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Chinese Journal of Hepatology logoLink to Chinese Journal of Hepatology
editorial
. 2020 Apr 20;28(4):302–305. [Article in Chinese] doi: 10.3760/cma.j.cn501113-20200323-00136

肝衰竭前期的发病机制进展

Advances in the pathogenesis of pre-hepatic failure

Tan Wenting 1, Deng Guohong 1,通信作者:
Editor: 彭 智
PMCID: PMC12770404  PMID: 32403881

Abstract

Domestic scholars recognize that patients have a "pre-hepatic failure" before they progress to sub-acute and acute-on-chronic liver failure stage, which is also the golden window for effective clinical intervention, so early identification and intervention during this period can reduce the incidence and mortality of liver failure. The Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Liver Failure (2018 Edition) issued by the Chinese Medical Association clearly defines the "pre-stage" of liver failure. And from the perspective of pathophysiological mechanism, the pre-hepatic failure corresponds to the stage of acute liver injury/acute decompensation, inflammation factor/immunologic derangement. This article briefly introduces the research progress on substantive connotation and pathogenesis of pre-hepatic failure, and puts forward some problems to be exploredin the future.

Keywords: Hepatitis B, Liver failure, Pre-liver failure, Cirrhosis


肝衰竭是多种因素引起的严重肝脏损害,导致合成、解毒、代谢和生物转化功能严重障碍或失代偿,出现以黄疸、凝血功能障碍、肝肾综合征、肝性脑病、腹水等为主要表现的一组临床症候群,病死率高[1]。由于肝衰竭的病因、诱因、病程、并发症复杂多样,病理生理学机制上肝细胞炎症坏死和肝纤维化/肝硬化、急性加重和慢性肝损害交互重叠、混杂,肝衰竭和肝外器官衰竭交互影响,各国学者对肝衰竭的定义、分类、分型方面存在分歧和重叠[2,3]。按照临床特点和基础肝病,国际上目前大致划分为急性肝衰竭(acute liver failure, ALF)、慢加急性肝衰竭(acute-on-chronic liver failure, ACLF)和慢性肝衰竭(chronic liver failure, CLF)。本文简要介绍肝衰竭前期的实质内涵及发病机制方面的研究进展。

一、肝衰竭前期的概念及病理生理

肝衰竭的病因呈显著的地理差异和社会卫生发展阶段差异,肝炎病毒感染、酒精性肝病、药物等急性肝损伤因素是肝衰竭主要病因[1,2,4]。急性肝损伤的诱因主要包括乙型肝炎病毒(HBV)感染、急性甲/戊型肝炎、大量饮酒、肝毒性药物/毒物(抗结核药物、抗生素、草药、抗癫痫药物、毒蘑菇、农药等)、急性食管静脉曲张出血、脓毒症、经动脉的化疗栓塞等。

不论肝衰竭的具体定义差别,国内外同行在临床实践中均认识到,患者在进展到亚急性和慢加急性肝衰竭之前,有一定的黄金窗口期,在此期间进行早期预警和干预,可以降低肝衰竭的发病率和病死率[4]。我国学者因此提出了“肝衰竭前期”的概念[5,6,7],用以描述患者发展到肝衰竭之前,肝脏功能出现严重急性恶化的阶段,表现为总胆红素迅速上升、凝血酶原活动度(prothrombin activity, PTA)迅速下降,短期(4周)内有进展至ACLF的风险。

中华医学会《肝衰竭诊治指南(2018年版)》提出,亚急性肝衰竭和ACLF可分为早期、中期和晚期,在未达到标准时的前期要提高警惕,须密切关注病情发展。2018版指南对肝衰竭“前期”做了明确定义:(1)极度乏力,并有明显厌食、呕吐和腹胀等严重消化道症状;(2)丙氨酸转氨酶(ALT)和/或天冬氨酸转氨酶(AST)大幅升高,黄疸进行性加深[85.5μmol/L≤总胆红素(TBil)<171μmol/L]或每日上升≥17.1μmol/L;(3)有出血倾向,40%<PTA≤50%[或国际标准化比值(international normalized ratio,INR)<1.5][1]。肝衰竭患者从急性发作、炎症损伤、系统性炎症反应综合征(systematic inflammatory response syndrome, SIRS)、代偿性抗炎反应综合征(compensatory anti-inflammatory response syndrome, CARS)到混合性拮抗反应综合征(mixed antagonist response syndrome, MARS)、持续性炎症抑制及高分解代谢综合征(persistent inflammatory, immunosuppressed, catabolic syndrome, PICS)、再生反应等多环节事件的幅度和次序,决定着患者是炎症消退-康复还是进展到器官衰竭[4]。从病理生理机制来看,肝衰竭前期对应于急性肝损伤/急性失代偿、SIRS阶段。如果在此阶段能识别、区分普通肝炎/失代偿与肝衰竭前期,可及时给予抗病毒治疗、短程激素治疗、血浆置换等措施阻断其进展为肝衰竭,缩短住院病程,提供救治成功率,降低病死率[5,6]。在肝硬化急性失代偿(acute decompensation, AD)患者中,白细胞计数、血浆C反应蛋白(C-reactive protein, CRP)、细胞因子[如IL-6、肿瘤坏死因子(tumor necrosis factor α, TNF-α)]、趋化因子(如IL-8)水平在ACLF患者中显著高于非ACLF患者[8]。白细胞计数和CRP水平随着ACLF严重程度升高而升高[9]。宿主过度的炎症反应引起组织损伤、器官功能失调或衰竭。因此,过度炎症活化在肝衰竭的发病机制中发挥着核心作用[10,11]

二、炎症因子风暴与过度炎症活化

Sole等检测了ACLF患者的血清炎症因子谱,并作了主成份分析(principal component analysis, PCA)。和单纯肝硬化急性失代偿患者相比,ACLF患者血清显著异常的因子有12种:血管细胞黏附分子-1(vascular cell adhesion molecule 1, VCAM-1)、血管内皮生长因子A(vascular endothelial growth factor A , VEGF-A)、趋化因子CX3、巨噬细胞炎性蛋白1 α(macrophage inflammatory protein l-alpha, MIP-1 α)、eotaxin、CXCL10、RANTES、粒-巨噬细胞集落刺激因子(granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, GM-CSF)、IL-1、IL-2、细胞间黏附分子-1(intercellular adhesion molecule 1, ICAM-1)以及单核细胞趋化蛋白(monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, MCP-1)。ACLF相关炎症因子主要与白细胞(尤其是单核细胞和巨噬细胞)迁移和趋化通路有关[12]。Claria等检测了522例失代偿肝硬化患者(237例存在ACLF)、40例健康对照的29种血浆细胞因子、氧化还原态循环白蛋白(human nonmercaptalbumin 2,HNA2)、肾素和肽素(反映系统性循环功能紊乱),而ACLF患者血浆细胞因子、HNA2、肾素和肽素水平均显著高于非ACLF患者,不同诱因(急性酒精性肝炎、细菌感染及其他诱因)的ACLF患者血浆细胞因子变化谱是有差异的。基线时相点系统性炎症反应的严重程度与ACLF的发生率及严重程度显著相关[13]。这些结果提示,系统性炎症反应是肝硬化患者发生ACLF的主要驱动因素。

随着SIRS的发生及持续,患者出现循环系统动力学增强、平均动脉压降低,毛细血管渗漏和组织灌注不足导致微循环紊乱等,引发器官衰竭[14]。SIRS 导致40% 的ACLF 患者即使没有明显的感染,也出现器官衰竭[15]。和没有SIRS 的患者相比,SIRS与更严重的脑病、细菌感染率上升、肾功能衰竭、高病死率相关。SIRS 持续7d以上或者住院第1周新发生SIRS,导致进展为肝衰竭,病死率显著增加(SIRS 组为82%,非SIRS 组为48.7%,P<0.05)[16]

强烈的细胞因子风暴和全身炎症反应,导致能量消耗巨大,还可导致代谢异常。最近,Moreau等对650例肝硬化急性失代偿患者、181例ACLF患者、43例代偿性肝硬化患者和29例健康对照者进行血清代谢组学分析表明,38种代谢产物可特异表征ACLF 患者,代谢产物越高,血浆的炎症因子水平越高(TNF-α、可溶性CD206、可溶性CD163等)。异常升高的38种代谢产物涉及蛋白分解、脂质分解、氨基酸代谢、线粒体外的葡萄糖酵解等途径,提示线粒体产生ATP 的β-脂肪酸氧化途径功能受损,导致器官功能衰竭[17]

三、天然免疫活化机制

细菌易位可导致危及生命的感染,比如自发性细菌性腹膜炎。肠道菌群可释放内毒素、脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide, LPS)入血,导致门静脉及肝脏产生高水平IL-6和TNF[18]。有研究显示,细菌易位随Child-Pugh评分升高而线性增加(Child-Pugh评分A、B、C级肝硬化患者对应的细菌易位率分别为3.4%、8.1%、30.8%)[19]。天然模式识别受体(pattern-recognition receptors, PRRs),如NOD2、Toll样受体4(Toll-like receptor 4, TLR-4)、TLR-2等蛋白识别独特的细菌分子结构,即病原相关分子模式(pathogen-associated molecular patterns, PAMPs)[11]。严重酒精性肝炎患者肝组织高表达CXCL趋化因子(比如IL-8),趋化中性粒细胞侵润,引发肝脏病变[20]。酒精性肝炎患者可能发生肠道细菌PAMPs通过门静脉易位到肝脏。氧化应激和细菌PAMP均可刺激肝脏枯否氏细胞产生CXCL趋化因子[21]。最近Bruns等进行的前瞻性多中心研究对218例有感染迹象的肝硬化患者进行循环和腹水细菌DNA检测结果表明,细菌DNA阳性与自发性细菌性腹膜炎、血流感染、ACLF、肝性脑病及炎症因子相关[22]

ACLF患者可出现肝组织中性粒细胞升高,这些中性粒细胞主要是功能紊乱的中性粒细胞,表现为静息期呼吸爆发增强、吞噬功能降低,导致患者容易感染,并与肝衰竭严重程度相关[23]。ACLF患者单核细胞产生TNF能力下降,人白细胞抗原DR分子(human leukocyte antigen DR, HLA-DR)表达降低,表明其功能存在紊乱。HLA-DR表达持续降低的ACLF患者预后差,脓毒症、多器官衰竭发生率和病死率上升。在临床恢复的过程中,患者单核细胞表面HLA-DR表达也随之上升[24]。酪氨酸蛋白酶M er(Tyrosine-protein kinase Mer, MERTK)是免疫细胞表面的负调控分子。ACLF患者单核细胞表面MERTK表达增加,与SIRS和脓毒症发生率呈正相关,与HLA-DR表达呈负相关[25]。树突状细胞(DC)分为mDC和pDC。pDC主要发挥调控免疫耐受和免疫抑制的作用,从血液募集到肝脏,调节CD8+T细胞,减少干扰素γ(IFN-γ)产生,减轻肝细胞损伤[26]。入院基线mDC数量低的患者,病死率高。生存的ACLF患者,可以见到其外周血和肝组织mDC数量从初期的快速下降到恢复期的上升[27]。粒细胞集落刺激因子及甲泼尼龙治疗的患者,也可见到mDC数量上升与恢复相关[28]

肝硬化患者天然模式识别受体基因(如NOD2、TLR-4、TLR-2等)或核受体基因NR1H4单核苷酸多态性导致对严重细菌感染的风险增加[29]。TLR-2基因GT微卫星序列和NOD2的变异均是肝硬化患者发生自发性细菌性腹膜炎的独立风险因素(独立风险OR值分别为3.8和3.3,联合风险OR值为11.3)[30]。TLR-4介导内毒素诱导的肝损伤,其表达水平高低决定组织细胞对内毒素的敏感性。最近有研究发现,肝硬化患者肝脏TLR-4水平升高,循环的TLR-4配体也升高(P<0.001),对内毒素的敏感性升高。肝衰竭小鼠模型中,TLR-4高表达可促进肝细胞由凋亡性死亡向坏死性死亡切换。TLR-4抑制剂TAK-242可以抑制LPS诱导的细胞因子分泌和肝细胞死亡,减轻细胞因子风暴水平[31]

四、特异性免疫活化机制

特异性免疫系统的T细胞、B细胞也在肝衰竭发生过程中发挥着重要作用。Suslov等的研究证实,慢性HBV感染本身并不活化天然免疫反应,但患者肝组织用TLR-3激动剂刺激,能产生干扰素及干扰素诱导基因(ISG)表达,说明HBV是逃避PRR识别而不是抑制天然免疫通路[32]。临床实践中,干扰素治疗的适应证为转氨酶升高的患者,也从侧面说明先有免疫损伤、肝炎活化之后,才能有效利用干扰素激活肝脏的天然免疫。Farci等[33]观察到HBV-ALF患者的肝组织有明显的B细胞反应,大量浆细胞浸润、聚集,分泌HBc Ag特异性的IgG和Ig M抗体,并伴有补体沉积。这些表明HBV-ACLF患者存在显著的免疫病理特征。Kim等发现甲型肝炎病毒(HAV)感染相关的肝衰竭与HAV受体HAVCR1(即TIM1)一个6氨基酸插入(157ins MTTTVP)显著相关。功能实验表明,157ins MTTTVP插入型TIM1分子能更有效地结合HAV,可导致自然杀伤T细胞针对HAV感染肝细胞的溶胞活性增强[34]

ACLF患者的免疫抑制状态,还可能与产转化生长因子β(TGF-β)Treg细胞数量上升有关[35]。活动性乙型肝炎患者肝组织IL-23、IL-17A和TNF表达显著高于健康对照,同时外周血和肝内CD4+Foxp3+Treg细胞也显著升高,表明乙型肝炎患者促炎因子IL-23/IL-17升高的同时,也伴随着Treg的活化[36]。唐艳等研究了Treg亚群与慢性HBV感染免疫损伤的关系,发现CD39+CD4+Foxp3+Treg与HBV载量正相关,与肝损伤程度呈负相关[37]。在重型乙型肝炎患者中,分泌IL-17A的CD4+CD45RA-Foxp3lowTreg亚群(non-Treg)显著升高。同时,发挥免疫抑制作用的是CD4+CD45RA-Foxp3high活化Treg亚群(a Treg)。经HLA-DRB1分型后,发现在HLA-DR9等位患者中,HBc Ag81-105表位仅活化a Treg亚群,而在同样条件下HBc Ag1-30和HBc Ag49-69表位刺激却活化的是non-Treg亚群[38]

单核细胞、枯否氏细胞、DC细胞分泌的TGF-β和IL-6可诱导产IL-17A的CD4 T细胞(Th17)。Th17/Treg比例与ACLF患者的生存率呈负相关[39]。Th17细胞亚群在乙型肝炎患者外周血和肝组织的频率显著升高,且与HBV病毒载量和肝损伤程度呈正相关[40],HBc Ag可刺激HBV病毒特异性Th17亚群的产生[41]。Gehring等发现在慢性HBV感染者肝组织存在一种HBV特异的产CXCL-8的CD4T细胞,CXCL-8能导致单核细胞和粒细胞浸润,引发肝损伤。这种HBV特异的产CXCL-8的CD4T细胞受到IL-7和IL-15的诱导[42]

肝细胞受IFN-γ诱导后可产生T细胞特异的趋化因子CXCL10(IP10)。我们发现乙型肝炎发作的患者血清和肝组织CXCL10水平显著升高,重型肝炎组患者显著高于无症状携带组[43]。Mo等检测并比较了71例HBV-ACLF患者和65例慢性乙型肝炎患者外周血Th22、Th17、IL-22和IL-17的水平,发现HBV-ACLF患者Th22、Th17、IL-22和IL-17均升高,而Th1亚群减少;Th22和IL-22水平与ACLF严重程度相关,基线IL-22水平与病死率呈正相关[44]。我们通过对68例低炎症及28例高炎症患者外周血样本进行分析,发现一类HBV特异性TNF-αhighT-betlowCD4 T细胞新亚群,是慢性HBV感染患者的优势亚群,处于Th分化的早期阶段。该群细胞在高炎症患者中大量活化且与患者重度肝损伤相关,在抗原清除过程中可向经典的IFN-γhighT-bethighCD4 T细胞亚群转化,该分化过程伴随着转录因子T-bet、效应分子IL-21的上调[45]。当前主流观点认为慢性病毒感染致T细胞处于耗竭状态,无法有效介导病毒清除。我们的研究则提示,HBV特异性TNF-α+CD4 T细胞很可能是处于分化早期T细胞而非耗竭T细胞,其向IFN-γ+CD4 T细胞分化受阻而异常活化是导致重度肝损伤的重要因素。这些研究发现表明,病毒抗原特异性的CD4 T细胞应答和极化类型可能是慢性HBV感染免疫损伤引发炎症因子风暴的关键驱动因素[46]

五、展望

已有的观察证据表明,肝衰竭前期患者存在严重的免疫失调,包括了从抗原提呈、效应细胞功能到细胞因子释放的多个环节,表现出过度的SIRS、缺陷的CARS以及对细菌感染的易感性上升,类似脓毒症的炎症反应特点[4,35]。由于缺乏动物模型,且肝衰竭的病因和诱因存在很大的异质性,多数研究借用脓毒症SIRS的指标体系,且观察点往往位于病程的中后期,以至于目前我们对肝衰竭前期的肝脏免疫学应答及免疫病理过程(活化信号、放大过程、肝内免疫应答、肝细胞坏死等)仍然知之甚少。今后需要从几个方面加强研究:(1)针对单一病因的肝衰竭前期展开前瞻性连续观察,比如单纯HBV相关肝衰竭前期、酒精性肝衰竭前期、药物性肝衰竭前期等队列。(2)建立适宜的肝衰竭动物模型,明确参与肝衰竭前期的活化信号及放大过程中具体的效应细胞、细胞因子、放大环路及其先后次序。(3)加强肝衰竭前期患者的肝组织病理学及肝内免疫学研究[47]。由于肝衰竭前期患者大多存在凝血时间延长和腹水,肝穿刺活体组织检查有一定风险,经颈静脉肝穿刺活体组织检查新技术是较为安全的方式。同时引入液体活检、新型标记影像学、吲哚菁绿清除率等新指标进行肝衰竭前期患者坏死类型、肝储备功能评估[48,49]

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作者贡献声明

谭文婷:撰写;邓国宏:总体设计、审校及修改

Funding Statement

基金项目:国家科技重大专项(2018ZX10723203);国家自然科学基金(81930061、81900579);重庆市自然科学基金(cstc2019jcyj-zdxm X0004)

Fund program: National Science and Technology Major Program (2018ZX10723203);National Natural Science Foundation of China (81930061, 81900579);Chongqing Natural Science Foundation (cstc2019jcyj-zdxmX0004)

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