Abstract
外泌体是多种细胞分泌的具有双层膜结构的小囊泡,广泛分布于多种体液中,内含蛋白质、核酸等成分,能介导细胞间的信息传递,参与细胞的多种生理病理活动。肝细胞、肝窦内皮细胞等细胞均能够以外泌体为介质与肝星状细胞进行信息传递,调控肝星状细胞的活化、迁移、凋亡等生物学活性。现就外泌体对肝星状细胞功能调控的研究进展进行综述。
Keywords: 外泌体, 肝星状细胞, 活化, 迁移, 凋亡, 自噬
Abstract
Exosomes are small vesicles with a bilayer membrane structure secreted by a variety of cells. They are widely distributed in a variety of body fluids and contain proteins, nucleic acids and other components. They can mediate information transmission between cells and participate in a variety of physiological and pathological activities of cells. Hepatocytes, hepatic sinus endothelial cells and other cells were able to communicate with hepatic stellate cells via exosomes, and regulate the activation, migration, apoptosis and other biological activities of hepatic stellate cells.In this review,the recent advances in the regulation of exosomes on the biological activity of hepatic stellate cells were reviewed.
Keywords: Exosomes, Hepatic stellate cells, Activation, Migration, Apoptosis, Autophagy
外泌体是一种由多种细胞分泌到细胞外基质的小囊泡,广泛分布于各种体液中,内含RNA、蛋白质、脂质等成分,可以介导细胞间信息交流,参与细胞生长、增殖、分化、凋亡等多种生理病理活动[1]。已有研究表明,外泌体在肝纤维化进程中发挥重要作用[2],肝星状细胞(hepatic stellate cell, HSC)活化是肝纤维化发生发展的关键环节,受多种介质调控,如转化生长因子-1(transforming growth factor-β 1,TGF-β 1)、趋化因子及其配体[3]等。来源于肝脏多种不同细胞的外泌体均可通过转移RNA、蛋白质等成分对HSC生物学活性进行调控[2],本文就此综述。
一、外泌体简介
外泌体最初是指各种细胞释放的携带5′-核苷酸酶活性且来源不明的亚单位,近年主要指代细胞分泌的直径为30~100nm且具有双层膜结构的囊泡,来源于多囊泡内体(multivesicular endosomes, MVEs),属于细胞外囊泡的一种[1]。外泌体作为细胞衍生物具有相同的特征,均携带与生物发生和分泌有关的“外泌体标记”蛋白质,而不同来源外泌体上反映细胞表型状态的特异性蛋白质和核酸则存在显著差异,这些差异取决于细胞的状态及类型[4]。
外泌体曾经被认为是清除细胞废物的载体,但随着研究的深入,研究人员发现外泌体不仅转运废物,还能携带亲代细胞的信息,参与各种细胞生物过程及细胞之间的信息交流[1,2]。作为细胞间通讯的载体,外泌体可以将携带的蛋白质、脂质、遗传物质传递给靶细胞,从而调节靶细胞的生理功能[1]。外泌体作用于靶细胞的途径有多种,包括与靶细胞表面物质直接结合、通过抗原呈递启动靶细胞内信号通路以及被靶细胞内吞后释放其内容物以激活受体细胞下游事件等[1]。有学者利用携带绿色荧光蛋白的转基因鼠以及可以表达特定基因的肿瘤细胞制作了报告系统,在体内直观地观察到肿瘤细胞来源的外泌体被全身各器官组织细胞摄取,进一步证实了由外泌体介导的信息传递广泛存在于机体[5]。
外泌体不仅通过信息传递介导机体的生理过程,还可以参与机体组织损伤的修复过程。来源于胚胎干细胞或间充质干细胞来源的外泌体在减轻细胞损伤和组织损伤中发挥重要作用[6]。同时,许多研究也显示外泌体具有作为疾病检测和预后标志物的良好应用前景[4]。
二、外泌体调控HSC活化
肝纤维化是各种慢性肝病向肝硬化发展过程中的必经阶段,是各种致病因子导致的一种可逆的肝组织损伤过度修复反应,主要表现为细胞外基质(extracellular matrix, ECM)过度增生和沉积,致使肝脏组织结构异常改变,从而影响肝脏正常的生理功能[3]。不同病因引起的肝脏慢性损伤均可刺激HSC,使其活化为肌成纤维细胞,并大量增殖,同时获得细胞迁移能力,向损伤部位聚集,参与炎症反应和损伤修复,大量合成ECM,从而促进肝纤维化的进程[3]。因此抑制HSC的活化、诱导其凋亡是逆转肝纤维化的关键环节[3]。近年来研究表明,肝细胞、肝窦内皮细胞等细胞均能够以外泌体为载体与HSC进行信息交流,从而调控HSC的生物学活性[2]。
1.外泌体促进HSC活化:如前所述,外泌体的数量和成分均会因来源细胞及机体所处的不同生理或病理状态而异,如与健康志愿者和病毒应答期患者相比,慢性丙型肝炎患者血清外泌体中CD81含量明显升高[7]。来源于HCV感染的肝细胞外泌体高表达mi R-192,可以刺激HSC内TGF-β 1的表达,从而诱导HSC活化[8]。Devhare等[9]发现感染HCV的肝细胞外泌体高表达mi R-19a,该外泌体与HSC整合后,以HSC内的细胞因子信号传导抑制因子3(suppressor of cytokine signaling 3,SOCS 3)为靶点,诱导转录激活因子3(activator of transcription, STAT 3)介导的TGF-β1表达,继而刺激HSC活化。Lee等[10]发现正常肝细胞经棕榈酸(palmitic acid, PA)刺激后,外泌体分泌明显增多,外泌体中的mi R-192含量也显著增加。该外泌体可诱导HSC高表达活化标志物α-平滑肌肌动蛋白(alpha smooth muscle actin,α-SMA)和Ⅰ型胶原(collagen Ⅰ, Col.Ⅰ),促进HSC的活化。另一项研究发现受损肝细胞分泌的外泌体能够激活HSC中Toll样受体3(tell-like receptor 3,TLR3),从而刺激γδT细胞内IL-17A的表达,当HSC上TLR3基因沉默时γδT细胞生成的IL-17A显著减少[11]。IL-17A能够激活STAT3进而增加HSC中α-SMA、TGF-β1和Col.Ⅰ的表达[12],提示肝细胞来源外泌体能够介导HSC上TLR 3的活化,加强γ δT细胞上IL-17A的生成,从而加重肝纤维化进程。
肿瘤来源外泌体在HSC活化中具有重要意义。Angi等[13]对葡萄膜黑色素瘤细胞(uveal melanoma, UM)及正常人眼脉络膜黑素细胞(normal choroidal melanocytes, NCM)外泌体进行蛋白质组学分析,发现与NCM外泌体相比,UM外泌体内富含m TORC1-S6K信号通路介导HSC活化的蛋白质。另一项研究发现肝癌细胞外泌体高表达mi R-21,经该外泌体孵育过的人HSC(LX-2细胞系)中mi R-21表达上调,并伴随HSC活化。进一步研究发现该外泌体诱导的HSC活化与TEN/PDK 1/AKT信号通路有关,加入AKT抑制剂MK-2206预处理HSC能够逆转肝癌细胞外泌体诱导的HSC激活。同时该外泌体还能够增加HSC的S期比例,促进HSC增殖[14]。
2.外泌体抑制HSC活化:去除诱发肝损伤的因素,肝纤维化能够逆转,这与活化HSC的消失及ECM生成减少有关。肝病领域针对HSC活化机制的研究已较为详尽,肝纤维化恢复过程中活化HSC的转归逐步受到人们的重视。结缔组织生长因子2(connective tissue growth factor, CCN2)在肝纤维化中高表达,能促进HSC的活化、黏附及增殖[15],抑制CCN2表达能够延缓肝纤维化的进程。有研究发现CCN2在肝纤维化小鼠肝组织及活化的原代小鼠HSC中高表达,并与HSC外泌体内mi R-199a-5p、mi R-214的表达呈现负相关。为进一步探究mi R-199a-5p、mi R-214与CCN2及HSC活化的关系,采用高表达mi R-199a-5p或mi R-214的静止期HSC分泌的外泌体分别孵育活化的HSC,发现mi R-199a-5p、mi R-214均能够与活化HSC上CCN2 3'端非翻译区靶向结合,降低CCN2的活性,抑制HSC活化,从而抑制CCN2介导的下游物质α-SMA及Col.Ⅰ的表达[16,17]。此外,Chen等[18]研究发现Twist相关蛋白1(twist-related protein 1, Twist 1)在纤维化及乙醇处理过的HSC外泌体中下调,这种下调与mi R-214有关。随后证实了Twist 1能够以外泌体为载体在HSC间穿梭,并与靶细胞内mi R-214启动子中的E-box结合,转录激活mi R-214的启动子、增强mi R-214表达,抑制CCN2表达。同时Chen等明确了HSC来源外泌体与HSC之间通过细胞整合素及硫酸肝素蛋白多糖进行信息转运[19]。另有研究对比正常肝细胞外泌体及乙醇处理后肝细胞外泌体对HSC的作用,发现正常肝细胞外泌体能抑制活化HSC中CCN2、α-SMA、Col.Ⅰ的表达,进一步研究发现肝细胞外泌体通过与HSC上的整合素αvβ3或α5β1靶向结合,从而发挥抑制HSC活化的作用,采用抗整合素αvβ3或抗整合素α5β1分别孵育HSC,均能显著抑制肝细胞外泌体与HSC的结合[20]。
既往研究表明mi R-122可以抑制HSC活化[3],Lou等[21]采用慢病毒介导的pre-mi R-122或pre-mi R-67对脂肪组织来源的间充质干细胞(adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells, AMSCs)进行修饰,使mi R-122或mi R-67在AMSCs上高表达(h AMSC-122或h AMSC-67),并采用h AMSC-122或h AMSC-67分泌的外泌体孵育LX-2,结果显示,与h AMSC-67外泌体孵育后的LX-2相比,经h AMSC-122外泌体孵育的LX-2细胞增殖明显受限,G0/G1期所占比例明显升高。同时与HSC增殖及胶原形成有关的mi R-122的靶基因P4HA1、IGF1R、CCNG1的表达均明显下降,Col.Ⅰ的表达也显著下降,从而进一步阐明了外泌体来源的mi R-122抑制HSC合成胶原的作用机制。
三、外泌体参与HSC迁移
活化的HSC迁移到炎症损伤部位并在局部聚集,合成大量ECM,形成纤维间隔,对纤维化的形成有重要意义,因此阻止HSC的迁移是延缓肝纤维化的重要策略之一。HSC迁移受到多种介质调控,如血小板衍生生长因子[3](platelet derived growth factor, PDGF)、鞘氨醇激酶1[22](sphingosine kinase 1,Sph K1)等。近来人们发现外泌体在调控HSC迁移中也发挥了重要作用。脂毒性损伤的肝细胞外泌体高表达mi R-128-3p,该外泌体被HSC摄取后,能够促进HSC迁移,而mi R-128-3p沉默的肝细胞外泌体不能促进HSC迁移。进一步研究发现,肝细胞外泌体的HSC内吞作用依赖外泌体的表面蛋白Vanin-1,拮抗Vanin-1的表达能阻断外泌体被HSC摄取,抑制HSC迁移[23]。来源于肝窦内皮细胞(liver snusoidal endothelial cell, LSEC)的外泌体高表达Sph K1,可上调HSC内AKT磷酸化促进HSC迁移,而来自Sph K1基因沉默的LSEC外泌体不能诱导HSC迁移,此外,外泌体携带的信息进入HSC需要依赖外泌体的黏附作用,这些外泌体表达纤连蛋白(fibronectin, FN)与HSC表面的整合素相结合从而黏附并进入HSC,阻断FN-整合素相互作用,可降低外泌体与HSC结合,从而减少HSC迁移;同时,他们还发现该外泌体的HSC内吞作用依赖于发动蛋白-2(dynamin-2, dyn2),采用转染以及抑制剂阻断dyn2后,HSC迁移也明显减少。提示,LSEC来源的外泌体携带Sphk1在HSC迁移过程中发挥重要作用[22]。
四、外泌体参与HSC凋亡
细胞凋亡是以细胞皱缩、胞膜内陷、染色质浓缩为形态学特征的细胞程序性死亡,是细胞正常的生理过程[24]。诱导和促进活化的HSC发生凋亡,也是治疗肝纤维化的一种措施[3]。Chen等[25]发现正常小鼠血清外泌体表达mi R-151-3p,-483-5p和-532-5p,能抑制活化HSC增殖及CCN2、α-SMA、Col.Ⅰ的表达。同时该外泌体在体内能改善CCl4诱导肝纤维化小鼠肝组织内的炎性浸润及胶原沉积,降低肝组织内α-SMA、Col.Ⅰ及细胞凋亡标志物Caspase3的表达,提示外泌体可以参与HSC凋亡干预肝纤维化的进程。
五、外泌体参与HSC自噬
自噬是一种自食的分解代谢途径,在器官稳态中起着重要作用。自噬在肝纤维化中是把双刃剑,既可以促进肝纤维化进程,又能够抑制肝纤维化的进展,因此调节自噬水平是治疗肝纤维化的重要途径之一[26]。Qu等[27]采用miR-181-5p质粒转染脂肪来源间充质肝细胞(adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells, ADSCs),构建miR-181-5p高表达的ADSCs外泌体,发现外泌体介导的miR-181-5p在体外能够逆转TGF-β 1诱导的大鼠HSC(HSC-T6细胞系)表达STAT 3、Bcl-2上调,增加自噬标志物LC3 Ⅱ的表达,诱导HSC自噬;此外,该外泌体诱导的自噬依赖自噬相关蛋白Beclin-1的表达,采用小干扰RNA阻断Beclin- 1后该外泌体诱导的HSC自噬被抑制。同时该外泌体在体内能够改善CCl4诱导肝纤维化小鼠肝组织内炎性浸润,降低肝组织中Col.Ⅰ表达。提示外泌体介导的mi R-181-5p能抑制HSC中STAT 3/Bcl-2/Beclin-1信号通路进而诱导HSC自噬,减缓肝纤维化的进程。
六、展望
综上所述,肝细胞、LSEC等细胞来源的外泌体,可以通过转移蛋白、RNA等物质调控HSC的生物学活性,但目前对外泌体调控HSC生物学活性的具体机制尚未完全阐明。肝纤维化是慢性肝病发展中的共同通路和关键时期,延缓并逆转肝纤维化对疾病预后具有重要意义。近年以外泌体为载体传递药物引起了人们的广泛关注,有研究显示,姜黄素诱导及包裹姜黄素的外泌体具有抗炎、抗氧化、内皮保护、神经保护和抗癌等特性[28]。既往研究表明黄芪总皂苷[29]、苦参素[30]等中药组分治疗肝纤维化疗效确切,但目前对中药抗肝纤维化的研究主要集中在分子水平,尚缺乏与外泌体有关的研究。中药能否通过干预肝内细胞外泌体的分泌进而影响HSC的生物活性,从而发挥抗肝纤维化的作用,仍有待进一步探索,这也有助于进一步揭示中药抗肝纤维化的的作用机制。如果以外泌体为载体,使携带药物的外泌体与细胞靶向结合,干预HSC的活化、增殖及迁移,可以阻止甚至逆转肝纤维化,改善疾病的预后,有助于采取更多的措施提高抗肝纤维化的疗效。
利益冲突
所有作者均声明不存在利益冲突
作者贡献声明
叶倩男:综述;平键、徐列明:审校
Funding Statement
基金项目:国家自然科学基金(81773980)
Fund program: National Natural Science Foundation of China(81773980)
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