shoots. Tmax: The threshold value (μg /L) corresponding to the VFC that contributes the most to the overall flavor of the bamboo shoot samples.

2.7. Liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) analysis

Determination was based on the method of Wang, Wu, Zhang, Liu, et al. (2024). The bamboo shoot juice samples were thawed at 4 °C, centrifuged at 12000 rpm 4 °C for 10 min, and filtered through a 0.22 μm membrane. The non-volatile taste metabolites of bamboo shoots were detected by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (Waters, Milford, MA, USA; Thermo Fisher Scientific, USA).

Using multivariate statistical analysis, the four samples were subjected to principal component analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis, and the reliability of the model was predicted according to the orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) method. Differential metabolites were screened according to P < 0.05 and VIP >1 of OPLS-DA. The differential metabolites were subjected to metabolic pathway annotation by Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) database to obtain the pathways.

2.8. Data analysis

The results of were expressed as the mean ± standard deviation. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Duncan's multiple test were conducted on the experimental data using SPSS 27.0 (SPSS Inc., USA), with significant differences identified at P < 0.05. The data from HS-SPME-GC–MS and LC–MS/MS underwent multivariate statistical analysis using MetaboAnalyst (https://www.metaboanalyst.ca/) and SIMCA 14.0 (Umetrics, Sweden), respectively. The visualization of metabolites was carried out with Origin 2021 software, OmicStudio (https://www.omicstudio.cn/), and through bioinformatics (https://www.bioinformatics.com.cn/) metabolic pathways were mapped.

3. Results and analysis

3.1. Differences in appearance and sensory

As shown in Fig. 1A, the four cultivars of bamboo shoots exhibit obvious differences in color, shape, and size. The shells of DB, PA, and PV have a yellowish, whereas DL has a yellow-green color. Additionally, DB and DL are large in size, while PV is relatively small. After shelling, the bamboo shoots of DB and DL exhibit white flesh without cavities, while PA has a slightly yellow hue, and PV features cavities in its flesh along with a yellow-green appearance. The sensory scores are shown in Fig. 1B. The shapes, colors, and sizes of the four cultivars of bamboo shoots are all acceptable, with no special odor. The texture of DB is crisp and tender, slight sweetness, and fresh flavor, which was notably superior to DL, PA, and PV. PA has the highest bitter and astringent taste, while DB has the lowest. Some reports suggest that the bitter and astringent taste of bamboo shoots may stem from substances such as bitter amino acids, tannins, flavonoids, and oxalic acid (Wang et al., 2023). In general, DB received the highest overall acceptance, with PV, DL, and PA following, which may be related to the differences in the nutritional components of the four cultivars of bamboo shoots. This result is similar to the results of sensory evaluation of chicken soup stewed with the addition of four cultivars of bamboo shoots by Wang, Wu, Zhang, Liu, et al. (2024).

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

Open in a new tab

Analysis of the appearance (A) and sensory evaluation preference (B) levels of four cultivars of bamboo shoots. DB–Dendrocalamus brandisii, DL–Dendrocalamus latiflorus, PA–Pleioblastus amarus, PV–Phyllostachys violascens, the same below.

3.2. Differences in nutritional composition, color, texture and edibility

Nutrient content is the material basis for differences in food quality. According to Table 1, bamboo shoots exhibited the highest moisture content (91.29–93.31 %) and the lowest crude fat content (0.12–0.20 %). The levels of crude fiber and crude fat showed significant variation among different species, with coefficients of variation of 28.38 % and 23.57 %, respectively. While bamboo shoots had the highest moisture content, the differences between species were minimal, with a coefficient of variation of 0.91 %. Protein is an important indicator for assessing the nutritional value of food, and bamboo shoots are a good source of protein. The protein levels in four cultivars of bamboo shoots range from 2.19 % to 3.04 %, which similar to the protein content of various fresh bamboo shoots reported by earlier researchers (1.49–4.04 g/100 g) (Zhang et al., 2024). The protein content of PV was the highest, while that of DL is the lowest. Soluble sugar is the primary factor contributing to the sweetness of fruits and vegetables, serving as a respiratory substrate to provide materials and energy for their postharvest physiological metabolism. DB had the highest total soluble sugar content, which may have contributed to the slightly sweet taste. Cellulose and lignin in crude fibers are the main components of cell walls. A certain amount of cellulose substances can enhance the crispy and tender of bamboo shoots, but excessive content will increase the roughness of bamboo shoots, affecting their texture and edible value (Fan, Guo, & Chen, 2024; Wang et al., 2023). The crispy and tender of DB may have been due to its lower crude fiber content, while PV had the highest crude fiber content. Ash somewhat reflects the mineral elements absorbed and accumulated by bamboo shoots (Wang et al., 2023), with PV ash content being the highest and PA the lowest. Bamboo shoots have been found to be a rich source of mineral elements including K, P, Na, Mg, Ca, and Fe (Zhang et al., 2024). Low fat content is one of the typical characteristics of bamboo shoots, which is supported by the results of this experimental measurement. As a result, the four bamboo shoots had significant differences in nutrient content. DB had the highest moisture and total soluble sugar content and the lowest crude fiber content, which may have increased its palatability and resulted in the best sensory acceptability.

Table 1.

Nutrient composition, color, hardness and edible quality of four kinds of bamboo shoots (based on fresh samples).

Indicator DB DL PA PV Coefficient of variation (%)
Moisture content (%) 93.31 ± 0.04a 92.03 ± 0.02c 92.20 ± 0.01b 91.29 ± 0.02d 0.91
Crude protein (%) 2.34 ± 0.00b 2.19 ± 0.00c 2.34 ± 0.01b 3.05 ± 0.02a 15.59
Total soluble sugar(g/100 g) 1.21 ± 0.02a 1.02 ± 0.01c 1.16 ± 0.00b 0.88 ± 0.04d 13.92
Crude fiber (%) 0.69 ± 0.02c 0.78 ± 0.01b 0.71 ± 0.02c 1.20 ± 0.02a 28.38
Ash (%) 0.66 ± 0.01b 0.75 ± 0.01a 0.63 ± 0.00c 0.76 ± 0.00a 9.26
Crude fat (%) 0.12 ± 0.01bc 0.20 ± 0.00a 0.16 ± 0.00b 0.13 ± 0.00c 23.57
L*
a*
b* 		89.41 ± 0.53b 90.37 ± 0.41a 84.02 ± 0.82c 79.84 ± 0.50d 5.73
−0.24 ± 0.03a −2.36 ± 0.20b −2.35 ± 0.11b −3.22 ± 0.25c 62.13
12.14 ± 0.17c 12.04 ± 0.17c 13.50 ± 0.12b 17.12 ± 0.50a 17.34
Hardness /N 5.76 ± 0.12c 6.97 ± 0.45b 6.96 ± 0.14b 7.62 ± 0.26a 11.36
Edibility (%) 64.03 ± 0.74a 62.63 ± 0.86b 47.20 ± 0.55d 59.24 ± 0.87c 13.13
Open in a new tab

Different letters in the same row indicate significant differences, P < 0.05.

Color plays a crucial role in assessing the quality of food and agricultural products, influencing both consumer preferences and market value. DL had the highest L*, followed by DB, and the lowest PV. Four bamboo shoots are all light green, with DB (a*) showing the lowest value and PV exhibiting the highest. Furthermore, all four bamboo shoots exhibited a yellowish hue, with PV (b*) showing the highest value. Hardness is a key indicator for measuring the quality of fruit and vegetable (Fan et al., 2024). Among the four bamboo shoots, PV exhibited the greatest hardness, while DB showed the least, aligning with the findings from the sensory evaluation. Additionally, the levels of lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose in crude fiber were closely associated with the hardness of the plant tissues and the present study similarly found that the high content of crude fiber was accompanied by a large hardness value. Edibility serves as a crucial indicator for measure of the economic value of fruits and vegetables, directly related to the effectiveness of food processing, utilization rate and consumers' eating experience. There was a significant difference (P < 0.05) in the edible rate of the 4 bamboo shoots, which were DB (64.03 %) > DL (62.63 %) > PV (59.24 %) > PA (47.20 %) in sequence, indicated that the processing efficiency and utilization rate of DB, DL and PV were relatively higher.

3.3. Analysis of volatile flavor components (VFCs) of 4 bamboo shoots

3.3.1. Overview of VFCs

As shown in Table S2, a total of 43 VFCs (including 14 aldehydes, 8 alcohols, 4 alkanes, 4 olefins, 3 esters, 1 ketone, 1 acid, 1 phenol, and 7 others) were identified from the four bamboo shoots using HS-SPME-GC–MS. From the perspective of the species of VFCs (Fig. 2A), a total of 19, 22, 20, and 18 VFCs were identified in DB, DL, PA, and PV, respectively, with DL showing a greater diversity in both the number and types of VFCs. From the perspective of the composition of VFCs (Fig. 2B), aldehydes and alcohols were the major VFCs found in the four bamboo shoots, with relative contents of 37.30 % and 40.19 %, respectively. This is similar to the composition of volatile components in fresh bamboo shoots reported by Geng et al. (2024). Aldehydes have the highest content in DL, while alcohols have the highest content in PV. He et al. (2024) also reported that fresh DL contained the highest content of aldehydes, and aldehydes provided a large number of alcohols, acids, esters and other flavor substances for fermented bamboo shoots during the fermentation process. This could explain the widespread use of DL in fermentation processes. Alcohol relative content is highest in DB, with 1-hexanol accounting for 22.74 %. Studies have also found that 1-hexanol is the most abundant alcohol compound in fresh bamboo shoots (Zheng et al., 2014), contributing to DB's unique floral and fruity flavor. Aldehydes are the second most abundant compound, accounting for 36.34 %. This may explain DB's high fresh flavor score in sensory evaluations. Alcohols have the highest relative content in PA and PV, especially PV, accounting for 78.57 %. Different alcohol compounds have different aromatic characteristics and typically featuring pleasant floral, fruity, and grassy aromas. Among them, ethanol and 1-hexanol account for 44.27 % and 24.49 %, respectively. Esters are a unique component of PV, endowing it with fruity and floral flavor (Li et al., 2024). The VFCs cluster heat map more intuitively shows that there are obvious differences in the distribution and content of volatile compounds among different cultivars of bamboo shoots (Fig. 2E).

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

Open in a new tab

Differences in VFCs among four bamboo shoots. (A) Number of VFCs, (B) relative content of VFCs, (C) PCA score plot, (D) VIP values of VFCs showing differences, (E) heat map of total VFCs.

3.3.2. Differential of VFCs

Principal Component Analysis (PCA) can extract key parameters from a dataset and detect similarities or differences through dimensionality reduction while minimizing information loss (Fang et al., 2022). PCA analysis (Fig. 2C) revealed that the DB, DL, PA and PV sample groups were significantly separated, and the samples within each group clustering together, indicated that the VFCs of bamboo shoots from various sources were significantly different, and suggests that the data from samples of the same bamboo shoot species is consistent. DB and PA are situated in the same quadrant, suggesting that there is minimal difference in volatility between them. Through PLS-DA analysis, 19 differentially VFCs were identified using a VIP value >1 as the screening criterion (Fig. 2D), including (E)-2-nonenal, hexadecane, (E)-beta-ionone, 1-octanol, cyclopentanemethanol, 2-ethyl-trans-1-nonanol, vinyl hexanoate, (E, Z)-2,6-nonadien-1-ol, 4-methyl-5-decanol, (E)-2-hexenal, (E)-3-nonanol, acetic acid, (E)-2-heptenal, ethyl hexadecanoate, 3-octanol, pentadecane, ethyl acetate, decanal, and ethanol.

3.3.3. Differential of ROAV

The ROAV was determined by evaluating the sensory threshold of each compound to assess its impact on the overall aroma profile of the bamboo shoots. 1 ≤ ROAV ≤100 indicates that the compound contributes directly to the flavor of the bamboo shoots, while 0.1 ≤ ROAV <1 is considered to be able to change its contribution to the overall flavor (Li et al., 2024).

As presented in Table 2, a total of 17 direct flavor compounds and 3 compounds that can alter some of the overall flavors were identified through threshold finding and calculations. Among them, 12, 11, 10, and 9 key VFCs were respectively screened out in DB, DL, PA, and PV, respectively. Hexanal, (E)-2-octenal, and 2-pentylfuran are the flavor common to the four bamboo shoots. Hexanal, a common VFC, imparts fatty, fruity, fresh grassy flavor to bamboo shoots. 2-Pentylfuran is a widely recognized and significant flavor compound found in various natural plants. It primarily originates from the oxidation and breakdown of lipids, contributing fruity, green, earthy, and bean-like flavors to bamboo shoots (Geng et al., 2024). Nonanal and (E, E)-2,4-decadienal have been identified as contributors to the bamboo scent and play a significant role in the flavor of fresh bamboo shoots (Tang et al., 2021). They also represent a large proportion of the aromatic compounds in 4 bamboo shoots. (E)-2-Nonenal has been confirmed to be a 13-(S)hydroperoxide formed by the enzymatic reaction of γ-linolenic acid during plant tissue division and has been detected in phyllostachys edulis shoots, and is speculated to have a bamboo flavor (Tang et al., 2021). Research indicates that fresh bamboo shoots exhibit the strongest aldehyde odor intensity, resulting in a pronounced grassy and astringent flavor (Geng et al., 2024). Additionally, the same study revealed that aldehydes in the four bamboo shoots played a significant role in their aromatic properties.

Table 2.

ROAV of volatile organic compounds in bamboo shoots.

No. CAS Volatile compounds OTiwa Odor descriptionsb ROAV
DB DL PA PV
Aldehydes
1 66–25-1 Hexanal 5 Fatty, fruity, fresh grassy 6.86 0.13 34.22 10.36
2 6728-26-3 (E)-2-Hexenal 88.7 Fatty, green <0.1 – –
3 18,829–55-5 (E)-2-Heptenal 40 Fruity, grassy <0.1 – – –
4 2548-87-0 (E)-2-Octenal 3 Fatty, green, nut, cucumber, green leaf 2.08 1.72 89.74 23.28
5 124–19-6 Nonanal 1.1 Lemon-like, soapy 2.10 – 57.89 9.33
6 18,829–56-6 (E)-2-Nonenal 0.19 Fatty, cucumber, green 90.50 8.09 – –
7 112–31-2 Decanal 3 Fatty, soapy, sweet 0.25 0.12 10.02 –
8 100–52-7 Benzaldehyde 750.89 Sweet, fatty, almond, cherry, nutty and woody – <0.1 – –
9 4313-03-5 (E, E)-2,4-Heptadienal 15.4 Fatty, green, with an oily – <0.1 – –
10 5910-87-2 (E, E)-2,4-Nonadienal 0.1 Fatty, strong, floral，nut, cucumber – 6.26 – –
11 25,152–84-5 (E, E)-2,4-Decadienal 0.077 Sweet, green, fatty, cucumber, nut – 75.00 – –
12 111–71-7 Heptanal 2.8 Fruity, fatty, citrus, rancid – – 15.10 –
Alcohols
1 64–17-5 Ethanol 950,000 Pleasant, Fragrant, Alcohol 5.93 6.57 <0.1 <0.1
2 111–27-3 1-Hexanol 5.6 Green, grassy, ethereal fusel, oil fruity 7.69 0.17 100 100
3 28,069–72-9 (E, Z)-2,6-Nonadien-1-ol 1 Green, cucumber, fatty 7.47 – – –
4 31,502–14-4 (E)-2-Nonen-1-ol 209 Green, fatty, melon, with a chicken fat and lard nuance 0.15 – 0.32 –
5 71–41-0 1-Pentanol 150.2 Grassy, fusel oil, sweet balsam, fruity – <0.1 – 0.90
6 3391-86-4 1-Octen-3-ol 1.5 Cucumber, earth, fatty, floral, mushroom – – 62.68 26.37
7 589–98-0 3-Octanol 250 Musty, mushroom, earthy, creamy – – – <0.1
8 143–08-8 1-Nonanol 45.5 Waxy, citrus rue, fatty, spicy – – – 0.63
Alkenes
1 18,409–17-1 (E)-2-Octen-1-ol 20 Fatty, green 0.22 – 12.82 –
2 5989-27-5 d-Limonene 34 Sweet, orange, citrus and terpy – <0.1 – –
3 13,360–61-7 1-Pentadecene 3600 – – <0.1 –
Esters
1 141–78-6 Ethyl Acetate 5 Fruity, sweet, with a grape and cherry nuance – – – 28.59
2 628–97-7 Ethyl hexadecanoate 2000 Fruity, waxy, creamy and fermented with a vanilla, balsamic nuance – – – <0.1
Acids
1 64–19-7 Acetic acid 99,000 Sour, sharp pungent sour vinegar – – – <0.1
Ketones
1 79–77-6 (E)-beta-Ionone 0.007 Woody, floral, berry, fruity with powdery nuances 100 100 – –
Phenols
1 90–05-1 2-Methoxyphenol 0.84 Woody, bacon, savory – 3.09 – –
Others
1 3777–69-3 2-Pentylfuran 5.8 Fruity, green, earthy, beany 1.80 0.29 38.02 7.98
Open in a new tab

Note: “-” indicates that the relative content was not detected. No relevant flavor thresholds were found for other VFCs.

a

OTiw represents the odor threshold in water (μg/L) and is based on data from a book (Van Gemert, 2011).

b

Odor description refers to a web data (https: //www.perflavory.com/index.html).

3.3.4. Analysis of key VFCs

To more accurately screen key VFCs, a combined screening method of VIP value and ROAV value is adopted. Based on the compounds with VIP > 1 and ROAV >0.1, 8 key VFCs that were the main cause of the flavor differences among the four bamboo shoots were screened out, included (E)-2-nonenal, decanal, ethanol, 9(E, Z)-2,6-nonadien-1-ol, 1-octanol, 1-nonanol, ethyl acetate, and (E)-beta-ionone.

In DB, (E)-beta-ionone and (E)-2-nonenal, were the major ROAVs with 100 and 90.05, respectively. (E)-2-Nonenal is a common and important flavor component in vegetables and fruits (Tang et al., 2021), with fatty, cucumber and grassy aromas. (E)-beta-ionone is widely present in fruits, flowers and vegetables, with low threshold values and presents strong woody and floral aromas (Liu et al., 2023). Decanal has a less aromatic component in DB with a value of 0.25. The alcohols ethanol and (E, Z)-2,6-nonadien-1-ol have close ROAV, endowing DB a pleasant, fragrant, alcoholic flavor and green, cucumber, fatty flavor. This might be the reason why DB's flavor components are close to those of vegetables and fruits, and it is chosen by consumers as uncooked bamboo shoots, with a relatively high sensory score. In DL, the key flavor compounds were all present in DB, and the most significant compound between the two samples was (E)-beta-ionone with ROAV of 100, with woody, floral, berry, and fruity flavors. The contribution of (E)-2-Nonenal in DB is significantly lower than that in DL, which might be the reason for the large flavor variation between these two types of bamboo shoots. The contribution of decanal to the overall flavor is limited, with an ROAV of 0.12. Ethanol imparted a pleasing, aromatic, alcoholic flavor to the DL. Among the PA, the 1-octen-3-ol makes a significant contribution, with a ROAV of 62.68. It is an unsaturated alcohol and a common edible spice with a strong and distinctive mushroom flavor (He et al., 2024). Decanal contributes more to the flavor of PA than DB and DL, and has a fatty, soapy, and sweet flavor. In PV, 1-nonanol and ethyl acetate are only present in PV. 1-nonanol ROAV is 0.63 and has a waxy, citrus rue, fatty, spicy flavor. Ethyl acetate ROAV is 28.59, making a significant contribution to PV, and has a strong fruity and sweet flavor, with subtle hints of grapes and cherries. 1-Octen-3-ol ROAV is 26.37, which is less than that of PA, but it still plays an important role in PV.

3.4. Non-volatile taste metabolic components differential of 4 bamboo shoot

3.4.1. Overview of non-volatile taste metabolites

Bamboo shoots are not only an excellent food source, but also a traditional medicine in many countries. A total of 403 non-volatile taste metabolic components were identified from the 4 bamboo shoots using LC–MS/MS in both positive and negative ion modes, that mainly included lipids and lipid-like molecules (29.3 %), organic acids and derivatives (22.6 %), organoheterocyclic compounds (13.6 %), benzenoids (11.9 %), and organic oxygen compounds(9.7 %) (Fig. 3A).

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

Open in a new tab

Differences non-volatile taste metabolic components among four bamboo shoots. (A) Total classification map, (B) PCA plot, and (C) total clustering heatmap of metabolite classification of four bamboo shoots. (D) Number of differential metabolites, (E) categorization, and (F) upsets plot.

Lipids and lipid-like molecules in fatty acids and derivatives number up to 44 metabolites, and studies have found their conjugated fatty acids are effective ingredients in the prevention and treatment of cancer (Honma, 2025). The number of amino acids, peptides, and analogues in organic acids and derivatives is up to 70 metabolites. Bamboo shoots are a valuable source of high-quality plant proteins and contain seven essential amino acids (Wang et al., 2020). The number of purines and purine derivatives in organic heterocyclic compounds is up to 9 metabolites. Purine derivatives were found to have anti-tuberculosis activity (Gruzdev et al., 2018). Benzoic acids and derivatives in benzenoids contained 14 metabolites. Benzoic acid serves as a crucial structural element in both pharmaceutical compounds and natural substances, and its derivatives can function as prodrugs for tuberculosis treatment (Pais et al., 2022). Carbohydrates and carbohydrate conjugates, classified as organic oxygen compounds, comprise 27 identified constituents. In bamboo shoots, these bioactive macromolecules have been successfully extracted and extensively investigated due to their diverse physiological activities, including antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and anticancer properties (Ma et al., 2024).

PCA (Fig. 3B) and clustered heatmap (Fig. 3C) analyses showed that the overall metabolite differences between DB and PV are small, while DL and PA presented unique metabolite compositions, and significant differences in metabolite contents among bamboo shoots. The OPLS-DA model (Fig. S1) provides a more intuitive explanation and prediction of the metabolite differences among the four types of bamboo shoots.

3.4.2. Screening and comparison of non-volatile taste differential metabolites

According to the results of OPLS-DA analysis, VIP > 1 with P < 0.05 was used as the screening condition to screen the non-volatile taste metabolites with significant differences. A total of 259 non-volatile taste differential metabolites were screened (Fig. 3E), mainly included 63 fatty acyls, 42 carboxylic acids and derivatives, 22 organooxygen compounds, 18 benzene and substituted derivatives. By calculating their differential folds, there were 142 significantly differential metabolites (70 upregulated, 72 downregulated) between DB and DL, 138 (93 upregulated, 45 downregulated) between DB and PA, 106 (52 upregulated, 54 downregulated) between DB and PV, 169 (95 upregulated, 74 downregulated) between DL and PA, 152 (70 upregulated, 82 downregulated) between DL and PV, and 134 (47 upregulated, 87 downregulated) between PA and PV (Fig. 3D).

Characterized non-volatile taste metabolites differential metabolic composition analysis in four bamboo shoots (Fig. 3F). Among the 259 non-volatile taste differential metabolites, a total of 34 metabolites characteristic differential metabolites common to the different comparison groups were identified. Among them, there are up to 10 fatty acyls metabolites, and it is play a crucial role in giving pickled bamboo shoots their distinctive flavor, which is closely linked to the metabolic processes of lactobacillus, and has a direct influence on the tone of the bamboo shoots' “sourness” (Wei et al., 2025). The gamma-L-glutamyl-L-cysteine serves as a common component among four bamboo shoot varieties. L-cysteine can be used to modify the surface-enhanced Raman scattering substrate to enhance its sensitivity to aldehyde molecules and reduce the interference from other organic volatile components (Fang et al., 2025, Wang et al., 2025). In terms of interspecies differences, DB vs DL, DB vs PA, DB vs PV, DL vs PA, DL vs PV, and PA vs PV had 11, 11, 6, 12, 7, and 8 characteristic differential metabolites, respectively. In DB and DL, the 9,12,13-triHOME, glutarate semialdehyde, deoxyuridine, 4-guanidinobutanoic acid, (R)-2-O-sulfolactate, hydroxykynurenine, cytosine were significantly up-regulated; 2-Iminobutanoate, 1-methylhistidine, and L-2,4-diaminobutyric acid, and L-leucine were significantly down-regulated. 9,12,13-TriHOME is considered a potentially useful adjuvant for influenza vaccine formulations and plays a crucial role in skin barrier function in the human epidermis (Fuchs et al., 2018). 1-Methylhistidine is produced through the methylation of histidine, which is an essential protein for regulating and enhancing protein function. In DB and PA, the dibutyl phthalate, tyrosol, gamma-linolenic acid, L-asparagine, N-methyl-L-glutamic acid, indolelactic acid, and confertifolin were significantly up-regulated; 2,6-Dimethylaniline, 1,2,3-trihydroxybenzene, adipate semialdehyde, and L-erythrulose were significantly down-regulated. Dibutyl phthalate belongs to the class of synthetic organic compounds known as phthalates, which are transported by plants through xylem tissues and accumulate in the upper parts. Gamma-linolenic acid, which is found in animals and plants, plays a role in brain function, metabolism, and analgesia (Rahimi et al., 2024). In DB and PV, the 5-aminosalicylate, aspartame, L-histidine, and kynurenic acid were significantly up-regulated; Jasmonic acid and beta-sitosterol were significantly down-regulated. Aspartame, a sweetener that is approximately 200 times sweeter than sugar, was notably increased in DB, suggesting it may play a key role in its mildly sweet taste. Beta-sitosterol, which is high in PV, has cholesterol-lowering and anticancer effects (Ma et al., 2024). In DL and PA, the phenylacetaldehyde, CMP, gamma-aminobutyric acid, (S)-5-amino-3-oxohexanoate, erythritol, and deethylatrazine were significantly up-regulated; 9,10-12,13-diepoxyoctadecanoate, 9,10-EOT, 10-nitrolinoleic acid, alpha-tocotrienol, (2S)-2-{[1-(R)-carboxyethyl] amino} pentanoate, and 6-hydroxyhexanoic acid were significantly down-regulated. CMP has an improving effect on muscle atrophy (Nakagawara et al., 2023). Erythritol is a sweetening polyol used mainly in nutritional and pharmaceutical applications. In DL and PV, the 2-aminobenzoic acid, 3-methylthiopropionic acid, norlinolenic acid, L-isoleucine, L-norvaline, and sphinganine were significantly up-regulated; allocholic acid was significantly down-regulated. Sphinganine modulates the cell death process in cancer cells. Allocholic acid prevents cholestasis in mice by improving disturbed bile acid homeostasis (Han et al., 2024). In PA and PV, the limonene-1,2-diol, guanidoacetic acid, isocitric acid were significantly up-regulated; Anabasine, erucic acid, 9(S)-HPODE, pyrroline hydroxycarboxylic acid, and 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde were significantly down-regulated. 4-Hydroxybenzaldehyde is commonly used in the treatment of headaches, dizziness, and convulsions (Xu et al., 2024).

3.4.3. Analysis of non-volatile taste differential metabolic pathways

KEGG enrichment analysis of the non-volatile taste differential metabolites revealed that they were involved in 199 metabolic pathways, 60 of which were significantly different (P < 0.05). The differentially expressed metabolites of DB vs DL, DB vs PA, DB vs PV, DL vs PA, DL vs PV, and PA vs PV were associated with 22, 38, 37, 33, 43, and 31 significantly different metabolic pathways, respectively (Fig. 4). These pathways included 35 metabolism, 10 organismal systems, 8 human diseases, 3 environmental information processing, 2 drug development, 1 cellular processe, and 1 genetic information processing.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 4

Open in a new tab

KEGG enrichment analysis of differential metabolites in bamboo shoots. (A) DB vs DL, (B) DB vs PA, (C) DB vs PV, (D) DL vs PA, (E) DL vs PV, and (F) PA vs PV.

In general, the main enriched metabolic pathways for the four bamboo shoots non-volatile taste differential metabolites were 9 amino acid metabolic pathways and 4 other amino acid metabolic pathways. 3 lipid metabolism pathways were significantly enriched in the first 20 pathways, including alpha-linolenic acid metabolism and linoleic acid metabolism. Furthermore, bamboo shoot carbohydrates are primarily involved in the biosynthesis of plant secondary metabolites, phenylpropanoids, ABC transporters, and metabolic pathways. Phenylalanine metabolism, phenylpropane biosynthesis and phenylpropane biosynthesis pathways were also significantly enriched in the bamboo shoot pathway, and these metabolite pathways are closely related to lignin biosynthesis (Hou et al., 2022).

4. Discussion

4.1. Relationship between the nutrient composition and volatile flavor of bamboo shoots

Establishing the relationship between nutrient and volatile compounds in bamboo shoots can help to further understand how chemical interactions are reflected in flavor perception. A total of 43 volatile components were identified in this study, including 14 aldehydes, 8 alcohols, 4 alkanes, 4 olefins, 3 esters, 1 ketone, 1 acid, 1 phenol and 7 other components. The oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids leads to the formation of hydroperoxides, which are subsequently broken down into volatile secondary lipid oxidation products that have distinct odors, such as aldehydes, alcohols, esters, and ketones (Liu et al., 2023; Shahidi & Hossain, 2022). Ketones, which may also be produced by degradation of the amino acid Strecker's reaction (Li et al., 2024) have a floral and fruity aroma. Alkanes and olefins can be produced by the breakdown of unsaturated fatty acids and amino acids (Luo et al., 2024). Certain amino acids go through multiple enzymatic processes to create various biosynthetic intermediates, which are subsequently altered to generate the final volatile compounds. For instance, phenylalanine can be obtained from esters of aromatic compounds (Li et al., 2023). It was shown that differences in flavor compounds of bamboo shoots are mainly influenced by flavor precursors such as fats and amino acids.

4.2. Relationships between nutrient composition, eating quality and non-volatile taste components of bamboo shoots

Bamboo shoots are a high-quality source of protein, and the nutritional value of protein is assessed based on its amino acid composition and balance (Furusawa et al., 2022). A total of 70 amino acids, peptides, and analogues were identified in the 4 bamboo shoots (Fig. 5A). Amino acids play an important role in the taste of bamboo shoots by imparting bitter, umami and sweet taste. The bitter amino acids in bamboo shoots include tyrosine, histidine, isoleucine, valine, leucine, and lysine, the umami amino acids include aspartic acid and glutamic acid, and the sweet amino acids include alanine, glycine, and proline (Wei et al., 2025). This study found that the umami amino acid (L-glutamic acid), along with the sweet amino acids (glycylleucine, L-4-hydroxyphenylglycine, and aspartame) were present in much higher levels in DB compared to the other amino acids, potentially enhancing the fresh-sweet taste. In DL, L-alanyl-gamma-D-glutamyl-l-lysine provides bitterness, and betaine provides astringency. In PA, the levels of tyrosine such as beta-tyrosine, 3-hydroxy-5-methyl-L-tyrosine, and L-tyrosine are significantly higher than those in other bamboo shoots, which may be the reason for the high bitterness of PA. In PV, L-aspartic acid provides freshness, l-lysine provides bitterness, and glycylleucine provides sweetness. Amino acids can also form organic acids, sugars, and other products through the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, glycolysis, and other metabolic pathways, which can lead to differences in the phenolic acid and sugar content of bamboo shoots and affect their palatability (Fan et al., 2023). It was further evidence suggests that the interactions between various nutrients and non-volatile taste compounds in bamboo shoots affect the edible quality of bamboo shoots.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 5

Open in a new tab

Clustered heat map of metabolite composition, changes in classification and content of edible qualities. (A) Amino acids, peptides, and analogues, (B) Carbohydrates and carbohydrate conjugates, (C) Cinnamic acids and derivatives, (D) Fatty acids and conjugates, and (E) Bitterness metabolites.

In terms of total carbohydrates, there is a wide variety of polysaccharides (like starch, cellulose, and hemicellulose), oligosaccharides (such as sucrose, arabinoxylan trisaccharide, tetrasaccharide, and xyloglucan disaccharide), and monosaccharides (including fructose, glucose, and sucrose) that are plentiful and exist in various forms (Li et al., 2022; Ma et al., 2024). Its non-volatile taste components identified a total of 27 carbohydrates and carbohydrate conjugates metabolites in four bamboo shoots (Fig. 5B). Bamboo shoots have raw cyanogenic glycosides, dhurrin, which can be toxic if not consumed correctly (Niyogi et al., 2025). In the study of 4 bamboo shoots, the highest levels were found in PA, while the lowest were found in DB. The content of D-lyxose, methyl beta-D-galactoside were higher in DB. erythritol, lactose, sorbitol, and l-ribulose were higher in DL. Gluconic acid, D- (−)-Fructose, d-glucose, D-sorbose, dhurrin, D-galactose were higher in PA. L-gulose content was higher in PV. In addition, glucose and fructose act as initial precursors for linoleic and linolenic acids leading to changes in volatile components (Li et al., 2023).

The roughness of bamboo shoots greatly impacts the edible quality, which is influenced by the accumulation of lignin, hemicellulose, and cellulose (Wang et al., 2023). Research in metabolomics has revealed a strong connection between the roughness of bamboo shoots and the production of phenylpropanoid compounds, which primarily consist of cinnamic acid and its derivatives, phenolic compounds, and the amino acid L-phenylalanine (Hou et al., 2022). Additionally, sugars such as xylan improve the stability of the cell wall by binding to the ferulic acid of lignin, thus increasing lignin content (Li et al., 2022). A total of 9 cinnamic acids and their derivatives have been identified in 4 bamboo shoots (Fig. 5C). The 2-hydroxycinnamic acid and 4-hydroxycinnamoylagmatine were the most abundant in DL, which indirectly confirmed the higher hardness and hard texture of DL. The sugar d-xylose was highest in PA. L-phenylalanine was highest in DL and lowest in DB. Chavicol, a phenolic, was higher in DB and PV.

Bamboo shoots have a low overall fat content, but the types of fat they contain are quite abundant, accounting for 29.3 % of their composition. This includes a variety of 44 fatty acids and conjugates (Fig. 5D), as well as 19 linoleic acids and their derivatives. These substances serve as a valuable foundation for the VFCs found in bamboo shoots. For instance, linoleic and linolenic acids (or α-linolenic acid) can be converted to a range of flavor compounds including short-chained aldehydes and alcohols through a process known as lipid oxidation (Li et al., 2023). It has been shown that the high content of phytosterols and polyunsaturated fatty acids in bamboo shoots makes bamboo shoot oil a good resource for the production of functional foods, with blood glucose-lowering, anti-ulcer, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory effects (Ma et al., 2024; Wang et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2024). β-sitosterol, as the main phytosterol in bamboo shoots, is found to be the highest in PA and the lowest in DB.

The edible quality of bamboo shoots is closely related to the sense of taste, especially the bitterness. Some studies have shown that the bitterness of bamboo shoots may originate from bitter amino acids, tannins, flavonoids, oxalic acid, phenolic acid, organic acids, alkaloids and other substances (Wang et al., 2023; Yu et al., 2024). Research by Gao et al. (2019) revealed that the amino acid L-phenylalanine is the primary contributor to the bitterness of bamboo shoots, and L-tryptophan and L-ornithine also display some bitterness (Fig. 5E). Among the 4 bamboo shoots, DL contained the highest level of L-phenylalanine, which was double that found in DB. The flavonoid rutin is the main source of bitter flavor (Wei et al., 2025), and is very high in PA. Phenolic compounds like dihydrocapsaicin contribute to the spicy taste of DL. 1,2,3-Trihydroxybenzene, also known as pyrogallic gallic acid provides a bitter flavor to the PV. Caffeine was the most prevalent alkaloid in DL, with PA being 2.5 and 1.7 times more abundant than DB, respectively.

4.3. Analysis of the internal reasons for the quality difference of bamboo shoots

Bamboo shoot quality is a key determinant of market value. Research into the sensory and nutritional characteristics, along with volatile and non-volatile metabolomics, revealed that bamboo shoots are affected by the interplay of different sensory qualities, including bitterness, astringency, sweetness, freshness, aroma, and texture. The VFCs (including aldehydes, alcohols, alkanes, olefins, esters, ketones, acids, and phenols) and non-volatile taste metabolites ((including amino acids, peptides, fatty acids, carbohydrates, cinnamic acid and its derivatives, and compounds associated with bitterness), contribute to the wide variety of flavors and tastes found in bamboo shoots. The interactions between these compounds also lead to changes in overall quality, which is similar to Cai et al. (2024) and Li et al. (2023) study of changes in flavor and taste substances in tomato and carambola. The final characteristics are primarily influenced by the interactions among the levels and proportions of nutrients like proteins, sugars, fibers, and fats.

5. Conclusion

This study conducted an in-depth analysis of the sensory, nutritional, volatile flavor, and non-volatile taste components of four bamboo shoot cultivars (DB, DL, PA, and PV). The results revealed significant differences in sensory quality, color, hardness, and nutrient content among the four cultivars. Among these, the cultivars with the highest crude fiber and fat content showed the most significant differences, while those with the lowest moisture content showed the least difference. DB have the highest overall acceptability to consumers. Using HS-SPME-GC–MS, 43 volatile flavor compounds (VFCs) were identified from the four bamboo shoots, with 19 identified as differential VFCs based on VIP values and ROAV identified 20 VFCs. Conjunction analysis found that 8 VFCs were the primary causes of the differences in volatile flavors among the four bamboo shoot cultivars. A total of 403 non-volatile taste metabolites were identified from four bamboo shoots using LC–MS/MS, of which 259 non-volatile taste metabolites were significantly different and most of these metabolic constituents have been shown to be associated with disease treatment. KEGG enrichment analysis showed that there were 60 metabolic pathways significantly enriched for these non-volatile taste differential metabolites, and most of the differential metabolic pathways were related to amino acids, carbohydrates, and fatty acids metabolism. Moreover, fats and amino acids were identified as crucial factors contributing to the flavor variations in bamboo shoots. Additionally, amino acids, carbohydrates, cinnamic acids, and bitter compounds were recognized as significant contributors to the metabolic differences affecting the taste of bamboo shoots. The interactions among these compounds can also result in alterations in overall quality. These results clarify the quality characteristics of the four bamboo shoot cultivars and can serve as theoretical guidance for research on processing suitability, breeding of varieties, and studies of active ingredients in these bamboo shoot cultivars.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Min Zhang: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Validation, Software, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Lin Chen: Validation, Methodology, Investigation, Data curation, Conceptualization. Anhua Deng: Resources, Methodology. Liu Yang: Methodology. Hongling Li: Methodology. Shuguang Wang: Resources, Project administration, Methodology. Fang Li: Supervision. Huan Kan: Supervision, Resources, Project administration, Conceptualization. Yun Liu: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Resources, Project administration, Funding acquisition. Changwei Cao: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Supervision, Resources, Project administration, Methodology, Funding acquisition, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgments

This study was supported by the Biological Research and Utilization Team in Bamboo Resources of Yunnan Province (202405AS350029), Yunnan Provincial Science and Technology Plan Project (202401BD070001-102), and the Talent Introduction Research Project of Southwest Forestry University (110223002).

Footnotes

Appendix A

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fochx.2025.103390.

Contributor Information

Yun Liu, Email: liuyun@swfu.edu.cn.

Changwei Cao, Email: ccwylf1111@swfu.edu.cn.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

The following are the Supplementary data to this article: Table S1. Sensory evaluation indicators, standards and scores of bamboo shoots. Table S2. Relative content of volatile flavor compounds in four cultivars of bamboo shoots.

mmc1.docx (474.9KB, docx)

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

References

  1. Andersen B.V., Brockhoff P.B., Hyldig G. The importance of liking of appearance, −odour, −taste and-texture in the evaluation of overall liking. A comparison with the evaluation of sensory satisfaction. Food Quality and Preference. 2019;71:228–232. doi: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2018.07.005. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  2. Cai W., Jiang P., Liu Y., Miao X., Liu A. Distinct changes of taste quality and metabolite profile in different tomato cultivars revealed by LC–MS metabolomics. Food Chemistry. 2024;442, 138456 doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.138456. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Dong Y., Li Q., Guo Y., Zhao Y., Cao J. Comparison of physicochemical and in vitro hypoglycemic activity of bamboo shoot dietary fibers from different regions of Yunnan. Frontiers in Nutrition. 2023;9 doi: 10.3389/fnut.2022.1102671. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Fan L., Guo Z., Chen S. Multifaceted analyses reveal sugar and organic acid metabolism affecting the palatability in mulched Phyllostachys violascens shoots with varied sheath colors. LWT - Food Science and Technology. 2024;211, 116908 doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2024.116908. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  5. Fan L., Hu J., Guo Z., Chen S., He Q. Shoot nutrition and flavor variation in two Phyllostachys species: Does the quality of edible bamboo shoot diaphragm and flesh differ? Foods. 2023;12(6):1180. doi: 10.3390/foods12061180. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Fan Z., Shen H., Hu T., Yu L., Xu Y., Wu J., Yu Y. Effect of liquid nitrogen spray quick-freezing technology on the quality of bamboo shoots, Dendrocalamus brandisii from Yunnan Province, China. Journal of Food Engineering. 2024;368, 111916 doi: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2023.111916. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  7. Fang G., Lin X., Liang X., Wu J., Xu W., Hasi W., Dong B. Machine learning-driven 3D plasmonic cavity-in-cavity surface-enhanced Raman scattering platform with triple synergistic enhancement toward label-free detection of antibiotics in milk. Small. 2022;18(45):2204588. doi: 10.1002/smll.202204588. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Fang G., Lin X., Wu J., Xu W., Hasi W., Dong B. Porous nanoframe based plasmonic structure with high-density hotspots for the quantitative detection of gaseous benzaldehyde. Small. 2025;21(7):2408670. doi: 10.1002/smll.202408670. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Fuchs D., Hamberg M., Sköld C.M., Wheelock A.M., Wheelock C.E. An LC–MS/MS workflow to characterize 16 regio-and stereoisomeric trihydroxyoctadecenoic acids [S] Journal of Lipid Research. 2018;59(10):2025–2033. doi: 10.1194/jlr.d087429. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Furusawa Y., Kofujita H., Ashitani T. Possibility of using the tips obtained from the “Uradome” of moso bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens) as a food source. Journal of Wood Science. 2022;68(1):23. doi: 10.1186/s10086-022-02031-8. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  11. Gao Q., Jiang H., Tang F., Cao H.Q., Wu X.W., Qi F.F., Yang J. Evaluation of the bitter components of bamboo shoots using a metabolomics approach. Food & Function. 2019;10(1):90–98. doi: 10.1039/c8fo01820k. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Geng Q., Qin F., Zeng M., Wang Z., Chen Q., Zhang W., Chen J. Effects of heat treatment on the profile of volatile flavor components in bamboo shoots. Food Bioscience. 2024;58 doi: 10.1016/j.fbio.2024.103817. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  13. Gruzdev D.A., Musiyak V.V., Levit G.L., Krasnov V.P., Charushin V.N. Purine derivatives with antituberculosis activity. Russian Chemical Reviews. 2018;87(6):604. doi: 10.1070/rcr4772. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  14. Han X., Lin C., Liu H., Li S., Hu B., Zhang L. Allocholic acid protects against α-naphthylisothiocyanate-induced cholestasis in mice by ameliorating disordered bile acid homeostasis. Journal of Applied Toxicology. 2024;44(4):582–594. doi: 10.1002/jat.4562. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. He H., Jian C., Yang B., Wang J., Su X., Lv B., Guo Y. Investigating characteristic fingerprints and volatile flavor compound variations during the fermentation of Guangxi bamboo shoot using HS-GC–IMS and HS-SPME-GC–MS. Food Bioscience. 2024;62 doi: 10.1016/j.fbio.2024.105071. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  16. He Y., Cao X., Pan K., Shi W., Ying Y. 2024. Integrated transcriptome and metabolome analyses provided insight into the variation in quality of green bamboo (Bambusa oldhamii) shoots at different growth stages. Forests, 15(9), article 1582. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  17. Honma T. Discovery and synthesis of conjugated fatty acids from natural products. Journal of Oleo Science. 2025;74(3):241–249. doi: 10.5650/jos.ess24282. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Hou D., Lu H., Zhao Z., Pei J., Yang H., Wu A., Lin X. Integrative transcriptomic and metabolomic data provide insights into gene networks associated with lignification in postharvest lei bamboo shoots under low temperature. Food Chemistry. 2022;368, 130822 doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.130822. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Jiang J., Zhang Z., Bai Y., Wang X., Dou Y., Geng R., Gu L., Gao J. Chromosomal-level genome and metabolome analyses of highly heterozygous allohexaploid Dendrocalamus brandisii elucidate shoot quality and developmental characteristics. Journal of Integrative Plant Biology. 2024;66(6):1087–1105. doi: 10.1111/jipb.13592. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Kong C.K., Tan Y.N., Chye F.Y., Sit N.W. Nutritional composition and biological activities of the edible shoots of Bambusa vulgaris and Gigantochloa ligulata. Food. Bioscience. 2020;36, 100650 doi: 10.1016/j.fbio.2020.100650. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  21. Li D., Chu B., Li B., Wang X., Chen X., Gu Q. The difference analysis of physicochemical indexes and volatile flavor compounds of chili oil prepared from different cultivars of chili pepper. Food Research International. 2024;190, 114657 doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2024.114657. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Li J., Wang Z., Crane J., Wang Y. Integration of volatilomics and metabolomics unveils key flavor-related biological pathways in different carambola cultivars. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2023;71(28):10850–10862. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.3c02015. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Li Z., Xu X., Yang K., Zhu C., Liu Y., Gao Z. Multifaceted analyses reveal carbohydrate metabolism mainly affecting the quality of postharvest bamboo shoots. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2022;13 doi: 10.3389/fpls.2022.1021161. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Liu D., Wang F., Xiao G., Brennan C., Ying X., Bu Z., Ma L. Effects of cold plasma treatment on maintaining the quality of fresh-cut bamboo shoots during shelf-life storage. LWT - Food Science and Technology. 2023;185 doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2023.115151. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  25. Luo Z., Lai T., Fan Y., Yu C., Li W., Li M., Xu J. Transcriptome and targeted metabolome analysis of lipid profiles, nutrients compositions and volatile compounds in longissimus dorsi of different pig breeds. Animal Bioscience. 2024;38(5):1053. doi: 10.5713/ab.24.0564. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Ma T., Mo W., Lv B., Wang W., He H., Jian C., Guo Y. A review of the nutritional composition, storage challenges, processing technology and widespread use of bamboo shoots. Foods. 2024;13(22), 3539 doi: 10.3390/foods13223539. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Manickam S., Rajagopalan V.R., Kambale R., Rajasekaran R., Kanagarajan S., Muthurajan R. Plant metabolomics: Current initiatives and future prospects. Current Issues in Molecular Biology. 2023;45(11):8894–8906. doi: 10.3390/cimb45110558. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Nakagawara K., Takeuchi C., Ishige K. 5′-CMP and 5′-UMP alleviate dexamethasone-induced muscular atrophy in C2C12 myotubes. Biochemistry and Biophysics Reports. 2023;34, 101460 doi: 10.1016/j.bbrep.2023.101460. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Niyogi A., Bhattacharyya S., Pal S., Mukherjee S., Ghosh A. Uncovering Taxiphyllin in bamboo shoots: An analytical perspective. Food Chemistry. 2025;482, 144048 doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2025.144048. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Pais J.P., Magalhães M., Antoniuk O., Barbosa I., Freire R., Pires D., Constantino L. Benzoic acid derivatives as prodrugs for the treatment of tuberculosis. Pharmaceuticals. 2022;15(9):1118. doi: 10.3390/ph15091118. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Rahimi K., Nourishirazi A., Delaviz H., Ghotbeddin Z. Antinociceptive effects of gamma-linolenic acid in the formalin test in the rats. Annals of Medicine and Surgery. 2024;86(5):2677–2683. doi: 10.1097/MS9.0000000000002001. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Shahidi F., Hossain A. 2022. Role of lipids in food flavor generation. Molecules, 27(15), article 5014. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Tang J., Zhang Z., Zheng S., Gao N., Li Z., Li K. Changes of main nutrient components and volatile flavor substances in processing of canned bamboo shoots. Fermentation. 2021;7(4), 293 doi: 10.3390/fermentation7040293. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  34. Van Gemert L.J. Oliemans Punter & Partners BV; Zeist, the Netherlands: 2011. Odour thresholds. Compilations of odour threshold values in air, water and other media. [Google Scholar]
  35. Wang H., Wu B., Zhang J., Liu Y., Zhang M., Chen L., Cao C. Bamboo shoots improve the nutritional and sensory quality, and change flavor composition of chicken soup. Food Chemistry. 2024;X, 21, 101140 doi: 10.1016/j.fochx.2024.101140. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Wang H., Wu B., Zhang M., Chen L., Liu Y., Li Z., Cao C. Comparative analysis of drying characteristics, physicochemical properties and volatile flavor components of Dendrocalamus brandisii shoots under four drying techniques. LWT - Food Science and Technology. 2024;205 doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2024.116509. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  37. Wang X., Hasi W., Lin S., Han S., Fang G., Lin X. Plasmonic nanocavities with metallic spacer layers for ultrasensitive detection of Cr6+ ions. ACS Photonics. 2025;12(7):3754–3762. doi: 10.1021/acsphotonics.5c00721. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  38. Wang X., Yang L., Geng X., Shi W., Chen Y., Lu C. Integrative analysis of metabolome and transcriptome reveals the different metabolite biosynthesis profiles related to palatability in winter and spring shoot in moso bamboo. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry. 2023;202, 107973 doi: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2023.107973. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Wang Y., Chen J., Wang D., Ye F., He Y., Hu Z., Zhao G. A systematic review on the composition, storage, processing of bamboo shoots: Focusing the nutritional and functional benefits. Journal of Functional Foods. 2020;71, 104015 doi: 10.1016/j.jff.2020.104015. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  40. Wei J., Du J., Li K., Wang Y., Yang L., Li Z. The taste of pickled bamboo shoots: Evolution of metabolites based on electronic tongue, sensory evaluation, and non-targeted metabolomics. LWT - Food Science and Technology. 2025;223 doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2025.117708. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  41. Xu C., Feng J., Sun H., Yan M., Yang Q., Zhou X., Lin Q. Pharmacokinetics of 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde in normal and cerebral ischemia–reperfusion injury rats based on microdialysis technique. European Journal of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics. 2024;49(1):23–32. doi: 10.1007/s13318-023-00863-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Yu L., Hua K.D., Chen C.Q., Yue J.J., Yuan J.L. Metabolomic and transcriptomic analysis of bitter compounds in Dendrocalamopsis oldhamii shoots. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 2024;130, 106140 doi: 10.1016/j.jfca.2024.106140. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  43. Zhang Y., Wu L., Li Y., Yang J., Yang H., Zhao Y., Chen G. Bamboo shoot and its food applications in last decade: An undervalued edible resource from forest to feed future people. Trends in Food Science & Technology. 2024;146, 104399 doi: 10.1016/j.tifs.2024.104399. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  44. Zheng J., Zhang F., Zhou C., Lin M., Kan J. Comparison of flavor compounds in fresh and pickled bamboo shoots by GC–MS and GC-olfactometry. Food Science and Technology Research. 2014;20(1):129–138. doi: 10.3136/fstr.20.129. [DOI] [Google Scholar]

Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Supplementary Materials

The following are the Supplementary data to this article: Table S1. Sensory evaluation indicators, standards and scores of bamboo shoots. Table S2. Relative content of volatile flavor compounds in four cultivars of bamboo shoots.

mmc1.docx (474.9KB, docx)

Data Availability Statement

Data will be made available on request.

Articles from Food Chemistry: X are provided here courtesy of Elsevier

RESOURCES