Abstract
Objectives
The aims of the present study were characterisation of a population of cats presented to a single hospital, regarding clinical diagnoses, neuroanatomical localisation and aetiological disease distribution, and to provide guidance for better clinical reasoning and differential diagnosis in the setting of feline neurology.
Methods
A retrospective, statistical descriptive study was conducted. The number of clinical diagnoses, neuroanatomical localisations and aetiological disease distributions – classified according to the vascular, inflammatory/infectious, traumatic, anomalous, metabolic, idiopathic, neoplastic, degenerative (VITAMIN D) system – were recorded, along with signalment and duration of clinical signs.
Results
Neurological disease amounted to 10% of the total cases seen in a single veterinary hospital over a period of 9 years. A total of 266 cats were included in the study; of these, 44% had lesions in the brain, 26.3% in the spinal cord, 25.6% in the neuromuscular system and 4.1% had diffuse signs of neurological disease. Neoplastic (77 cats, 28.9%), idiopathic (67 cats, 25.2%) and inflammatory/infectious (56 cats, 21.1%) were the most frequently recognised disease categories. Regarding brain disease, neoplastic (36.8%), idiopathic (34.2%) and inflammatory/infectious (16.2%) diseases were most frequently diagnosed, with idiopathic epilepsy, meningioma and paroxysmal dyskinesia the most common specific diagnoses. For spinal cord disease, neoplastic (31.4%) and degenerative (31.4%) conditions predominated, with ischaemic myelopathy, intervertebral disc extrusion and feline infectious peritonitis the most frequent diagnoses. Among neuromuscular diseases, idiopathic processes (39.7%) were the most common, with otitis media/interna as the leading diagnosis. For diffuse diseases, inflammatory/infectious conditions (54.5%) were most prevalent, with toxoplasmosis and undetermined neoplasia the most frequent clinical diagnosis.
Conclusions and relevance
This is the first study to describe feline neurological patients in the UK in terms of clinical diagnoses, neuroanatomical localisation and aetiological disease distribution. The findings add to current knowledge in feline neurology and may contribute to a more comprehensive list of differential diagnoses and improved recognition of neurological disease in cats.
Keywords: Spinal cord, brain, epilepsy, neurological disease
Introduction
Neurological disease is thought to be infrequent in cats. One large study based on cats under general practice veterinary care in the UK reported that musculoskeletal disorder and brain disorders represented 4.1% and 1%, respectively, of all disorders diagnosed within 1 year. 1 Another large UK-based study focusing on cat longevity deemed neurological disease to be responsible for 7% of reported deaths. 2 Specific data on the prevalence of feline neurological diseases are limited, with one unpublished report estimating that 10% of total feline referrals to a UK feline-specialised referral hospital involved neurological conditions, 3 and another study from a Swiss hospital finding that 14% of cats referred over a single year were diagnosed with a neurological disease. 4
The distribution of diagnoses and aetiological categories of feline neurological diseases has been studied in several retrospective studies using different approaches, most of which focused specifically on the brain or spinal cord.5 –8 Three exceptions have been identified in the literature, one study describing histopathological findings in archived central nervous system tissue, 3 and two studies examining feline cases presented to neurology departments in Brazil and Japan.9,10
Recent advances in the understanding of neurological syndromes and the availability of advanced diagnostic testing and electrodiagnostics have contributed to the increasing number of neurological disorders being recognised and treated. The aim of this study was to retrospectively describe a population of cats presenting to a single hospital neurology department in terms of clinical diagnoses, neuroanatomical localisation and aetiological disease distribution based on the vascular, inflammatory/infectious, traumatic, anomalous, metabolic, idiopathic, neoplastic and degenerative (VITAMIN D) system. Furthermore, by describing the signalment and duration of clinical signs for each specific disease process, we aim for this knowledge to provide guidance for improved clinical reasoning and for differential diagnoses to be considered in the context of feline neurology.
Materials and methods
Data collection
Medical records of cats presenting to the neurology department at Dovecote Veterinary Referrals between April 2016 and May 2025 were reviewed retrospectively. The total number presenting to the same hospital during the same period was also collected, encompassing first opinion and the referral departments of internal medicine, orthopaedics, neurology, soft tissue surgery, dermatology, ophthalmology and oncology. Cats were included if they had the following: (1) complete records; (2) neurological examination performed by a board-certified neurologist or European College of Veterinary Neurology resident; and (3) a definitive or presumed diagnosis of neurological disease. Presumed diagnosis was established based on signalment, history, results of neurological examination, disease progression, results of diagnostic procedures and response to treatment. 4 Cats that did not have diagnostic procedure tests performed were still included if the signalment, clinical history, neurological signs and disease progression led to a presumed diagnosis corroborated by the available veterinary literature. A definitive, confirmed diagnosis was established based on the histopathology results of samples collected during surgery or after post-mortem examination or conclusive advance imaging features. Cats with non-neurological conditions (neurological mimics) 11 or where a presumptive or definite diagnosis was not reached were excluded. Cases were also excluded if they had incomplete records or lacked a complete neurological examination. Data on signalment (age, sex and breed), weight, duration of clinical signs, anatomic localisation and diagnosis were recorded. Duration of clinical signs was the time between the onset of clinical signs and date of first neurological consultation (in days).
Neuroanatomic localisation was defined as the anatomic region of the nervous system that was affected by a lesion or disease process, classified into four main divisions: brain, spinal cord, neuromuscular and multifocal, and diffuse. Within each division, the lesion and/or condition was further localised to a specific anatomic area. The brain locations were further characterised as forebrain (cerebral cortex, thalamus), brainstem (midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata) and cerebellum. In the spinal cord, the areas were divided according to the exit of the nerve roots 6 into cervical (C1–C7), thoracic (T1–T13), lumbosacral (L1–S3) and coccygeal (coccygeal [Cc] vertebrae) regions. The neuromuscular system was further subdivided into nerves (neuropathy), muscle (myopathy) and neuromuscular junction. The multifocal category was used when lesions affected several areas within the same region (eg, both the forebrain and brainstem). 12 The diffuse category referred to widespread damage across multiple regions of the nervous system (eg, lesions affecting the brain and spinal cord, or the spinal cord and neuromuscular system).
Aetiology categories for each diagnosis were based on the VITAMIN D system. 13 A presumptive or definitive diagnosis was subsequently generated based on the results of the complementary diagnostic procedures. These included haemograms, blood biochemistry, urinalysis, advanced imaging (CT and/or MRI), cerebrospinal fluid analysis, serology for infectious agents (Toxoplasma gondii, feline immunodeficiency virus, feline leukaemia virus, feline coronavirus or other specific relevant tests), electrodiagnostic studies, surgical findings, fine-needle aspiration, biopsy and histopathological findings, genetic examinations and post-mortem examinations. Electrophysiological testing included electromyography, nerve conduction studies or brainstem auditory evoked response testing. Electroencephalography was not available.
Statistical analysis
Data were entered into an Excel 2025 (Microsoft) spreadsheet for descriptive statistical analysis. The number of cats affected by disease in each region of the nervous system, according to the VITAMIN D categorisation, as well as the respective median age at diagnosis and duration of clinical signs, were surveyed.
Results
A total of 2665 cats presented to Dovecote Veterinary Referrals, of which 361 were presented to the neurology department during the study period. In total, 95 cats were excluded, leaving 266 cats included in the study. Cases diagnosed with an identifiable neurological disease corresponded to 10% of the total caseload of the hospital, encompassing referral and first opinion clients (266/2665). Of the included cases, 117 (44%) cats had lesions located in the brain, with a similar distribution in the spinal cord and neuromuscular system (n = 70, 26.3% and n = 68, 25.6%, respectively), whereas only a small percentage had diffused signs of neurological disease (n = 11, 4.1%) (Table 1). In general, neoplastic (n = 77, 28.9%), idiopathic (n = 67, 25.2%) and inflammatory and/or infectious (n = 56, 21.1%) disease categories were the most frequently recognised.
Table 1.
Neuroanatomical distribution within each anatomical category
| Neuroanatomical category | Diagnosis | % of total |
|---|---|---|
| Brain | ||
| Forebrain | 84 (71.8) | 31.6 |
| Brainstem | 21 (17.9) | 7.9 |
| Multifocal | 10 (8.5) | 3.8 |
| Cerebellum | 2 (1.7) | 0.8 |
| Spinal cord | ||
| Thoracic | 50 (71.4) | 18.8 |
| Cervical | 10 (14.3) | 3.8 |
| Lumbosacral | 9 (12.9) | 3.4 |
| Multifocal | 1 (1.4) | 0.4 |
| Neuromuscular | ||
| Neuropathy | 60 (88.2) | 22.6 |
| Myopathy | 3 (4.4) | 1.1 |
| Multifocal | 5 (7.4) | 1.9 |
| Diffuse | 11 (100.0) | 4.1 |
Data are n (%)
Details of the studied population and reasons for exclusion are shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Details of the studied population and reasons for exclusion
Brain disease
A total of 117 cats had neurological disease affecting the brain, with the majority (n = 84, 71.8%) localised to the forebrain, followed by the brainstem (n = 21, 17.9%), multifocal (n = 10, 8.5%) and cerebellum (n = 2, 1.7%) (Table 1). Of these cats, 72 were male and 45 were female. The majority were neutered: 58/72 (80.6%) male cats and 35/45 (77.7%) female cats. The median age of the cats at the initial neurology consultation was 95 months (range 4–242). The median weight at initial presentation was 4.1 kg (range 1.4–7). Domestic shorthair (n = 83, 70.9%) was the most common breed, followed by domestic longhair (n = 7, 6.0%) and British Shorthair (n = 6, 5.1%).
In the brain, neoplastic disease was the most common (n = 43, 36.8%), followed by idiopathic disease (n = 40, 34.2%) and inflammatory and/or infectious disease (n = 19, 16.2%) (Figure 2). Most brain tumours were primary and secondary brain neoplasia (n = 39, 90.7%), with four (9.3%) cats with metastatic brain neoplasia. Within idiopathic diseases, idiopathic epilepsy (n = 28, 23.9% of brain cases) and paroxysmal dyskinesia (n = 8, 6.8% of brain cases) were most frequently diagnosed. Within inflammatory and/or infectious conditions, otitis media/interna with extension to the brain was the most recognised (n = 6, 5.1% of brain cases).
Figure 2.
Vascular, inflammatory/infectious, traumatic, anomalous, metabolic, idiopathic, neoplastic and degenerative (VITAMIN D) distribution within each neuroanatomical region
The detailed distribution of diseases according to VITAMIN D categories, as well as signalment, weight and duration of clinical signs are summarised in Table 2.
Table 2.
Feline neurological brain cases: distribution of diseases according to neuroanatomical and vascular, inflammatory/infectious, traumatic, anomalous, metabolic, idiopathic, neoplastic and degenerative (VITAMIN D)-based categories, with details on diagnosis, signalment, weight and duration of clinical signs
| Aetiological category (VITAMIN D) | Diagnosis | Cats diagnosed n (%) | Total neurological cases (%) | Breed distribution (n) | Age at presentation (months) | Weight (kg) | Sex (n) | Duration of clinical signs (days) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Anomalous | Porencephaly | 1 (0.9) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 26 | 3.25 | FE: 1 | 21 |
| Anomalous | Congenital cerebellar hypoplasia | 1 (0.9) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 25 | 4.85 | ME: 1 | 30 |
| Anomalous | Congenital hydrocephalus | 1 (0.9) | 0.4 | Ragdoll: 1 | 17 | 5.22 | MN: 1 | 360 |
| Anomalous | Congenital pendular nystagmus | 1 (0.9) | 0.4 | Ragdoll: 1 | 110 | 4.12 | FN: 1 | 720 |
| Degenerative | Feline cognitive dysfunction | 1 (0.9) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 207 | 2.9 | FE: 1 | 90 |
| Degenerative | Lysosomal storage disease | 2 (1.7) | 0.8 | DSH: 2 | 53.5 (53.5, 6–101) | 3.96 (3.96, 1.4–3.96) | ME: 1 MN: 1 | 90(90, 60–120) |
| Idiopathic | Idiopathic epilepsy | 28 (23.9) | 10.5 | Bengal: 2; BSH: 1; DLH: 4; DMH: 1; DSH: 18; Ragdoll: 1; Exotic: 1 | 63.8 (41.5, 6.0–242.0) | 4.38 (4.26, 2.20–6.30) | ME: 3; MN:11; FE: 2; FN: 12 | 67.8(28.0, 1.0–540.0) |
| Idiopathic | Idiopathic head tremor syndrome | 1 (0.9) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 26 | 4.72 | MN: 1 | 120 |
| Idiopathic | Audiogenic reflex seizures | 1 (0.9) | 0.4 | BSH: 1 | 242 | 3.7 | FN: 1 | 540 |
| Idiopathic | Myoclonic episodes | 2 (1.7) | 0.8 | DSH: 1; Maine Coon: 1 | 102.0 (102.0, 10.0–194.0) | 4.75 (4.75, 3.50–6.00) | ME: 2 | 187.0(187.0, 14.0–360.0) |
| Idiopathic | Paroxysmal dyskinesia | 8 (6.8) | 3.0 | DMH: 2; Bengal: 1; DSH: 2; Sphynx: 2; Ragdoll: 1 | 69 (53.5, 6–165) | 4.2 (3.6, 3.1–5.9) | ME: 1; MN: 3; FE: 1; FN: 3 | 138.25(45, 14–630) |
| Inflammatory/infectious | Bacterial infection from otitis media/interna | 6 (5.1) | 2.3 | DSH: 4; Asian: 1; Norwegian Forest Cat: 1 | 89.7 (90, 4–170) | 3.8 (3.5, 1.5–5.8) | MN: 4; FN: 2 | 51.5(17.5, 1–240) |
| Inflammatory/infectious | Bacterial infection from cat fight | 1 (0.9) | 0.4 | DLH: 1 | 88 | 4.4 | MN: 1 | 21 |
| Inflammatory/infectious | Bacterial infection (undetermined source) | 1 (0.9) | 0.4 | BSH: 1 | 96 | 2.37 | FN: 1 | 7 |
| Inflammatory/infectious | Feline infectious peritonitis | 2 (1.7) | 0.8 | DSH: 2 | 61.0 (61.0, 13.0–109.0) | 2.50 (2.50, 2.20–2.80) | MN: 2 | 36.5(36.5, 28.0–45.0) |
| Inflammatory/infectious | Limbic encephalitis | 3 (2.6) | 1.1 | DSH: 3 | 54.0 (59.0, 22.0–81.0) | 3.8 (3.55, 3.35–4.7) | MN: 1; FE: 1; FN: 1 | 47.0(14.0, 7.0–120.0) |
| Inflammatory/infectious | MUO | 3 (2.6) | 1.1 | DSH: 3 | 37.3 (41.0, 11.0–60.0) | 4.38 (4.00, 4.00–5.00) | MN: 2; FN: 1 | 5.7(6.0, 4.0–7.0) |
| Inflammatory/infectious | Toxoplasmosis | 3 (2.6) | 1.1 | DSH: 3 | 91 (84, 24–165) | 5.4 (5.4, 4.5–6.3) | ME: 1; MN: 2 | 22.5(7, 0.5–60) |
| Metabolic | Hepatic encephalopathy | 2 (1.7) | 0.8 | DSH: 1; Persian: 1 | 110.0 (110.0, 95.0–125.0) | 2.65 (2.65, 2.20–3.10) | MN: 1; FN: 1 | 15.5(15.5, 1.0–30.0) |
| Neoplasia | Glioma – suspected | 3 (2.6) | 1.1 | DSH: 2; Cb: 1 |
136.7 (124, 112–174) | 3.7 (3.9, 3.1–4.06) | MN: 2; FN: 1 | 54.3(10, 3–150) |
| Neoplasia | Brain neoplasm (undetermined) | 4 (3.4) | 1.5 | DSH: 3; BSH: 1 | 126.5 (139, 36–192) | 4.2 (3.9, 3.4–5.5) | ME: 1; MN: 1; FE: 1; FN: 1 | 49.2(20, 7–150) |
| Neoplasia | Meningioma – suspected | 13 (11.1) | 4.9 | DSH: 11; DLH: 2 | 116.7(120, 49–165) | 4.2(4.2, 3–6.8) | ME: 1; MN: 7; FE: 2; FN: 3 | 29.1(21, 3–185) |
| Neoplasia | Meningioma – confirmed | 7 (6.0) | 2.6 | DSH: 6; Maine Coon: 1 | 128.7(123, 84–176) | 5.2(4.8, 3.2–7) | MN: 6; FN: 1 | 48.4(28, 5–120) |
| Neoplasia | Meningioma vs pituitary macroadenoma | 1 (0.9) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 149 | 4 | MN:1 | 14 |
| Neoplasia | Pituitary neoplasm | 3 (2.6) | 1.1 | DSH: 3 | 135.3(138, 123–145) | 4.9(4.9, 3.5–6.2) | MN: 1; FE: 1; FN: 1 | 19(28, 1–28) |
| Neoplasia | Lymphoma – suspected | 4 (3.4) | 1.5 | DSH: 3; BSH: 1 | 120.5(123.5, 104–131) | 4.8(4.8, 3.9–5.6) | ME: 1; MN: 2; FN: 1 | 7(3, 1–21) |
| Neoplasia | Lymphoma – confirmed | 3 (2.6) | 1.1 | DSH: 3 | 95(107, 60–118) | 4.4(4.5, 4–4.6) | ME: 1; MN: 1; FN: 1 | 11.2(3, 0.5–30) |
| Neoplasia | Metastatic neoplasm | 2 (1.7) | 0.8 | BLH: 1; DSH: 1 | 111(111, 90–132) | 4.6(4.6, 4–5.1) | MN: 2 | 225(225, 90–360) |
| Neoplasia | Osteosarcoma – confirmed | 1 (0.9) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 122 | 3.6 | FN: 1 | 35 |
| Neoplasia | Squamous cell tumour – confirmed | 1 (0.9) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 119 | 4.5 | MN: 1 | 30 |
| Neoplasia | Choroid plexus tumour | 1 (0.9) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 164 | 4.28 | FN: 1 | 28 |
| Traumatic | Traumatic brain injury | 3 (2.6) | 1.1 | DSH: 2; BSH: 1 | 55.7(36, 24–107) | 4.4(4.4, 4–4.8) | ME: 1; MN: 1; FN: 1 | 30.3(0.5, 0.5–90) |
| Vascular | Primary idiopathic haemorrhage (self-resolving) | 1 (0.9) | 0.4 | Ragdoll: 1 | 118 | 5.3 | MN: 1 | 3 |
| Vascular | Infarct | 1 (0.9) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 132 | 3 | MN: 1 | 6 |
| Vascular | Multiple cerebral haemorrhages | 1 (0.9) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 167 | 4 | FN: 1 | 0.5 |
Data for age at presentation, weight and duration of clinical signs is average (median, range) unless otherwise indicated
BLH = British Longhair; BSH = British Shorthair; Cb = crossbreed; DLH = domestic longhair; DMH = domestic mediumhair; DSH = domestic shorthair; F = female; FE = female entire; FN = female neutered; M = male; ME = male entire; MN = male neutered; MUO = meningoencephalitis of unknown origin
Table 3.
Feline neurological spinal cord cases: distribution of diseases according to neuroanatomical and vascular, inflammatory/infectious, traumatic, anomalous, metabolic, idiopathic, neoplastic and degenerative (VITAMIN D)-based categories, with details on diagnosis, signalment, weight and duration of clinical signs
| Aetiological category (VITAMIN D) | Diagnosis | Cats diagnosed n (%) | Total neurological cases (%) | Breed distribution (n) | Age at presentation (months) | Weight (kg) | Sex (n) | Duration of clinical signs (days) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Anomalous | Congenital vertebral malformation | 2 (2.9) | 0.8 | Bengal: 1; Maine Coon: 1 | 34 (34, 3–65) | 4.4 (4.4, 1.75–7) | MN: 1; FE: 1 | 25.5 (25.5, 21–30) |
| Degenerative | ANNPE | 4 (5.7) | 1.5 | Cb: 1; DSH: 3 | 100 (103, 60–134) | 4.4 (4.2, 3–6.3) | MN: 1; FE: 1; FN: 2 | 8.25 (5.5, 1–21) |
| Degenerative | DLSS | 2 (2.9) | 0.8 | DSH: 2 | 111.5 (111.5, 101–122) | 5.6 (5.6, 4.9–6.4) | ME: 1; MN: 1 | 61.5 (61.5, 3–120) |
| Degenerative | IVDP | 4 (5.7) | 1.5 | Persian: 2; DSH: 2 | 118.25 (115.5, 79–163) | 3.8 (4.05, 2.7–4.5) | MN: 2; FN: 2 | 26.2 (28, 7–42) |
| Degenerative | C3–C4 hydrated nucleus pulposus extrusion | 1 (1.4) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 84 | 3.4 | FN: 1 | 2 |
| Degenerative | IVDE | 8 (11.4) | 3.0 | DLH: 1; DSH: 4; Siamese: 1; Himalaya: 1; BSH: 1 | 100.75 (105, 62–137) | 4.6 (4.2, 3.9–5.9) | MN: 6; FN: 2 | 7.1 (5, 1–21) |
| Degenerative | Spinal arachnoid diverticulum T12–13 | 1 (1.4) | 0.4 | BSH: 1 | 198 | 2.6 | FN: 1 | 90 |
| Degenerative | Vertebral canal stenosis | 2 (2.9) | 0.8 | DSH: 1; Russian Blue: 1 | 65.5 (65.5, 11–120) | 4.8 (4.8, 3.8–5.9) | MN: 2 | 105 (105, 90–120) |
| Inflammatory/infectious | Discospondylitis | 3 (4.3) | 1.1 | Maine Coon: 1; DSH: 2 | 87.3 (116, 18–128) | 4.0 (4, 3.8–4.3) | MN: 1; FN: 2 | 5.7 (7, 1–9) |
| Inflammatory/infectious | Feline infectious peritonitis | 6 (8.6) | 2.3 | DSH: 5; Maine Coon: 1 | 9 (8, 5–18) | 2.5 (2.5, 2–3.2) | ME: 1; MN: 3; FE: 1; FN: 1 | 9.8 (8.5, 7–14) |
| Inflammatory/infectious | MUO | 1 (1.4) | 0.4 | DLH: 1 | 13 | 2.8 | FN: 1 | 90 |
| Neoplasia | Intramedullary neoplasia (suspected round cell tumour) | 2 (2.9) | 0.8 | DSH: 1; Norwegian Forest Cat: 1 | 175 (175, 173–177) | 4.5 (4.5, 3.1–5.8) | MN: 2 | 21.5 (21.5, 1–42) |
| Neoplasia | Intramedullary confirmed lymphoma | 2 (2.9) | 0.8 | BSH: 1; DSH: 1 | 102.5 (102.5, 92–113) | 5.2 (5.2, 4.4–6) | MN: 1; FN: 1 | 37 (37, 14–60) |
| Neoplasia | Intradural intramedullary neoplasia (suspected round cell tumour) | 1 (1.4) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 131 | 3.74 | MN: 1 | 5 |
| Neoplasia | Intradural extramedullary – confirmed meningioma | 1 (1.4) | 0.4 | Cb: 1 | 95 | 3.9 | FN: 1 | 360 |
| Neoplasia | Intradural extramedullary neoplasia (suspected round cell tumour) | 2 (2.9) | 0.8 | DSH: 2 | 173 (173, 154–192) | 3.7 (3.7, 2.9–4.6) | FN: 2 | 145 (145, 30–260) |
| Neoplasia | Intradural extramedullary – confirmed lymphoma | 1 (1.4) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 34 | 4 | MN: 1 | 2 |
| Neoplasia | Intradural extramedullary neoplasia (undetermined) | 1 (1.4) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 64 | 4.2 | MN: 1 | 7 |
| Neoplasia | Mixed intradural-extramedullary and intramedullary – confirmed lymphoma | 1 (1.4) | 0.4 | Maine Coon: 1 | 124 | 9 | MN: 1 | 2 |
| Neoplasia | Extradural neoplasia (suspect osteosarcoma) | 2 (2.9) | 0.8 | Siamese: 1; DSH: 1 | 83.5 (83.5, 72–95) | 3.8 (3.8, 3–4.7) | MN: 1; FN: 1 | 14.5 (14.5, 14–15) |
| Neoplasia | Extradural neoplasia – confirmed osteosarcoma | 2 (2.9) | 0.8 | DSH: 2 | 117 (117, 108–126) | 4.4 (4.4, 4.3–4.6) | ME: 1; MN: 1 | 18 (18, 1–35) |
| Neoplasia | Extradural neoplasia (undetermined) | 3 (4.3) | 1.1 | DSH: 2; DMH: 1 | 130.7 (124, 120–148) | 4.1 (4, 3.5–4.8) | MN: 3 | 29.3 (14, 14–60) |
| Neoplasia | Extradural neoplasia confirmed meningioma | 2 (2.9) | 0.8 | DSH: 1; DLH: 1 | 80 (80, 56–104) | 5.4 (5.4, 3.9–6.9) | ME: 1; MN: 1 | 17.5 (17.5, 14–21) |
| Neoplasia | Extradural neoplasia (suspected soft tissue sarcoma) | 1 (1.4) | 0.4 | BSH: 1 | 180 | 4.7 | MN: 1 | 60 |
| Neoplasia | Extradural confirmed lymphoma | 1 (1.4) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 125 | 3.14 | MN: 1 | 42 |
| Traumatic | Atlantoaxial subluxation | 1 (1.4) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 127 | 4.48 | FN: 1 | 2 |
| Traumatic | Fracture-luxation Cc2–Cc3 | 2 (2.9) | 0.8 | DSH: 2 | 39 (39, 18–60) | 3.8 (3.8, 3.9–6.9) | MN: 1; FN: 1 | 18 (8, 15–21) |
| Traumatic | T3–T4 fracture | 1 (1.4) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 60 | 4 | MN: 1 | 0.5 |
| Traumatic | Luxation of rib head of T10 | 1 (1.4) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 48 | 3.68 | FN: 1 | 7 |
| Vascular | Ischaemic myelopathy | 9 (12.9) | 3.4 | DSH: 6; Ragdoll: 1; DMH: 1; Russian Blue: 1 | 77.7 (68, 6–171) | 4.4 (4, 3.4–6.2) | MN: 6; FN: 3 | 22.7 (3, 0.5–180) |
Data for age at presentation, weight and duration of clinical signs is average (median, range) unless otherwise indicated
ANNPE = acute non-compressive nucleus pulposus extrusion; BSH = British Shorthair; Cb = crossbreed; DLH = domestic longhair; DLSS = degenerative lumbosacral stenosis; DMH = domestic mediumhair; DSH = domestic shorthair; F = female; FE = female entire; FN = female neutered; IVDE = intervertebral disc extrusion; IVDP = intervertebral disc protrusion; M = male; ME = male entire; MN = male neutered; MUO = meningomyelitis of unknown origin
Spinal cord
A total of 70 cats had neurological disease affecting the spinal cord. Of these, 50 (71.4%) cats had lesions in the thoracic area of the spine, followed by the cervical (14.3%) and lumbosacral areas (12.9%), accounting for 10 and nine cases, respectively. One case (1.4%) had multifocal lesions (Table 1). Of the 70 cats, 44 were male and 26 were female. The majority were neutered: 91.0% of all the male cats and 88.5% of all the female cats. The median age of the cats on initial neurology consultation was 98 months (range 3–198). The median weight at initial presentation was 4.0 kg (range 1.75–9). Domestic shorthair (n = 48, 66.7%) and Maine Coon (n = 4, 5.6%) were the most common breeds.
In the spinal cord, neoplastic or degenerative disease were equally the most common (n = 22 each, 31.4%), followed by inflammatory/infectious disease (n = 10, 14.3%), vascular disease (n = 9, 12.9%), traumatic disease (n = 5, 7.1%) and anomalous disease (n = 2, 2.9%). No cats were diagnosed with metabolic or idiopathic diseases affecting the spinal cord (Figure 2).
The most common neoplastic disease was lymphoma (n = 5, 7.1% of confirmed spinal cases), meningiomas (n = 3, 4.3% of confirmed spinal cases), osteosarcoma (n = 4, 5.8% of spinal cases [two confirmed]), soft tissue sarcoma (n = 1, 1.4% of presumed spinal cases) and four cases with an undetermined tumour (5.7% of spinal cases).
The most commonly diagnosed spinal degenerative disease was intervertebral disc disease (n = 17, 24.2% of spinal cases) which included intervertebral disc extrusion (n = 8, 11.4% of spinal cases), intervertebral disc protrusion (n = 4, 5.7% of spinal cases), acute non-compressive nucleus pulposus extrusion (n = 4, 5.7% of spinal cases) and intramedullary disc extrusion at C3–C4 (n = 1, 1.4% of spinal cases).
Spinal inflammatory/infectious diseases were mostly represented by feline infectious peritonitis (FIP) (n = 6, 8.6% of spinal cases) and discospondylitis (n = 3, 4.3% of spinal cases) being most recognised.
The detailed distribution of diseases according to VITAMIN D categories, as well as signalment, weight and duration of clinical signs are summarised in Table 2.
Neuromuscular diseases
A total of 68 cats were diagnosed with neuromuscular disease. Of them, 60 (88.2%) had signs consistent with neuropathy and 3 (4.4%) with myopathy. Multifocal disease was diagnosed in five (7.4%) cats (Table 1). Of the 68 cats, 40 (58.8%) were male and 28 (41.2%) were female. The majority were neutered: 90.0% of all the male cats and 82.1% of all the female cats. The median age of the cats at the initial neurology consultation was 77.5 months (range 3–174). The median weight at initial presentation was 4.1 kg (range 1.37–7.2). The most common breed was domestic shorthair (n = 41, 60.3%). Idiopathic (n = 27, 39.7% of neuromuscular cases) and inflammatory/infectious diseases (n = 21, 30.9% of neuromuscular cases) were the most diagnosed conditions, followed by neoplastic (n = 8, 11.8% of neuromuscular cases) and traumatic (n = 8, 11.8% of neuromuscular cases) diseases (Figure 2).
The most common neuromuscular idiopathic diseases were idiopathic polyneuropathy (n = 8, 11.8%), idiopathic vestibular disease (n = 6, 8.8%) and feline hyperaesthesia syndrome (n = 5, 7.4%). Otitis media/interna was the most commonly recognised inflammatory and/or infectious disease (n = 15, 22.1%), while among neoplastic diseases, most of them affected the brachial plexus (n = 5, 7.4%) (Table 4).
Table 4.
Feline neurological neuromuscular cases: distribution of diseases according to neuroanatomical and vascular, inflammatory/infectious, traumatic, anomalous, metabolic, idiopathic, neoplastic and degenerative (VITAMIN D)-based categories, with details on diagnosis, signalment, weight and duration of clinical signs
| Aetiological category (VITAMIN D) | Diagnosis | Cats diagnosed n (%) | Total neurological cases (%) | Breed distribution (n) | Age at presentation (months) | Weight (kg) | Sex (n) | Duration of clinical signs (days) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Degenerative | Sciatic nerve compression | 1 (1.5) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 36 | 3.5 | MN: 1 | 365 |
| Idiopathic | Bilateral L7 neuritis | 1 (1.5) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 99 | 5.6 | MN: 1 | 120 |
| Idiopathic | Facial neuropathy + Horner’s syndrome | 1 (1.5) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 60 | 4.5 | MN: 1 | 6 |
| Idiopathic | Feline hyperaesthesia syndrome | 5 (7.4) | 1.9 | Bengal: 1; DMH: 1; DSH: 3 | 56.4 (56, 5–105 | 4.42 (4.4, 3–6.5) | MN: 2; FN: 3 | 126 (150, 30–210) |
| Idiopathic | Feline orofacial pain syndrome | 1 (1.5) | 0.4 | BSH: 1 | 97 | 4.68 | FN: 1 | 60 |
| Idiopathic | Idiopathic facial paralysis | 1 (1.5) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 174 | 3.7 | FE: 1 | 9 |
| Idiopathic | Idiopathic polyneuropathy | 8 (11.8) | 3.0 | BSH: 2; Ragdoll: 1; Siamese: 1; Siberian Forest Cat: 1; DSH: 2; Scottish Fold: 1 | 16.75 (7.5, 4–45) | 3.6 (3.5, 1.37–6.1) | ME: 1; MN: 5; FE: 1; FN: 1 | 36.2 (14, 3–90) |
| Idiopathic | Idiopathic vestibular and facial neuropathy | 2 (2.9) | 0.8 | Maine Coon: 1; Cb: 1 | 35.5 (35.5, 22–49) | 4.25 (4.25, 3.95–4.55) | MN: 1; FE: 1 | 7 (7, 7–7) |
| Idiopathic | Idiopathic vestibular disease | 6 (8.8) | 2.3 | BSH: 1; DSH: 4; DLH: 1 | 102.2 (106.5, 24–162) | 3.7 (3.55, 2.3–5.09) | MN: 2; FN: 4 | 15.1 (10.5, 3–30) |
| Idiopathic | Myoclonus episodes | 1 (1.5) | 0.4 | Sphynx: 1 | 8 | 3.96 | ME: 1 | 240 |
| Idiopathic | Polymyositis | 1 (1.5) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 118 | 4.4 | MN: 1 | 1 |
| Inflammatory/infectious | Focal myositis | 1 (1.5) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 75 | 5.3 | FE: 1 | 45 |
| Inflammatory/infectious | Infectious sacroiliitis | 2 (2.9) | 0.8 | DSH: 2 | 82.5 (82.5, 28–137) | 4.3 (4.3, 3.5–5.1) | MN: 1; FE: 1 | 21 (21, 7–35) |
| Inflammatory/infectious | Otitis media/interna | 15 (22.1) | 5.6 | BSH: 1; Maine Coon: 3; DSH: 7; DLH: 3; Bengal: 1 | 81.2 (90, 3–133) | 4.1 (3.7, 2.5–7.2) | ME: 2; MN: 5; FN: 8 | 54.4 (21, 6–360) |
| Inflammatory/infectious | Polymyopathy | 1 (1.5) | 0.4 | Scottish Fold: 1 | 24 | 5 | MN: 1 | 30 |
| Inflammatory/infectious | Toxoplasmosis | 2 (2.9) | 0.8 | BSH: 1; DSH: 1 | 53.5 (53.5, 6–101) | 3.75 (3.75, 3–4.5) | MN: 1; FN: 1 | 17.5 (17.5, 7–28) |
| Metabolic | Diabetic neuropathy | 1 (1.5) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 147 | 4.45 | MN: 1 | 10 |
| Metabolic | Hypokalaemic myopathy | 1 (1.5) | 0.4 | DMH: 1 | 162 | 4.6 | MN: 1 | 7 |
| Neoplasia | Brachial plexus neoplasia | 5 (7.4) | 1.9 | DSH: 4; Cb: 1 | 114.8 (110, 96–147) | 3.94 (3.2, 2.6–5.7) | MN: 4; FN: 1 | 11.4 (11, 1–30) |
| Neoplasia | Sciatic neoplasia | 1 (1.5) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 168 | 3.15 | FN: 1 | 21 |
| Neoplasia | Lymphoma | 1 (1.5) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 37 | 4.2 | MN: 1 | 120 |
| Neoplasia | Trigeminal neoplasia | 1 (1.5) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 120 | 5.5 | MN: 1 | 10 |
| Traumatic | Vestibulocochlear neuropathy after ototoxicity (chemical trauma) | 1 (1.5) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 34 | 3.5 | FN: 1 | 7 |
| Traumatic | Left brachial plexus neuropraxia | 1 (1.5) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 19 | 2.7 | MN: 1 | 9 |
| Traumatic | Bilateral lumbosacral nerve root/sciatic compression due to sublumbar mass (lymphoma) | 1 (1.5) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 80 | 4.9 | MN: 1 | 14 |
| Traumatic | Tail pull injury with eight ilial shaft fractures | 1 (1.5) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 144 | 4 | FN: 1 | 14 |
| Traumatic | Tail pull injury with tail-base fracture | 3 (4.4) | 1.1 | BSH: 1; DSH: 2 | 45.7 (43, 20–74) | 4.4 (4.8, 3.5–5) | MN: 2; FN: 1 | 13.7 (8, 0.25–90) |
| Traumatic | Traumatic injury to the left femoral and sciatic nerves | 1 (1.5) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 116 | 4.3 | MN: 1 | 30 |
| Vascular | Aortic thromboembolism | 1 (1.5) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 96 | 5.5 | MN: 1 | 30 |
Data for age at presentation, weight and duration of clinical signs is average (median, range) unless otherwise indicated
BSH = British Shorthair; Cb = crossbreed; DLH = domestic longhair; DMH = domestic mediumhair; DSH = domestic shorthair; F = female; FE = female entire; FN = female neutered; M = male; ME = male entire; MN = male neutered
The detailed distribution of diseases according to VITAMIN D categories, as well as signalment, weight and duration of clinical signs are summarised in Table 4.
Diffuse disease
Within the diffuse category, inflammatory and/or infectious diseases (n = 6, 54.5%) and neoplastic diseases (n = 4, 36.3%) were mostly recognised (Figure 2). Within the inflammatory and/or infectious category, toxoplasmosis (n = 3, 27.2%), meningoencephalitis of unknown origin (MUO) (n = 1, 9.1%) and FIP (n = 1, 9.1%) were identified. Within neoplastic disease, most cases were undetermined (n = 3, 27.2%). The detailed distribution of diseases according to VITAMIN D categories, as well as signalment, weight and duration of clinical signs are summarised in Table 5.
Table 5.
Feline neurological diffuse cases: distribution of diseases according to neuroanatomical and vascular, inflammatory/infectious, traumatic, anomalous, metabolic, idiopathic, neoplastic and degenerative (VITAMIN D)-based categories, with details on diagnosis, signalment, weight and duration of clinical signs
| Aetiological category (VITAMIN D) | Diagnosis | Cats diagnosed n (%) | Total neurological cases (%) | Breed distribution (n) | Age at presentation (months) | Weight (kg) | Sex (n) | Duration of clinical signs (days) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Anomalous | Mitochondrial encephalomyopathy | 1 (9.1) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 87 | 3 | FE: 1 | 5 |
| Inflammatory/infectious | Feline infectious peritonitis | 1 (9.1) | 0.4 | Savannah: 1 | 10 | 4.1 | MN: 1 | 21 |
| Inflammatory/infectious | MUO | 1 (9.1) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 187 | 5.6 | MN: 1 | 7 |
| Inflammatory/infectious | Bacterial meningitis (brainstem and C2 spinal cord) | 1 (9.1) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 133 | 2.58 | FN: 1 | 60 |
| Inflammatory/infectious | Toxoplasmosis | 3 (27.2) | 1.1 | DSH: 2; Tonkinese: 1 | 77.33 (83, 65–84) | 4.3 (4.3, 4.2–4.4) | MN: 1; FE: 1; FN: 1 | 10 (5, 5–20) |
| Neoplasia | Undetermined | 3 (27.2) | 1.1 | DSH: 2; BSH: 1 | 99.7 (91, 76–132 | 5.2 (5.5, 4.2–5.5) | MN: 3 | 13.7 (10, 3–28) |
| Neoplasia | Lymphoma | 1 (9.1) | 0.4 | DSH: 1 | 80 | 5 | MN: 1 | 5 |
Data for age at presentation, weight and duration of clinical signs is average (median, range) unless otherwise indicated
BSH = British Shorthair; DSH = domestic shorthair; FE = female entire; FN = female neutered; MN = male neutered; MUO = meningoencephalomyelitis of unknown origin
Discussion
This retrospective study described a large population of cats with neurological disease at a private veterinary referral hospital in the UK.
The findings of this study support the notion that neurological disease is infrequent in cats, with diagnosed neurological disease accounting for 10% of the total hospital presentations in our study – similar to previous reports.3,4 Domestic shorthair cats were the most common breed in all categories and subcategories of disease, except for anomalous diseases of the spinal cord, where Bengal and Maine Coon cats were equally represented (n = 1 each). Although purebred cats have become more popular in the past few years, 1 non-pedigree cats are still predominant, accounting for 89–92% of domestic cats in the UK. 14 Our study population thus appears to reflect the general population of cats in the UK and does not clearly support the notion that purebred cats are more prone to neurological disease than crossbreeds. The most frequently affected area of the nervous system in our feline population was the brain (44%), followed by the spinal cord (26.3%) and neuromuscular system (25.6%). This is in agreement with what has been reported for a population of cats in Japan 10 but is in contrast to the population of cats in Brazil, where spinal cord pathology was the most common, 9 even if the latter study had an overwhelming number of traumatic spinal cases.
In terms of aetiological VITAMIN D categories, the distribution changed when regions of the nervous system were analysed individually.
Regarding brain disease, neoplastic (36.8%), idiopathic (34.2%) and inflammatory and/or infectious (16.2%) diseases were the most frequently diagnosed. In the retrospective study done by Nakamoto et al, 10 the incidence of neoplastic disease in cats was similar to that in our study, accounting for 31.4% of the cases. The incidence of intracranial neoplasia in cats has been reported to be 2.2%. 5 However, in a retrospective study of structural brain lesions in 114 cats, neoplasia was seen in 9.7% of cases; 12 in a study of 286 cats with neurological disorders by Bradshaw et al, 3 at least 19/38 cases of neoplasia only affected the intracranial structures. This suggests that the incidence of intracranial tumours in cats may be higher than previously reported.10,15 Pathology results (cytology and/or histopathology) were available for 14 cases. Meningioma was the most common type of neoplasia, followed by lymphoma, in agreement with the previous literature.3,5,15,16
As for idiopathic brain disease, idiopathic epilepsy (n = 28, 70%) and paroxysmal dyskinesia (n = 8, 20%) were the most common types of idiopathic disease found in our cat population. The percentage of cats diagnosed with idiopathic epilepsy in our study is higher than previously reported, where idiopathic epilepsy accounted for 22–57% of cats with recurrent seizures. 17 Several factors – such as atypical seizures, the high incidence of focal seizures that may mislead clinicians towards other paroxysmal disorders and inconsistencies in epilepsy terminology – contribute to the challenges of diagnosing recurrent seizure disorders in cats. 18 Furthermore, recent developments have made certain feline epilepsy syndromes, such as autoimmune limbic encephalitis and temporal lobe epilepsy, more recognisable.18,19 For this reason, it is possible that some cats diagnosed with idiopathic epilepsy in our study were in fact cases of autoimmune limbic encephalitis. Paroxysmal dyskinesia was the second most common idiopathic brain disease diagnosed in our cat population. To date, paroxysmal dyskinesia in cats has only been reported in Sphynx cats, 20 and our study is the first to highlight its presence in other breeds. This underscores the urgent need for further research into this likely underreported pathology in feline patients.
Within the inflammatory/infectious category, bacterial infection was the most diagnosed condition, contrary to previous reports in which FIP and toxoplasmosis were the most common causes of neurological disease in cats. 21 Although our results should be interpreted with caution because of the small number of cases, this finding is in agreement with a recent study describing peripheral vestibular syndrome in cats, where otitis media/interna was the most frequent differential diagnosis. 22 MUO accounted for 15.8% of all cats diagnosed with brain inflammatory/infectious brain diseases, which is slightly higher than the 11% reported by Bradshaw et al 3 in a cohort of 286 cats showing evidence of encephalitis or meningitis without an obvious infectious agent. The median age of cats with presumed MUO in our study was 37.3 months (range 11–60), which is lower than previously reported median ages of 112.8 months, 23 96 months 24 and 7 years. 25
For spinal cord disease, neoplastic (31.4%) and degenerative (31.4%) conditions were the most frequently diagnosed aetiological categories, followed by inflammatory (14.3%) and vascular (12.9%) diseases. This contrasts with the findings of Marioni-Henri et al 6 and Bradshaw et al 3 but aligns with those of Gonçalves et al 8 and Mella et al, 26 whose studies were conducted in the UK. Histopathology was available in 10 cases. Of these, five were consistent with lymphoma, three with meningioma and two with osteosarcoma. In accordance with previous studies, lymphoma was the most common spinal cord neoplasia in our study.7,8,15 The median age of cats with lymphoma in our study was 111.2 months (range 34–192), which is older than previously reported 7 and may simply reflect that lymphoma can affect adult cats in general. 15 The median age of cats with meningioma in our study was 85 months (range 56–104), consistent with previous reports that meningioma affects mainly adult to older cats (36–216 months). 15 Within the degenerative category, disc disease was the most frequently diagnosed condition, in agreement with previous studies.8,26 Toxoplasmosis was the most common infectious disease affecting the spinal cord in our study, and no cases of FIP were reported. This contrasts with the findings of Marioni-Henry et 6 and Mella et al, 26 in which FIP was the predominant infectious cause of myelitis. The reason for this difference is uncertain but may be related to differences in population and study design. Within the anomalous category, two cats were diagnosed with congenital vertebral malformations. This was the only disease category in which purebred cats were more frequently represented than domestic shorthair cats.
Regarding neuromuscular diseases, idiopathic conditions were the most commonly diagnosed in our study, with most cats affected by idiopathic polyneuropathy (29.6%) or idiopathic vestibular disease (22.2%). Feline idiopathic polyneuropathy is a rare and still poorly understood condition because of its variable possible aetiologies. Although recent evidence suggests an immune-mediated mechanism, in some cases no underlying cause can be identified.27,28 A genetic cause has also been proposed for certain breeds, including some represented in our study, such as Siberian cats. 29 In the absence of confirmation of immune-mediated disease, the cats in our study were presumed to have idiopathic disease. Similar to previous reports,27 –29 the cats in our study were young, with a median age of 16.7 months (range 4–45).
Regarding diffuse neurological diseases, inflammatory and/or infectious diseases were the most common causes. Within this category, infectious diseases – namely toxoplasmosis, followed by FIP and otitis media (affecting both the brain and spinal cord) – were the most frequently diagnosed. Toxoplasmosis and FIP are the second and first most common infectious diseases in cats, respectively, 21 and although they can manifest as focal conditions, involvement of multiple regions of the nervous system is much more common. 21
In our study, the most commonly diagnosed diseases were neoplastic (28.9%), followed by idiopathic (25.2%), inflammatory/infectious (21.1%), degenerative (9.8%), traumatic (6.0%), vascular (4.9%), anomalous (2.6%) and metabolic (1.5%) conditions. This differs from previous retrospective studies, in which inflammatory diseases were more frequently diagnosed.3,9 Across all regions of the nervous system, cats with neoplastic disease were older than 119 months, consistent with previous reports,5,7,9 but differing from the large retrospective study by Bradshaw et al, 3 where spinal cord and brain samples were analysed together, and the median age of cats with lymphoma and non-lymphoma neoplasia were 3.5 years and 6.5 years, respectively. Interestingly, cats with metabolic disease were the oldest in our population, with a median age of 132 months (range 95–162). The cause may be inherent to the aetiology of the diseases diagnosed in these cats. Of the four cats, two were diagnosed with hepatic encephalopathy affecting the brain, while the other two were diagnosed with diabetes mellitus and hypokalaemia secondary to Conn’s syndrome, causing neuromuscular disease. In one cat, hepatic encephalopathy was secondary to acute hepatobiliary disease, and in the other, it was secondary to a congenital extrahepatic shunt.
Our study has several limitations, the most important being those inherent to its retrospective nature, with data collected from a single referral institution. This means our population may not be representative of the overall population of cats with neurological disease in the UK. In addition, comparison of our results with previous studies was inherently compromised by differences in study populations, study design, and access to diagnostic tools across institutions and countries.3,9,10
Conclusions
This is the first study to describe feline neurological patients in terms of their clinical diagnoses, neuroanatomical localisation and aetiological disease distribution in the UK. This can be considered a first step towards developing a demographic database for feline patients. Furthermore, the data from this study add to the existing knowledge in feline neurology and may contribute to a more in-depth list of differential diagnoses and improved recognition of neurological diseases in cats.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank the caregivers and cats that participated in this study.
Footnotes
Accepted: 25 September 2025
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding: The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Ethical approval: The work described in this manuscript involved the use of non-experimental (owned or unowned) animals. Established internationally recognised high standards (‘best practice’) of veterinary clinical care for the individual cat were always followed and/or this work involved the use of cadavers. Ethical approval from a committee was therefore not specifically required for publication in JFMS. Although not required, where ethical approval was still obtained, it is stated in the manuscript.
Informed consent: Informed consent (verbal or written) was obtained from the owner or legal custodian of all animal(s) described in this work (experimental or non-experimental animals, including cadavers, tissues and samples) for all procedure(s) undertaken (prospective or retrospective studies). No animals or people are identifiable within this publication, and therefore additional informed consent for publication was not required.
ORCID iD: Vera Pisco 
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6113-1440
Sergio A Gomes
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9452-7262
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