History as Therapy: A Novel Interdisciplinary Framework for Meaning-making and Well-being

Abstract

This paper introduces History Therapy (HT)—an interdisciplinary framework that integrates historical knowledge with psychological and philosophical approaches to meaning-making, well-being, and happiness. HT addresses the contemporary crisis of meaning, marked by mental health issues and feelings of emptiness among diverse populations, from young people facing existential uncertainty to adults distressed by serious medical diagnoses. HT provides a method for participants to explore and analyze the worldviews of people from other eras and civilizations and compare their attitudes and beliefs with those of the past. This fosters deep self-reflection, new perspectives on life’s questions, a better understanding of identity, and new meanings, all of which contribute to personal transformation and psychological well-being. Prior studies mainly focused on psychological or philosophical interventions to address the crisis of meaning. In contrast, HT provides a framework that uses curated historical “cases” to expose participants to alternative cultural worldviews, thereby catalyzing novel forms of self-reflection. This integrates historical knowledge in a structured, replicable manner and enhances meaning-centered therapies with interdisciplinary perspectives from anthropology, archaeology, history, and psychology. HT targets individuals seeking deeper self-knowledge and personal meaning, along with therapists and coaches interested in expanding their professional practice with historical knowledge. This article discusses future research directions and potential applications of HT to develop and consolidate the new method as a valuable addition to the humanities, social sciences, and mental health disciplines.

Introduction

In an era of increasing mental health challenges, many individuals experience a crisis of meaning in their lives. Traditional therapeutic models address this crisis through psychological and philosophical lenses; yet the potential of historical knowledge remains largely untapped. History Therapy (HT) offers a novel interdisciplinary approach that leverages historical perspectives to foster self-reflection, meaning-making, and psychological growth. By engaging with historical worldviews, individuals can uncover their hidden assumptions, develop alternative perspectives, and integrate new understandings into their personal and professional lives. This study explores HT’s theoretical foundations, methodological framework, and potential applications, positioning it as an innovative tool for addressing contemporary meaning crises.

The Crisis of Meaning and Worldview

This section explores the foundational concepts underpinning HT, focusing on the crisis of meaning, the role of worldview, and its psychological implications. The crisis of meaning has been identified as one of the key factors in modern mental health challenges, contributing to existential distress and reduced well-being. Worldview, a central construct in understanding human thought and behavior, serves as the lens through which individuals interpret reality. In psychology, worldview has been linked to identity, cognitive frameworks, and emotional regulation, influencing how individuals navigate life’s uncertainties. However, the hidden nature of worldview means it is rarely questioned unless external events or crises challenge it. This section examines these key themes, highlighting how the process of uncovering and transforming one’s worldview can foster meaning-making and psychological resilience.

The Crisis of Meaning

The mental health crisis has emerged as a defining psychological challenge of the 20th and 21st centuries. Currently, close to one billion people, roughly one in eight, live with a mental disorder (The Lancet Global Health, 2020). Anxiety and depression are among the most widespread mental health issues (World Health Organization, 2017), and reports indicate a persistent rise in these problems (Bollen et al., 2021; Heylighen & Beigi, 2023; Twenge, 2020; United Nations, 2022). While contributing factors include social media, information overload, negative content bias, secularization, and inequality (Heylighen & Beigi, 2023), some scholars emphasize meaninglessness—or a “crisis of meaning”—as a major factor in mental distress (Schnell, 2021; Steger, 2009). Defined as “a judgment on one’s life as frustratingly empty, pointless, and lacking meaning” (Schnell, 2009, p. 487), this crisis correlates with depression, anxiety, and suicidal tendencies (Schnell, 2021). Addressing the crisis of meaning is thus an urgent psychological concern.

Rooted in existentialist philosophy, “the crisis of meaning” and “existential crisis” were explored by thinkers like Camus, Jung, and Frankl. Camus (1942, as cited in Yalom, 1980) argued that the question of life’s meaning is the most serious philosophical issue, while Jung and Frankl linked meaninglessness to neuroses (Yalom, 1980). Frankl (1975) positioned meaning as a fundamental human need that transcends the pursuit of pleasure or power. He emphasized the modern crisis of meaning, marked by widespread feelings of emptiness and an “existential vacuum” (Frankl, 1985). Yalom (1980) identified meaninglessness as one of the four central concerns in existential psychotherapy, alongside death, freedom, and isolation. Empirical research confirms that individuals who experience greater meaning report better mental and physical health, with stronger effects on psychological well-being (Schnell, 2021). A well-known historical example of a meaning crisis appears in Leo Tolstoy’s A Confession (1882/1983), where he describes a profound existential struggle. Similar crises are reflected in the works of St. Augustine, Dante, Goethe, and Frankl’s accounts of Holocaust survivors.

According to Park’s (2010, 2013) meaning-making model, a crisis of meaning arises when there is a conflict between an individual’s overarching system of beliefs and goals (global meaning) and their interpretation of specific life events (situational meaning). When disruptive events challenge this alignment, distress ensues, prompting meaning-making processes. For example, an individual who believes “healthy living prevents illness” may experience deep distress upon receiving a serious medical diagnosis. Through the meaning-making process, the individual either reinterprets the event to fit existing beliefs or adjusts those core beliefs (global meaning) to align with the new reality (Park, 2010). Resolving this conflict through meaning-making fosters psychological resilience and well-being (Kring et al., 2024; Krok et al., 2024; Theron & Theron, 2014). Meaning-making interventions in therapeutic practices, such as existential psychotherapy and logotherapy, have demonstrated effectiveness in enhancing global meaning, improving psychological well-being, and helping individuals cope with trauma (Vos, 2023; Vos et al., 2015).

This paper introduces HT as an innovative approach that integrates historical knowledge with psychological and philosophical insights to address the crisis of meaning. HT offers therapists, coaches, and individuals a novel framework for meaning-making, using historical case studies to foster personal growth and psychological resilience.

Worldview

The psychological concept of global meaning (Park, 2010, 2013) closely parallels the philosophical notion of worldview, first introduced by Kant as “Weltanschauung” and later expanded by Kierkegaard and Dilthey (Hiebert, 2008; Naugle, 2002). A worldview serves as “the interpretive lens one uses to understand reality and one’s existence within it” (Koltko-Rivera, 2004, p. 4) or “the fundamental cognitive, affective, and evaluative presuppositions about the nature of things, which people use to order their lives” (Hiebert, 2008, p. 15). By the 19th century, historians and anthropologists adopted “Weltanschauung” to analyze cultural patterns and belief systems (Hiebert, 2008).

There is some confusion in the dual definition of worldview as applied to society and to a specific individual. As Naugle (2002) shows in his comprehensive study of the history of the concept of “worldview,” most thinkers, including Dilthey, Nietzsche, Jung, Heidegger, and Gadamer, used the term worldview (Weltanschauung) in both senses: in the socio-cultural sense, as socially mediated meaning systems shared by members of a cultural group, and in the sense of a personal, individual worldview—a framework shaping identity, purpose, and orientation toward life, which influences decision-making and behavior while providing a fundamental sense of meaning. The use of this term in contemporary literature remains equally ambivalent (Wright, 1992; Hiebert, 2008; Gray, 2011; Koltko-Rivera, 2004; Johnson et al., 2011).

Other thinkers distinguish between the socio-cultural and subjective nature of worldviews. Kierkegaard preferred “livsanskuelse” (life-view, or life philosophy) over “verdensanskuelse” (worldview) in his works, to emphasize the existential importance and duty of individuals to understand themselves, both the “premises” (underlying assumptions of their lives) and “conclusions” (directions they choose), though on a few occasions he used both terms simultaneously (Naugle, 2002). For W. Stern (von Fircks, 2025), ‘Weltanschauung’ (worldview) represents a collective, social, and cultural “conglomerate” of meaning models, norms and values shared by a group. In contrast, ‘Lebensanschauung’ (life-view or life philosophy) is an individual’s subjective appropriation and personal integration of Weltanschauung into a unique philosophy of life, encompassing a life mission and purpose that provide a high degree of meaningfulness.

To separate these two meanings in this paper, we will use the term “historical worldview” to refer to the collective social systems of norms, values and beliefs of a past era, and “individual worldview” to describe the participant’s personal, subjective system of beliefs, values, and goals, which constitutes the individual’s personal appropriation of the broader social and cultural norms and can be based on many different cultural or historical worldviews to develop their very own, unique worldview.

Worldview in Psychology

Philosophy and psychology increasingly intersect in worldview studies. Jung (1967) argued that psychotherapy should address philosophical dimensions, as a client’s worldview fundamentally shapes their emotional and psychological challenges. Contemporary scholars highlight the “psychology of worldview” as crucial for understanding individual and cultural perspectives (Johnson et al., 2011; Koltko-Rivera, 2004). To ignore worldviews—whether our own or those of the cultures we examine—would result in extraordinary shallowness (Wright, 1992).

An individual worldview crisis emerges when personal beliefs clash with lived experiences (Hiebert, 2008). For instance, post-war disillusionment may arise when a soldier’s belief in the heroism of warfare collides with the realities of trauma and moral ambiguity, leading to severe post-war distress. Similarly, retirees may struggle with a late-life existential crisis when their sense of purpose, previously tied to their professional identity, becomes unclear. Recognizing individual worldviews is vital in psychological practice, as it deepens the understanding of motivations, behaviors, and emotions (Gray, 2011; Koltko-Rivera, 2004).

Hidden Nature of Individual Worldview

Several authors confirm that the crisis of meaning is deeply intertwined with an individual’s worldview, specifically, one’s core beliefs, values, and attitudes. However, worldviews often operate unconsciously, making them difficult to analyze or change (Wright, 1992). Like a house’s foundation or the submerged portion of an iceberg, worldviews are essential yet largely invisible (Hiebert, 2008).

Because worldviews shape human perception and behavior without conscious awareness (Koltko-Rivera, 2004), individuals facing a crisis of meaning may struggle to recognize or articulate their deepest assumptions. Narrative therapy addresses this by examining a person’s dominant “macro-narrative”—their implicit identity and individual worldview—allowing them to challenge limiting perspectives (Botella & Gámiz, 2012; White & Epston, 1990).

If one’s worldview remains unexamined, it is difficult to resolve the crisis of meaning. HT offers a novel solution by using historical knowledge to uncover hidden individual worldviews. By contrasting one’s beliefs with past cultural perspectives, individuals can engage in deeper self-reflection, fostering personal growth and a renewed sense of meaning.

HT Foundational Principles

The HT method is based on the idea that exploring the worldviews and lifestyles of individuals from different eras—through analysis, comparison, and self-reflection—enables a person to step outside their own perspective. This process helps to re-evaluate attitudes and beliefs, gain insights, and discover new meanings.

Meaning of History

Several philosophers and historians have explored the profound role of history as a tool for self-knowledge and understanding the human condition. Wilhelm Dilthey developed the hermeneutic approach to history, emphasizing that individuals achieve self-knowledge by interpreting the cultural and historical contexts that shape their lives (Nelson, 2019). For Dilthey, we don’t do history; we are history, and only history can tell us what we are as human beings (Zimmermann, 2015). His perspective suggests that the human sciences primarily aim to understand the meaning of sociohistorical life, with our sense of purpose rooted in a reflexive awareness of our lived experience (Makkreel, 2019). “The historical consciousness has enabled modern man to hold the entire past of humanity present within himself: across the limits of his own time he peers into vanished cultures, appropriating their energies and taking pleasure in their charm, with a consequent increase in his own happiness” (Dilthey, 1900, p. 231).

Building on this, R.G. Collingwood viewed history as the primary means of self-knowledge. He argued that by studying history, individuals come to understand what it means to be human, what is possible for human beings, and what defines both personal and collective identity (Collingwood, 1946, 1964). Past thoughts and actions, encapsulated in our present selves, allow us to assess inherited beliefs and behaviors.

Other scholars emphasize the role of history in shaping our understanding of human nature. N. Berdyaev (1936) suggested that individuals refer to history to seek meaning, discern patterns in historical processes, and find direction amidst chaos. He emphasized that meaningful existence is rooted in a shared historical experience rather than in isolation. Chesterton (1925) proposed a “psychological history” that focuses on the inner emotions and beliefs of ordinary individuals, explaining how deep-seated motives shape the course of history and provide insight into human nature. Bloch (1953) described history as a “science of men in time,” linking past and present to personal identity.

Hans-Georg Gadamer introduced “historically effected consciousness,” which posits that our awareness of the world is shaped by history and its formative influence on us. For Gadamer, engaging with history means entering into an ongoing dialogue between the past and the present (Zimmermann, 2015)—a “fusion of horizons” in which our historical consciousness “places itself within historical horizons, forming one great horizon which embraces the historical depth of our self-consciousness out over the limits of the present.” Such a dialogical encounter ultimately transforms us by broadening our self-understanding, reshaping our individual worldview, and modifying ourselves (Gander & Drake, 2004, p. 129).

Paul Ricoeur, another major hermeneutic philosopher of the 20th century, saw history as pivotal for deepening self-knowledge and fostering human flourishing. He argued that by interpreting the narratives and memories embedded in historical experience, individuals come to understand themselves more fully and reshape their sense of possibility in the present (Pellauer & Dauenhauer, 2022; Zimmermann, 2015).

Contemporary historians and philosophers, such as those who contributed to History and Human Flourishing (McMahon, 2023), argued that history remains important in the twenty-first century for fostering human well-being and helping individuals find meaning, build resilience, and navigate modern challenges.

HT Principles

The HT method positions history as both a means for self-knowledge and a powerful instrument for discovering new meanings and achieving psychological well-being. HT caters to individuals seeking deeper personal insight and therapists or coaches looking to enrich their practice with historically informed techniques. HT is based on the following principles:

1. Individuals’ behavior, including their decisions, feelings, emotions, and general way of life, depends on their individual worldview: a system of ideas about the world, beliefs, values, norms, and rules. This worldview is often hidden and unconscious.

2. Similarly, the culture and behavior of individuals in past eras are shaped by their collective worldview.

3. Engaging in a hermeneutic dialogue with historical worldviews—and comparing them with their own perspectives and ways of life—enables individuals to uncover and analyze their own individual worldview and consider alternative points of view.

Howard (1991) stated that we live within the stories of our culture, which shape our worldview and sense of identity. By engaging with alternative stories, we can overcome the limitations of our cultural frameworks and expand and transform our perspectives. As Dilthey (1900, p. 231) wrote, “The inner experience through which I obtain reflexive awareness of my own condition can never by itself bring me to a consciousness of my own individuality. I experience the latter only through a comparison of myself with others.” Stern argued that individuals must recognize and address the limitations of their own worldview (Weltanschauung) to complete their personality. This involves exploring alternative worldviews, integrating elements from various systems, and using this knowledge to enhance one’s worldview (von Fircks, 2025).

Historical Worldviews

To study historical worldviews, it is essential first to examine the structure of cultural worldviews. Hiebert (2008) conceptualized culture as a multi-layered system, distinguishing between surface-level expressions and deeper underlying structures. At the most visible level are cultural products, behavioral patterns, myths, and rituals. Beneath these are systems of beliefs, and at the deepest level lies the worldview itself—an implicit framework that shapes an entire culture (Hiebert, 2008).

Wright (1992) identified four aspects that characterize historical worldviews:

1. Stories or narratives through which human beings view reality.

2. Answers to the basic questions that determine human existence: Who are we? Where are we? What is wrong? What is the solution?

3. Cultural symbols, which can be both artifacts and events, such as festivals and family gatherings.

4. Praxis—a way of being in the world or actions performed.

Johnson et al. (2011) suggested a theoretical model for cultural values based on six major categories: ontology, epistemology, semiotics, axiology, teleology, and praxeology. These interact dynamically to form worldviews through values and actions.

A holistic approach to historical worldviews should integrate these frameworks, while examining visible artifacts, cultural practices, and the underlying narratives, belief systems, and philosophical structures to uncover their values, attitudes, and interpretations of existence.

Historical Worldview Knowledge Sources

Understanding the worldviews of past societies requires engaging with various sources, including texts, artwork, archaeological discoveries, and social structures. These materials reveal how historical communities perceived their world, what they valued, and how they made sense of existence.

One of the most meaningful sources of historical worldview insight is mythology. Myths are not merely fictional tales but “transcendent stories believed to be true that bring cosmic order, coherence, and sense to the seemingly senseless experience” (Hiebert, 2008, p. 27). Epics such as The Epic of Gilgamesh or the Bhagavad Gita offer deep insights into the spiritual beliefs, moral principles, and existential questions of ancient societies. As Berdyaev (1936) noted, myths preserve the collective memory of people and bring to life profound aspects of the human spirit. Similarly, Wright (1992) emphasizes that worldviews are expressed through narratives, which shape how individuals interpret reality.

Art and architecture also serve as vivid expressions of historical worldviews. The religious symbolism in medieval European art, such as the unicorn allegory for Christ’s sacrifice, reflects deeply embedded theological values (Le Goff, 2020). The layout of Roman cities like Pompeii, with open forums, public baths, and temples, highlights an emphasis on civic life and community engagement (Berry, 2013). Archaeological discoveries, from everyday objects to monumental structures, further illuminate cultural values and societal priorities.

Beyond myths, epics, art, and archaeological finds, symbols, socio-cultural structures, and ritual practices offer critical insights into how past societies interpreted life, morality, and the divine (Hiebert, 2008; Wright, 1992). By synthesizing these diverse sources, we can follow Dilthey’s aim of reconstructing the “objective spirit”—the collective worldview of an era (Zimmermann, 2015). Engaging with these perspectives allows us to uncover the hidden assumptions of the past and gain fresh insights into our understanding of the world.

HT Framework

The HT approach can be presented using the following framework (Fig. 1). An individual recognizes a need for new meaning, either by self-diagnosing feelings of unfulfillment or through a professional assessment by a psychotherapist or mental health professional. To explore new perspectives, the individual hermeneutically engages with historical materials to understand how that culture confronted existential questions. This process can be self-guided (e.g., via workbooks and online resources) or facilitated by a therapist or coach. By comparing one’s current beliefs with the historical worldview, hidden assumptions come into focus, generating fresh insights and changes in global meaning. This renewed viewpoint allows for alternative interpretations of personal dilemmas, ultimately enhancing purpose and psychological well-being.

Fig. 1.

History Therapy (HT) Framework. Individuals immerse themselves in a historical worldview and discover new meanings that can lead to a transformed individual worldview

Revealing Worldviews

Individuals become conscious of their own worldview when challenged by outside events that they cannot explain (Hiebert, 2008). Individual worldviews can also emerge through intentional searches for the meanings behind everyday things. The HT framework can assist individuals in becoming aware of their worldview through the analysis and comparison with historical worldviews. Additionally, engaging with historical narratives can help individuals expand their personal stories by incorporating new cultural perspectives. As Howard (1991) suggested, this process enables the reconstruction and expansion of one’s worldview and increases psychological flexibility.

HT among Existing Approaches

As a new method, HT is applicable to diverse fields, from psychology, psychotherapy, and coaching to education, organizational leadership, museum work, and the humanities. Nonetheless, it finds its strongest resonance at the intersection of existential psychotherapy, cultural and positive psychology, and reflective coaching, offering a potent mechanism for self-reflection and transformative insight.

Traditional meaning-centered psychotherapeutic approaches (e.g., existential therapy, logotherapy, narrative therapy) generally operate within the individual’s lived experience and the prevailing values, assumptions, and emotional frameworks of contemporary culture. While these approaches foster meaning-making within clients’ familiar frameworks, HT broadens the process by immersing individuals in historical worldviews, prompting a deeper reevaluation of personal assumptions and enabling a more expansive shift in perspective than contemporary interventions alone.

Following the phenomenological imperative and hermeneutic principles, HT aims to prioritize the client’s personal request and life experience, and support clients in interpreting their experience and making sense of their own system of values and beliefs. The client is not a passive recipient of the historical worldview and is not led to rigid interpretations. They are an active co-creator of the meaning that is born in dialogue with the historical materials. It’s also important that chosen HT case would align with client’s personal interests. Rather than prescribing a specific era, the therapist would choose a dialogical approach to ensure that HT complements the person-centered ethos of humanistic therapy.

Historical Cases

Historical Case Definition

For HT to function as a practical psychotherapy and self-development tool, historical knowledge should be presented in a structured yet accessible manner, such as through “historical cases.” A historical case is a curated set of period-specific materials—including historical context, primary texts, scholarly interpretations, and recommended reflective exercises—designed to immerse individuals in the worldview of a past era or culture and organized as hermeneutic resources for analysis and self-inquiry. Through immersive exploration, participants can compare their own beliefs and values with those of earlier societies, thereby uncovering hidden assumptions and new personal and collective insights.

Selecting an era for an HT historical case involves four criteria, as summarized in Fig. 2:

Fig. 2.

HT Historical Cases criteria. Four key requirements ensure a meaningful process of historical engagement

1. High cultural complexity: A civilization that has produced considerable philosophical, religious, social, or technological innovations provides rich material for understanding diverse human values and experiences.

2. Robust evidence base: The era should possess abundant and varied primary sources (written texts, archaeological findings, artifacts) and credible secondary analyses, allowing for a reliable reconstruction of its worldview and practices.

3. Temporal and demographic scale: An extended historical period and a sizable population ensure that observed norms and beliefs are reflective of larger social patterns rather than isolated phenomena.

4. Distinctive worldview: The civilization’s perspective should diverge meaningfully from modern assumptions to provoke fruitful comparison and self-reflection.

Examples of eras suitable for HT vary widely, from the deeply religious worldview of Ancient Egypt, with its emphasis on cosmic order and the afterlife, to Classical Greece, which spotlights philosophical inquiries into virtue, civic obligation, and happiness. Stoic Rome contributes lessons on emotional resilience and moral responsibility, while the Islamic Golden Age illustrates how faith, reason, and scholarship can converge to drive cultural flourishing. The Vedic, Buddhist, and Hindu traditions of ancient India speak powerfully to those seeking to integrate spiritual insight into everyday life.

However, focusing solely on such “big data” civilizations can overshadow equally valuable perspectives from smaller or lesser-known societies, whose unique beliefs and practices may offer fresh alternatives for meaning-making. It is also important to present multiple interpretive layers—divergent scholarly readings, debates, and contested sources—so that cases capture the full range of historical complexity and foster more nuanced self-reflection within HT.

For illustration, we consider Classical Athens (5th–4th centuries BC) as a hypothetical historical case, as it meets all the criteria above through its abundant primary sources (Cartledge, 2011; Osborne, 2008). Its polis-centered social and political structures spanned decades of civic innovation, providing substantial temporal and demographic scope (Gehrke, 2020). Moreover, Athens’ virtue-focused worldview diverges notably from modern assumptions (Annas, 2003; McMahon, 2006), offering fruitful terrain for reflection and meaning-making within HT.

Creating Historical Cases

A historical case for HT results from an interdisciplinary collaboration that brings together psychologists, coaches, historians, anthropologists, archaeologists, philologists, cultural scientists, and philosophers. Psychologists and coaches identify the therapeutic or existential questions and articulate the specific personal or clinical challenges that the case could potentially address. Historians, anthropologists, cultural scientists, archaeologists, and philologists gather, evaluate, and contextualize the relevant primary sources alongside existing scholarship, ensuring that each piece meets the standards of historical reliability and relevance to the thematic focus. Philosophers refine the conceptual underpinnings by clarifying worldview, ethical, and epistemological questions, as well as the correspondence to the hermeneutical approach, thereby linking the historical material to broader meaning-making goals. Through peer-reviewed discussions and transparent research methods, the team compiles a curated set of texts, artifacts, and interpretive materials, accompanied by recommended reflection exercises, ensuring both scholarly rigor and practical relevance for meaning-making. The goal is not to prescribe a solution, but to curate rich, academically rigorous hermeneutic material that can serve as a dialogical partner for the client’s own meaning-making journey.

To qualify as a solid historical case, the chosen era should satisfy the previously discussed criteria—robust evidence, cultural complexity, significant scale, and a distinctive worldview—while also demonstrating clear therapeutic or developmental value by connecting historical insights to modern existential or psychological needs. By weaving personal and cultural perspectives together, the resulting historical case directly supports HT’s central aim of helping individuals explore their hidden assumptions, discover new insights, and integrate these discoveries into their lives for enhanced well-being.

Ultimately, a “case” emerges as a curated package that includes contextual essays, primary readings, discussion prompts, and reflective exercises, all of which are peer-reviewed by the contributors. Such interdisciplinary collaboration can be institutionalized through research centers, grant-funded teams, or cross-listed courses, ensuring that each historical case aligns with scholarly standards while also serving the practical aim of promoting self-discovery and well-being.

In the example of ancient Greece, the wealth of surviving texts, artifacts, and archaeological sites has enabled historians and anthropologists to produce in-depth accounts of Greek culture, politics, religion, and everyday life (Cartledge, 2011; Morris & Powell, 2022; Osborne, 2008; Stuttard, 2013). Psychologists, coaches, and philosophers can incorporate these historical insights into a cohesive framework, aligning ancient Greek perspectives on virtue, happiness, and the good life with contemporary therapeutic and existential inquiries.

Historical Case Content

A historical case for HT contains four main components: preliminary thematic relevance, materials to engage with, questions and exercises, and methodical recommendations for practitioners (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3.

HT Historical Case Content

Preliminary Thematic Relevance

The preliminary thematic relevance step determines how the chosen historical era can meaningfully address an individual’s or group’s existential concerns or psychological challenges this historical case helps to explore. Instead of ‘fitting’ a prescribed ‘treatment’, this step focuses on thematic orientation and provides context and language for dialogue on these topics. For instance, ancient Greek notions of eudaimonia (happiness) and its connection with aretê (excellence, virtue) can be relevant for many psychological problems and requests, such as: dissatisfaction with life, feeling unhappy, a predominance of negative emotions and expectations, existential questions about the meaning of life. It can challenge a modern understanding of happiness as an emotion and feeling (Annas, 2003; Barnes, 2000), offering fresh perspectives and practical advice on how classical ideas can be adapted for personal growth (Hall, 2018) and therapeutic needs (Marinoff, 2000).

Materials to Engage with

In order for HT cases to accommodate different levels of interest and cognitive capacity, they need to be designed as self-contained, requiring no prior historical expertise from participants. This implies that each case provides the essential cultural and historical context in plain language and is accompanied by carefully selected materials that help illustrate and understand the historical worldview under discussion. Further, cases are structured in layers. The first layer is offered to all and provides the essential contrasts and conclusions. For those who wish to delve deeper, there are optional additional layers, such as extensive excerpts, scientific debates, and further literature to provide intellectual depth.

HT case materials for study include three major components: historical context, historical worldview, and focal theme. Historical Context immerses participants in the chosen era by briefly outlining its period, geography, climate, socio-political and economic conditions, cultural landscape, and primary social groups or classes. It highlights key events, influential figures, and controversies that shaped the era’s worldview, explaining how scholars interpret surviving texts, artifacts, and other sources, and why debates persist. In the case of Classical Athens, participants should understand the factors that gave rise to its unique polis democracy, along with how this century-long “golden age” in architecture, sculpture, literature, and philosophy shaped the distinctive worldview of the ancient Greeks. They should also note the social inequalities (particularly regarding women and enslaved people) that defined this vibrant yet complex society (Cartledge, 2011; Gehrke, 2020; Morris & Powell, 2022).

In the second section, Historical Worldview, we explore the following key aspects of their worldview to understand how people in a given era perceived reality:

1. Cosmology and ultimate reality: Beliefs about the cosmos, divine forces, time, space, and humanity’s place in the environment.

2. Human nature and identity: Conceptions of life’s ultimate purposes (salvation, destiny, afterlife), as well as notions of self (soul, body, reason, emotion) and markers of identity (sex, lineage, social status).

3. Values, ethics, and social norms: Central virtues or moral codes, social expectations, and how communities handle crises, shaping both individual and collective life.

4. Approaches to knowledge: How people learn, preserve tradition, and emotionally engage with their core beliefs.

Myths, religious and philosophical texts, rituals, symbols, archaeological findings, and other sources about lifestyle and practices illuminate these dimensions, showing how a culture’s worldview influences everything from daily routines to conflict resolution. Exploring Classical Athens, we draw on a wide array of textual sources— myths, philosophical works, comedic and tragic plays, rhetorical orations, funerary inscriptions (Morris & Powell, 2022; Osborne, 2008), as well as material sources like pottery and archaeological remains from sites like the Acropolis, the Agora, and the Kerameikos to understand the different aspects of the Greek way of life and worldview (Eleutheratou, 2020; Kaltsas, 2010; Plantzos, 2016; Stuttard, 2013). An introduction to the major thinkers—Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle—further illuminates ancient Greek concepts of human nature (Trigg, 1999) and the meaning of life (Leach & Tartaglia, 2018).

In the last section, Focal Theme or Special Question, we pinpoint a key issue—such as happiness, identity, or the meaning of life—that directly speaks to the psychological or existential concerns motivating a participant’s engagement with HT. By focusing on a well-defined theme, individuals can connect their personal or therapeutic questions to the historical worldview, comparing and contrasting past perspectives with their own.

A powerful focal theme for the Classical Athens case may be eudaimonia—the ancient Greek notion of happiness and human flourishing—and its deep connection to virtue (aretê). Participants can explore this concept through core philosophical texts, such as Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics (350–340 BCE/2009), Plato’s dialogues (399 BCE/1997), and the dramatic works of Sophocles (429 BCE/2010). Historical accounts, such as Herodotus’ (440 BCE/1998) portrayal of Solon or Pericles’ Funeral Oration in Thucydides (431–404 BCE/1974), further illuminate how the Athenians valued virtue and civic duty in defining “the good life.” Introducing key intellectual texts immerses participants in the ancient Greeks’ understanding of happiness, which differs markedly from modern notions (Annas, 2003; Barnes, 2000; Hall, 2018; McMahon, 2006).

Beyond these writings, aretê and eudaimonia also manifest in cultural symbols, architecture, sculpture, and pottery (Plantzos, 2016; Valavanis, 2014), as well as in political structures, household practices, and educational norms (Morris & Powell, 2022; Osborne, 2008). By reflecting on this broad range of sources, participants can compare ancient Greek perspectives on happiness with their own, potentially discovering new strategies for personal meaning and well-being.

Questions and Exercises

Effective HT cases incorporate practical prompts, behavioral experiments and exercises drawn from psychotherapy and coaching methods, such as Socratic questioning, motivational interviewing, and reflective journaling. These activities guide participants in comparing the historical worldview with their own beliefs, exploring emotional reactions, and identifying fresh ways of coping or finding meaning, and translating those new meanings into concrete, real-world actions. Simple concept maps, group discussions, or role-plays can highlight how people in the past dealt with moral dilemmas, prompting participants to apply these insights to their current challenges. By making the material interactive, HT ensures participants actively reflect and act rather than merely absorb information.

An HT case on ancient Greek eudaimonia may include questions like, “How does my idea of living well compare with eudaimonia?” or “Which Greek virtues align with my current priorities?” These encourage participants to draw parallels between ancient beliefs and modern life, allowing them to discover fresh perspectives on their path to well-being.

Methodical Recommendations for Practitioners

Practitioners are responsible for tailoring the materials and exercises to the needs, goals, and cognitive styles of their clients. To support this process, each HT case includes a methodological guide designed for therapists, coaches, and group facilitators. This guide explains how to adapt the content for individual or group settings, suggests optimal session lengths and timelines, and offers strategies for leading discussions or reflective activities. It is important that practitioners are not prescriptive or interpretive, but rather mediators in the dialogue between clients and the hermeneutical material of an HT case. The goal is to facilitate the process of understanding one’s own life-view through the interpretation of historical materials, and not to lead the client to rigid interpretations.

The guide also outlines key ethical and cultural considerations, noting that certain historical beliefs or practices may clash with modern values, and it provides tips for avoiding anachronism, confirmation bias, and presentism. Finally, it underscores the importance of critical thinking regarding the reliability of sources. It also addresses how to handle gaps or controversies in historical records, ensuring that practitioners can responsibly integrate the insights from each case into their therapeutic or coaching practice.

Case Formats

The case can be presented in various formats for both self-guided and group-based study. A workbook featuring primary-source excerpts, images, reflection prompts, journaling exercises, and discussion questions forms the core, while a recommended reading list supports deeper exploration. Multimedia materials, such as video lectures, audio podcasts, and virtual tours, offer an immersive perspective on the historical worldview. At the same time, interactive online platforms, including quizzes, forums, and collaborative tasks, facilitate ongoing engagement and shared reflection.

For instance, a case on Classical Athens may feature excerpts from key texts (e.g., Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics, Plato’s Apology, Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex, Herodotus’ accounts) and images of major archaeological finds (the Parthenon, Agora, ceramic vases, and sculptures). To deepen engagement, it can also include expert commentary (e.g., short videos or articles) and references to museum collections that showcase how Athenians expressed their beliefs through art, architecture, and daily life. These diverse materials immerse participants in the era’s worldview—its blend of religious devotion, philosophical inquiry, and civic identity. Moreover, such a multimodal design will help diverse clients, who may vary in their educational background, cognitive style, and preferred modes of engagement, to understand the case and meaningfully engage with it.

Avoiding Bias to Present a Good Case

A strong HT case offers well-documented and culturally rich historical material that illuminates a distinct worldview. It clearly presents multiple viewpoints, highlights debates or controversies, and includes reliable primary sources as well as solid secondary scholarship. To avoid biases, practitioners should guard against presentism—imposing modern values on the past—by examining each historical era on its own terms, reflecting on the era’s distinct cultural, social, and political contexts, and explicitly acknowledging how these differ from contemporary assumptions.

Likewise, confirmation bias (selectively using sources that reinforce preconceptions) can be minimized by cross-checking diverse sources, featuring conflicting scholarly interpretations, and incorporating evidence that challenges one’s initial viewpoint. Explicitly acknowledging gaps or ambiguities in the historical record helps maintain a spirit of critical inquiry while providing context for any unsettling beliefs or practices and offers a more honest, nuanced engagement with the material.

HT Methodology

HT methodology comprises three sequential phases. Phase 1 is for formulating the core inquiry and selecting the historical case; Phase 2 is immersing in the historical case and engaging in hermeneutic dialogue with the materials, and Phase 3 is self-reflection and meaning-making.

Each phase includes structured steps that guide participants through historical exploration and personal reflection (Fig. 4). HT can be adapted to various therapeutic and coaching traditions, including narrative therapies, cognitive–behavioral approaches, and self-development work. Engagement may range from brief reviews of historical sources to in-depth analysis of text, artifacts, and cultural symbols. Methods such as reflective journaling, Socratic dialogue, and role-playing enhance exploration. Regardless of depth, HT follows a core structure: defining the inquiry and choosing the era, examining historical perspectives and engaging with HT materials in hermeneutic dialogue, and synthesizing insights for personal growth.

Fig. 4.

HT Methodology Flowchart. History Therapy’s three-phase process

Phase 1. Collaborative Inquiry and Historical Case Selection

This phase is a collaborative, person-centered process which starts with identifying the existential or psychological concern. The personal relevance of the inquiry aligns with hermeneutic perspectives, where motivation drives understanding (Zimmermann, 2015). Phase 1 continues with reflecting on personal beliefs, and assumptions, considering how personal experiences shape their concerns. The next step is to select a historical case with relevant insights based on the client’s preferences, interests and initial inquiry. For example, Classical Greece may offer insights into happiness and virtue, while Tang Dynasty China may present different views on fulfillment. In a more formal therapeutic or coaching context, practitioners should draw on historical cases aligned with specific client concerns and preferences. By ensuring that the chosen era resonates with the client’s interest in the era and their question—whether it is about life purpose, coping with loss, or finding new approaches to one’s relationships—HT can more effectively stimulate insight and personal growth.

It can also be helpful to introduce the basic concept of worldviews—both individual and collective—to provide a foundation for the deeper analytical work that follows. Clarifying how one’s worldview interacts with the historical worldview under study ensures that participants are better prepared to engage in meaningful comparisons and reflections in subsequent phases.

Phase 2. Immersing and Engaging with the Historical Case

This phase facilitates a deep understanding of the selected historical context through a structured exploration of its worldview and cultural dimensions and engaging in hermeneutic dialogue with the historical texts and artifacts.

Participants begin by reviewing the major historical context and exploring the era’s key events, social structures, and cultural achievements. Understanding political, technological, and religious developments provides the necessary context for understanding the chosen historical worldview before delving into philosophical or moral frameworks. The next step is to focus on a central theme or question. One or more major themes from the historical era are highlighted, particularly those that resonate with the contemporary existential or psychological questions identified in Phase 1. This whole process is not passive immersion, but an active hermeneutic dialogue with period texts, symbols, and artifacts, through which participants experience a “fusion of horizons” (Zimmermann, 2015), challenging their assumptions and expanding perspectives. For example, analyzing classical Athenian philosophy or religious texts encourages critical reflection on modern beliefs and values. Methods such as guided readings, role-playing, and archaeological site visits (virtual or real) are employed to deepen immersion. These activities enhance multisensory engagement, making historical perspectives more tangible, meaningful, and accessible to individuals regardless of their prior intellectual preparation (Chatterjee & Noble, 2016; Kirillova et al., 2017). Having gained insight into the historical case, participants move into the final phase, where they reflect on and integrate their findings into personal meaning-making.

Phase 3. Self-reflection and Meaning-making

The third phase shifts from historical analysis and hermeneutic dialogue with the materials to personal integration, helping participants translate insights into personal growth and actionable change. The first step here is to compare historical and personal perspectives. The therapist does not provide the ‘correct’ answer and interpretation, but facilitates the client’s own process of meaning-making. Further techniques such as reflective journaling (Hubbs & Brand, 2005), letter-writing (White & Epston, 1990), and narrative techniques (Howard, 1991) facilitate the integration process. Socratic questioning encourages deeper analysis: “How does this historical view differ from mine?” or “What assumptions shape my thinking?” (Beck, 2020).

The second step is to structure insights through visualization, peer group dialogue, and concept mapping. Discussions with peers or guided group dialogues can help clients refine insights and focus on integration, such as by considering which daily routines can be used to experiment with new perspectives or which small actions in relationships or decisions can reflect them. Visual tools like concept mapping and comparison charts provide structured ways to compare historical and personal perspectives (Novak & Gowin, 1984). Aligning personal experiences with historical timelines situates identity within broader historical contexts.

The final step involves synthesizing key takeaways and considering their practical implications. Questions such as “Which historical idea shifted my perspective most?”, “How can I apply these lessons to daily life?” and “What habits or rituals could help me gradually put my transformed worldview into practice?” foster long-term personal growth. This is the ‘praxis’ phase, where the intellectual insight is tested in the ‘real world’. Participants probe with small behavioral experiments, stage these new actions by scheduling them, and habituate them through repetition and reinforcement. To support this process, HT can further draw on experiential methods such as psychodrama, role enactment, and imaginal exposure, meaning that clients rehearse new perspectives in safe, symbolic forms (Moreno, 1987). Ultimately, HT encourages deeper engagement with core life questions, facilitating meaningful change in a participant’s daily life (van Deurzen et al., 2019; Frankl, 1946/1985; Yalom, 1980).

Mechanisms of Change in HT

Although HT is a new interdisciplinary framework, it is nevertheless based on time-tested and empirically supported concepts in existential therapies, narrative therapy, cognitive–behavioral, and other approaches to personal transformation and psychological well-being. The following sections describe the main mechanisms of change in HT, specifically (1) hermeneutic circle, (2) meaning-making, (3) externalization, (4) cognitive dissonance and schema adaptation, (5) emotional integration and transcendence, and (6) reauthoring. Each of these mechanisms is based on well-established theories and practices known for their ability to bridge the gap between awareness and action.

Hermeneutic Circle

The primary engine of change in HT is the hermeneutic circle. By engaging with the “world” that a historical case projects, through its texts, artifacts, and artworks, individuals compare their present worldview with alternative historical perspectives. In hermeneutic philosophy, such comparison unfolds as a hermeneutic circle—a movement between one’s own lived world and the new possibilities displayed by the past (Zimmermann, 2015). This interplay of confrontation and reflection sparks fresh insights, widens horizons, and ultimately reshapes personal meaning in HT.

Co-Created Meaning-making

HT employs historical knowledge as a comparative lens for participants to examine how past cultures navigated their existential dilemmas, thereby presenting alternative frameworks for interpreting life’s ultimate questions. By juxtaposing contemporary beliefs with historical perspectives, individuals gain deeper insights into unexamined values and can cultivate new, personally meaningful interpretations. Meaning is not prescribed by the therapist or the HT case, but co-created within the dialogical space. This process echoes core existential-therapeutic principles, encompassing Dasein analysis and existential-phenomenological therapy as well as existential-humanistic approaches and logotherapy/existential analysis, each of which emphasizes meaning-making and direct engagement with existential themes (Deurzen et al., 2019; Frankl, 1985; Yalom, 1980). These existential approaches have demonstrated robust evidence-based effectiveness (Vos, 2023; Vos et al., 2015), supporting the notion that clarifying a sense of purpose is a powerful lever for psychological well-being.

Externalization

Immersing oneself in another era’s worldview and contrasting present assumptions and struggles with those of the past enables individuals to observe, re-evaluate, and re-story their values and beliefs from a safe, “external” vantage point. This approach echoes the clinically and empirically supported principle of externalizing the problem in narrative therapy (White & Epston, 1990), which disrupts habitual self-blame and opens up more empowering perspectives on personal issues.

Cognitive Dissonance and Schema Adaptation

A key principle of HT is the participant’s encounter with historical ideas and practices that differ from their usual way of seeing the world. This can lead to a sense of cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957) and subsequent schema revision and adaptation, which aligns with cognitive behavioral principles where behavioral experiments, role-play, and imaginal exposure serve to test and habituate new perspectives (Beck, 2020). By encountering alternative worldviews through HT, participants gradually restructure their understanding of themselves and reality. This cognitive flexibility is the necessary precursor to testing and adopting new adaptive behavioral responses—such as those “probed, staged, and habituated” in Phase 3 —to life’s complexities.

Emotional Integration and Transcendence

In HT, we observe how entire societies have dealt with existential challenges, disasters, and uncertainties. We study how people in the past have reflected on death and the sublime. Engaging with such categories goes beyond purely cognitive understanding and inevitably involves a strong emotional response. Confronting the scale and drama of history can evoke feelings of admiration and awe, broaden attention, and encourage prosocial emotions (Piff et al., 2015), reducing the fixation on personal suffering. The literature on museum‑based therapeutic programs confirms that such awe‑evoking encounters with history can benefit diverse groups, including children, older adults, and people with mental health challenges (Chatterjee & Noble, 2016). For example, research shows that the inquiry drama museum experience helps even primary school students discover other values and feel emotionally involved with the drama of history (Karagianni & Papadopoulos, 2019).

Re-authoring

One of HT’s central change mechanisms is to embed a person’s story within the grand “story of civilization.” By situating personal challenges, values, and hopes in a broader historical tapestry, individuals expand or re-author their personal histories, thereby gaining a sense of belonging, continuity, and meaning. This process parallels narrative therapy’s “re-authoring” principle (White & Epston, 1990), which involves deconstructing problem-saturated stories, amplifying “unique outcomes,” and shaping new narratives aligned with the client’s goals (Brown & Augusta-Scott, 2007). Critically, this re-authoring is not a passive or purely intellectual exercise; in narrative practice, a new story is consolidated only when it is performed and enacted through new, tangible actions. The HT case provides the raw material for this new, preferred story, which the individual then actively “tries on” and lives out in their daily life, leading to new ways of “being and doing”. The HT “historical cross-culture” perspective thus supports a narrative “repair” (Howard, 1991) and broadens identity formation, largely constructed via culturally embedded life stories (McAdams, 2001). This approach is effective in addressing a range of psychological challenges, such as PTSD and bereavement (Nelson et al., 2024; Raghuraman et al., 2021).

Limitations and Further Research

HT is an emerging interdisciplinary field that currently lacks formal empirical evidence and systematically designed qualitative and quantitative studies to evaluate its efficacy in fostering meaning-making and psychological well-being. However, numerous recent investigations find that frequent engagement in culture and heritage, such as museum visits or active arts participation, can measurably improve general health, mental health, and quality of life (Chatterjee & Noble, 2016; Frontier Economics, 2024; Spennemann, 2022).

Recent literature in tourism studies recognizes the significance of transformative experiences across various travel contexts, including cultural and historical settings, and their impact on psychological well-being and happiness (Amaro et al., 2023; Kirillova et al., 2017). These findings, along with ongoing research, offer tentative support for HT’s potential as a novel therapeutic tool and catalyst for self-development. However, in the absence of a systematic research framework, the precise mechanisms and benefits of HT remain speculative.

To address this gap, a structured research plan that integrates empirical measures with in-depth qualitative and quantitative analysis is essential. As a preliminary step toward this goal, a pilot study is proposed to gather initial data, refine methodological approaches, and lay the groundwork for more comprehensive future evaluations. This pilot study would evaluate the effectiveness of HT interventions. Participants could be randomly assigned to different groups, such as self-guided HT, facilitator-led HT, or a CBT-based psychoeducational control. A mixed-method design with pre- and post-assessments could be analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively. This pilot study can serve as a foundation and framework for future research activities on this topic. These future research activities can also address the following limitations:

Risk of Presentism and Cultural Bias

There is a danger of imposing modern assumptions and stereotypes on past eras or idealizing certain periods. Multi-authored, peer‐reviewed historical cases—featuring diverse sources and interpretive debates—are essential for reducing oversimplification.

Feasibility and Training

Most therapists lack advanced training in historical or hermeneutic methods. Interdisciplinary training modules, curated materials, and collaborations with historians or museum educators are recommended to ensure the accurate and ethically responsible integration of HT. It will be important for future studies to focus not only on client experiences and outcomes but also on how practitioners can tailor HT cases to clients’ preferences and capacities. These studies should investigate how practitioners can ensure they introduce historical materials that are emotionally resonant and practically relevant (rather than overly abstract). Such research can help inform further practitioner training and identify best practices. This will contribute to the fidelity of HT training, especially in maintaining its client‑centeredness and preventing a drift into more psycho‑analytical, insight‑focused practice.

Individual Differences

Not all clients share the same literacy level, reflective capacity, or interest in history, while HT should be accessible to a broad potential audience. For this reason, HT should be designed to be self-contained and scalable, such as by providing plain-language summaries, layered materials, and multimodal resources (texts, images, artifacts, audio-visual media). Further research will be necessary to evaluate how effectively these features indeed help mitigate any barriers to engagement. Additional studies among diverse populations should examine how personal traits (e.g., openness to experience, education level, cultural background) and clinical severity affect engagement with HT and its outcomes.

Conclusion

HT offers a novel interdisciplinary approach that leverages insights from historical knowledge, psychological methods, and philosophical approaches to address the pervasive crisis of meaning in contemporary society. HT incorporates many elements from well-established therapeutic and coaching traditions while preserving its core identity: engaging in hermeneutic dialogue with the historical worldviews to spur self-reflection, meaning-making, and psychological growth. By encouraging individuals to explore and compare their individual worldviews, behaviors, and values with those of historical cultures, HT broadens perspectives and provides alternative frameworks for understanding personal challenges.

HT uniquely emphasizes the transformative power of historical narratives, hermeneutic circle, and comparative analysis, contributing to self-discovery and psychological well-being while providing new tools for psychotherapy, coaching, and leadership development. By incorporating historical consciousness into therapeutic and developmental practices, HT connects the humanities with psychological sciences, establishing itself as a promising framework for addressing the complexities of modern life.

HT is a new method that draws upon established hermeneutic, cognitive-behavioral, and narrative approaches with recognized mechanisms of change. These encompass cognitive dissonance, externalization, emotional integration, re-authoring, and more. Preliminary findings from related fields—such as heritage interventions and museum programs—demonstrate the therapeutic value of engaging with culture and history. However, rigorous empirical studies and comprehensive research are still needed to establish the effectiveness of HT, assess its application in clinical and non-clinical settings, develop standardized training programs for facilitators, and explore the specifics of engaging with various participant categories. Interdisciplinary collaboration among historians, anthropologists, therapists, and philosophers will be crucial for the advancement of HT as a new methodology. Despite these challenges, HT has the potential to be a valuable addition—or even a completely new modality—in the ongoing pursuit of well-being and happiness in contemporary life.

Author Contributions

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Funding

No funding was received to assist with the preparation of this manuscript.

Data Availability

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

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Informed Consent

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Research Involving Human Participants and/or Animals

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Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.