Job stress, coping resources and teacher career satisfaction: a questionnaire survey based on China’s “double reduction” policy

Abstract

Background and aims

Teacher career satisfaction is closely linked to education reform. Taking China’s "double reduction" policy as an opportunity and guided by stress process theory, this study examines the relationship between job stress and teacher career satisfaction, as well as the moderating roles of the social support network and self-efficacy as coping resources in this relationship.

Method

An online cross-sectional survey was conducted among 576 primary and secondary school teachers in Nantong City and Yangzhou City, China. Data analysis included descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, multiple linear regression model and the test of moderating effects.

Results

Teacher career satisfaction under the "double reduction" policy is not so good, and it is worse in the pilot area than in the non-pilot area(51.76 < 55.21). The job stress negatively predicts teacher career satisfaction (β = -0.26, p < 0.001) and demonstrated robustness in both pilot and non-pilot areas (β = -0.33, p < 0.001; β = -0.16, p < 0.01). Coping resources play a moderating role in the relationship between job stress and teacher career satisfaction. Among them, the interaction coefficient between job stress and social support network is positive in total and pilot areas(β = 0.004, p < 0.05; β = 0.006, p < 0.05), indicating positive moderation; and the interaction coefficient between job stress and self-efficacy is also positive in total, pilot and non-pilot areas (β = 0.005, p < 0.001; β = 0.007, p < 0.001; β = 0.004, p < 0.05), indicating a similarly positive moderation.

Conclusion

Stress process theory helps to understand teacher career satisfaction under China's "double reduction" policy. It reveals the dual function of the "double reduction" policy on teacher career satisfaction, both in terms of the negative correlation with job press and the positive moderation from coping resources. Therefore, the main implication of this article is "seeking benefits and avoiding harm", which means that while preventing and resolving job press, we should actively develop resources in order to enhance teacher career satisfaction.

Introduction

Teachers are important subjects of educational practice and their educational participation is essential to the success of educational reform [1–3].The International Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Century (ICE21), in its submission to UNESCO, "Education-Where the Wealth Lies", states that the importance of teacher as a factor in educational reform has never been more indisputable than it is today [4]. Previous studies have indicated that teacher career satisfaction is a significant psychological factor influencing their participation in educational reform, and a high level of teacher career satisfaction helps them to recognize and participate in educational reform [5].

Teacher career satisfaction is a work-related social phenomenon, not just an individual issue, so it is important to pay attention to work environment characteristics [6]. Some scholars have pointed out that the two-dimensional dichotomy of "stress" and "support (i.e., coping resources) " is a condensation of work environment characteristics and has different effects on teacher career satisfaction [7]. Among them, stress refers to work environments characterized by high goal requirements, high intensity assessment, and multi-dimensional responsibility constraints, such as overloaded teaching assignments [8]. Stress does not typically directly enhance teacher career satisfaction. Moreover, while it may exert a faint positive influence indirectly by motivating individuals to achieve work objectives, its negative effects still dominate the overall impact [9–11]. Support (i.e., coping resources) refers to the internal psychological assets and external environmental supplies that an individual can mobilize when coping with stress, and is used to buffer the damage of stress, maintain psychological homeostasis, and promote adaptation [12]. It encompasses both individual and societal dimensions: the former (e.g., self-efficacy) originates from the individual themselves, while the latter (e.g., social support networks) exists within societal systems, and both are positively correlated with teacher career satisfaction [13–15].

To date, few studies have combined "stress" and "support (i.e., coping resources)" to comprehensively reveal the impact of the "two-dimensional dichotomy" of work environment characteristics on teacher career satisfaction, and China's "double reduction" policy provides a good opportunity to do so. On July 24, 2021, the Chinese government issued "Opinions on Further Reducing the Burden of Homework on Compulsory Education Students and the Burden of Out-of-School Training" (i.e., "double reduction"). With the implementation of "double reduction", teachers’ working environment characteristics have undergone significant changes: on one hand, the "pressure" from efficient curriculum construction, homework design and after-school services has increased; on the other hand, "support" such as "double reduction" training, financial subsidies and smart education platforms has also grown, presenting a dualistic pattern that will affect teacher career satisfaction [16]. Meanwhile, the Stress Process Model proposed by Pearlin et al. is perfectly suitable for analyzing the duality of work environment characteristics, and its core strength lies in dynamically deconstructing "stress" and "support" within the same system, revealing how they interact to influence individual development [17]. Therefore, this study will explore teacher career satisfaction in the context of "double reduction", and use the Stress Process Model as a guide to further explore the complex effects of the "dichotomous pattern" of work environment characteristics, and reveal its generating mechanism, so as to promote the implementation of "double reduction" and the healthy development of teachers.

Theoretical basis and research hypothesis

Theoretical basis: China’s "double reduction" policy and teacher career satisfaction uznder the Stress Process Model

Career satisfaction was first formally introduced by Hoppock in 1935, referring to employees’ feelings about the work environment as well as physical and psychological satisfaction. Moreover, compared to individual factors, job satisfaction is more significantly influenced by external factors, particularly characteristics of the work environment [18].

Previous studies have shown that the Stress Process Model has a unique theoretical advantage in exploring the relationship between external factors of work environment characteristics and (teacher) career satisfaction, deconstructing the complex chain of "work environment characteristics → satisfaction" [19]. In 1981, Pearlin et al. published "the stress process", which identified three conceptual domains—stressors, mediators, and Manifestations—to construct a theoretical model of the stress process [17]. Among them, Stressors refer to any environmental demands requiring individuals to adjust their routine behavioral patterns, such as policy reforms. Mediators denote factors utilized for self-defense, such as social support. Manifestations are typically selected as dependent variables of mental health, such as satisfaction. Since then, empirical studies using the Stress Process Model have developed along the following two main directions: one direction is the study of Stress Exposure, which mainly explores the negative impact of "stress" on career satisfaction; The other direction is the study of Stress Vulnerability, which mainly explores the positive impact of "support" (i.e., coping resources) on career satisfaction, as well as its positive moderating role in the relationship between "stress" and career satisfaction [20]. Moreover, the two directions of research based on the Stress Process Model are not independent, but often intertwined due to the duality of work environment characteristics [21].

In China, with the implementation of "double reduction" policy, significant changes have taken place in the characteristics of teachers’ working environment, presenting a picture where "stress" and "support (i.e., coping resources)" are increasing simultaneously. Thus, the Stress Process Model can help to examine the positive and negative impacts of "stress" and "support (i.e., coping resources)" on teacher career satisfaction within a unified framework, forming a balanced, comprehensive and interactive analytical framework.

Research hypotheses

Stress exposure hypothesis: job stress and teacher career satisfaction

In this paper, we will follow the two directions of the Stress Process Model to comprehensively examine the relationship between Stress Exposure and Stress Vulnerability and teacher career satisfaction in the context of "double reduction".

Stressors are the focus of the stress exposure mechanism, and they are closely related to the implementation of "double reduction". "Double reduction" has changed the environment and tasks of schools, and has also forced schools to change as a whole, i.e., to return to the equity attributes of schools, to re-emphasize the responsibility attributes of schools, and to shape the service posture of schools, so as to bring the public product of compulsory education schools closer to the meaning of wholeness in a multi-dimensional way [22]. Teachers are the main stakeholder group and implementation body, specifically responsible for the implementation of "double reduction", therefore, along with the overall change of the school, their role is no longer limited to providers of educational activities, but is expanded to service providers performing guardianship duties and administrators of student safety. Accordingly, the sources of teachers' stress are professional matters of teaching and social matters of non-teaching: the former includes efficient classroom, homework design, and after-school service; the latter includes administrative requirements of schools, requirements of students' parents, and requirements of their own families [23].

Stress is a description of the level of psychological and mental strain on teachers, and an important factor in their career satisfaction. Research has confirmed that there is a significant negative correlation between job stress and teacher career satisfaction. The greater the job stress of teachers, the lower their job satisfaction is likely to be [24]. For example, Robbins points out that job dissatisfaction is actually the "simplest and most obvious psychological consequence" of stress [25]. Therefore, under China's "double reduction", the increased pressure of work such as efficient classrooms, after-school services and homework design may also be linked to low teacher career satisfaction. As some studies have shown, in the course of "double reduction", complaints from teachers such as "tiredness", "heavy workload", "the last straw that breaks the camel's back" often appear, which easily lead to teachers’ dissatisfaction [22]. The following hypotheses were developed:

• Hypothesis 1: Job stress under China's "double reduction" is directly and negatively associated with teacher career satisfaction.

Stress vulnerability hypothesis: coping resources and teacher career satisfaction

Teacher career satisfaction cannot be fully predicted from the stress they face alone, but are also influenced by the coping resources they can use to regulate stress, which is the core point of Stress Vulnerability [20]. Based on the source of coping resources, they can be categorized into external social resources and internal self-resources. The former primarily refers to social support, and the latter primarily refers to personality and traits. Together, they constitute an "internal and external support system" that enables coping with stress and maintaining teacher career satisfaction [17]. Therefore, we select the pair of coping resources: social support and self-efficacy, and investigate their impact on teacher career satisfaction.

Social support is the most important external social resource [20]. According to Conservation of Resources Theory, a good social support serves as a positive external resource that can help individuals cope effectively with job stress and maintain their career satisfaction [26]. Social support functions through the following two pathways: one is the "main effect model", which posits that social support may exert an independent and direct positive influence on teacher career satisfaction. Second is the "buffer model", which suggests that social support can maintain high levels of teacher career satisfaction by moderating the negative effects of stress [20]. In China, while "double reduction" has increased teachers' workload and stress, it has also provided numerous resources, such as subsidies, offering them substantial care and support. For instance, Zhou and Qi pointed out that as the "double reduction" has become the top priority of educational supervision, the teacher support system has been continuously improved, including organizing full-staff training, implementing guarantee and incentive measures, and effectively integrating off-campus resources [27]. Therefore, this study proposes the following hypothesis: Social support under China's "double reduction" may function through both a "main effect model" and a "buffer model"—that is, social support is not only directly and positively associated with teacher career satisfaction but also positively moderates the negative association between stress and teacher career satisfaction.

• Hypothesis 2a: Social support under China's "double reduction" is directly and positively associated with teacher career satisfaction.

• Hypothesis 2b: Social support under China's "double reduction" may positively moderate the negative association between stress and teacher career satisfaction.

Compared to social support, self-efficacy is an important internal self resource, which is embedded in one's own proactive adaptation and demonstrates their ability to act [28]. As coping resources in stress vulnerability, self-efficacy and social support are functionally similar, i.e., they both help individuals to dissipate stress and bring career satisfaction. On one hand, self-efficacy positively predicts teacher career satisfaction, manifested in the direct link between "belief-emotion"—individuals' belief in their own capabilities shapes their positive perceptions of work outcomes, fulfillment, and sense of value, thereby sustaining high job satisfaction. On the other hand, self-efficacy is a buffer variable that regulates the relationship between stress and teacher career satisfaction, which is reflected in the difference in the strength of "stress-career satisfaction" relationship, i.e., when self-efficacy is high, the negative correlation between stress and career satisfaction is significantly weakened, and vice versa [20]. In China, the "double reduction" policy will profoundly impact teachers' levels of self-efficacy, which in turn will be closely linked to their functional performance: when the self-efficacy is high, teachers have better job completion and recognition, and their job satisfaction is also higher; conversely, this is not the case [29]. Based on the above analysis, this study proposes the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 3a: Self-efficacy under China's "double reduction" is directly and positively associated with teacher career satisfaction.

Hypothesis 3b: Self-efficacy under China's "double reduction" may positively moderate the negative association between stress and teacher career satisfaction.

Method

Participants and procedures

This paper was conducted through a questionnaire survey of in-service teachers in compulsory education in China. Specifically, firstly, based on the list of pilot cities for the national "double reduction" reform, we identified Nantong City in Jiangsu Province as the main survey city, and Yangzhou City, which also belongs to the central Jiangsu Province, was included in the scope of the survey as a comparison. Secondly, in the two surveyed cities, taking into account the progress, practice and effectiveness of the implementation of "double reduction" in different districts, one typical representative was selected in each city, namely Haimen District in Nantong City and Ganjiang District in Yangzhou City. Thirdly, in these two selected districts, 6 schools (3 elementary school and 3 junior high schools) were selected, taking into account the level, ranking, characteristics and implementation of "double reduction". Finally, all the in-service teachers from six schools will be selected as the survey subjects.

During the period of April 1 to June 30, 2022, we distributed the "Questionnaire Star" link to all teachers through the school leaders of selected schools using internal notification channels (i.e., QQ work groups). We explained the survey's purpose and requirements, and teachers completed the questionnaire online at their convenience. In total, 600 questionnaires were distributed, and 576 qualified responses were obtained, yielding an effective response rate of 96.00%. Among them, the sample size in Nantong City is 268.

Measures

Teacher career satisfaction

Teacher career satisfaction is measured using the scale developed by Wu Xiangrong et al. [30], which includes two aspects: job emotions and job conditions. In terms of job emotions, three items are selected, "Are you satisfied with the 'double reduction' job division of tasks?" "Are you satisfied with the current teaching job?" and "Are you tired of the teaching job?" In terms of job conditions, three items are selected,"Are you satisfied with the 'double reduction' financial subsidies?""Are you satisfied with the hardware facilities or office environment?" and "Are you satisfied with the school’s educational reform?" The KMO test value of this scale is 0.839 and the Bartlett's sphericity test is significant (p < 0.05). Principal component analysis is used to extract common factors and convert them into the teacher career satisfaction index with a score of 1–100. The higher the score, the higher the teacher career satisfaction.

Job stress

Job stress measurement is based on Keiko Naono㎞agatomo, et al.’s School Teacher Job Stress Scale, encompassing both professional matters of teaching and social matters of non-teaching [31]. Among them, four items are selected for professional matters, namely, "classroom teaching reform""school homework design""school after-school services" "students' academic performance", and four items for social matters, namely, "various administrative measures of schools""various demands of parents""evaluation of teachers by public opinion""Family problems (e.g., parenting)".The KMO test value of this scale is 0.890 and the Bartlett's sphericity test is significant (p < 0.05). Principal component analysis method is used to extract common factors and convert them into the teacher job stress index with a score of 1–100. The higher the score, the higher the teachers’ job stress.

Coping resources

Coping resources include Social support and self-efficacy. Among them, Social support is conceptualized and measured according to Yuh and Choi [32]. Four items are specifically selected: "School leaders care about me very much" "School colleagues care about me very much" "Family members care about me very much" and "Parents of students care about me very much". The KMO test value of this scale is 0.658 and the Bartlett's sphericity test is significant (p < 0.05). Principal component analysis method was used to extract common factors and convert them into the teachers’ social support index with a score of 1–100. The higher the score, the higher the teachers’ social support. Self-efficacy is conceptualized and measured according to Bandura et al. [28]. Three items are specifically selected: "I can use my personal competence in the 'double reduction' job" "I can be praised for excelling in the double reduction job" and "I can adapt to the individual demands of the double reduction job". The KMO test value of this scale is 0.641 and the Bartlett's sphericity test is significant (p < 0.05). Principal component analysis method was used to extract common factors and convert them into the teachers’ self-efficacy index with a score of 1–100. The higher the score, the higher the teachers’ self-efficacy.

Control variables

Existing studies have shown that teachers' personal characteristics (i.e. gender and age), job characteristics (i.e. teaching age, teaching grade, be class administrator or not, and be school leaders or not), family characteristics (i.e. marital status and family economy), and school characteristics (i.e. school ranking and school location) may all affect their Job stresses, coping resources and teacher career satisfaction [11]. Therefore, in this paper, they are taken as control variables (Table 1).

Table 1.

Descriptive statistics of variables(N = 576)

Variable types	Variable assignments	Variable distribution
Continuous variables		Mean (SD)
Teacher career satisfaction	1–100	53.61(17.50)
Job stress	1–100	65.62(17.52)
Self-efficacy	1–100	45.17(20.75)
Social support	1–100	59.34(16.77)
Age	23–60	40.18(8.99)
Teaching age	0–42	18.11(10.25)
Teaching grade	1–9	5.48(2.43)
Categorical variables		Frequency (%)
Gender	Female = 0	438(76.04)
	Male = 1	138(23.96)
Marital status	Unmarried = 0	91(15.80)
	Married = 1	485(84.20)
Be class administrator or not	No = 0	353(61.28)
	Yes = 1	223(38.72)
Be school leaders or not	No = 0	452(78.47)
	Yes = 1	124(21.53)
Family economy	Economic hardship = 0	45(7.81)
	No economic hardship = 1	531(92.19)
School ranking	Below medium = 0	246(42.71)
	Above medium = 1	330(57.29)
School location	Non-"Double Reduction" policy pilot area = 0	308(53.47)
	"Double Reduction" policy pilot area = 1	268(46.53)

Missing data descriptions and statistical analysis

As described above, this study utilized "Questionnaire Star" to conduct a questionnaire survey and collect data from 600 teachers selected from Nantong and Yangzhou cities in Jiangsu Province, China. "Questionnaire Star" is a scientific (professional) and efficient online survey platform that provides various technical tools—such as device constraints, time constraints and response constraints—to assist researchers in data collection [33]. During the survey, on one hand, since 24 teachers did not complete the questionnaire online via "Questionnaire Star" between April 1 and June 30, 2022, the number of recovered questionnaires was 576; On the other hand, since "Questionnaire Star" not only imposed range validity constraints on each question's options but also enforced completeness requirements for survey submissions, all collected questionnaires were complete and valid, with no missing data.

Based on 576 valid samples, we conducted statistical analysis using SPSS version 26.0. The specific statistical methods employed, aligned with the research questions and hypotheses, are as follows: First, Descriptive statistics, such as means and standard deviations, absolute numbers and percentages, are used to characterize the variables; Second, Diferences among various demographic characteristics are analyzed using t-tests and one-way ANOVA; Third, Pearson’s correlation analysis and Multivariable linear regression model are used to examine the relationships between job stress, coping resources and teacher career satisfaction; Finally, Hierarchical regression is used to explore the moderating role of coping resources in the relationship between job stress and teacher career satisfaction.

Results

Descriptive statistics and correlations among main study variables

With the implementation of "double reduction", will teachers’ work characteristics and emotional experiences undergo changes? Table 2 presents the distribution of teachers’ job stress, coping resources and career satisfaction under the "double reduction" policy, along with regional variations.

Table 2.

Distribution of job stress, coping resources and teacher career satisfaction

Type	Job stress		Coping resources				Teacher career satisfaction
			Self-efficacy		Social support
Total(N = 576)	65.62(17.52)		45.17(20.75)		59.34(16.77)		53.61(17.50)
Pilot area(N = 268)	68.14 (17.28)	t = −3.25, p < 0.05	43.77 (21.55)	t = 1.51, p > 0.05	58.93 (16.74)	t = 0.54, p > 0.05	51.76 (18.32)	t = 2.37, p < 0.05
Non-pilot area(N = 308)	63.41 (17.44)		46.38 (19.98)		59.68 (16.81)		55.21 (16.60)

First of all, the overall average score of job stress is 65.62, indicating that teachers experience high pressure and burden. Moreover, the average score of job stress in the pilot area is higher than that in the non-pilot area(68.14 > 63.41), and this difference in distribution is statistically significant, i.e., teachers in the pilot area have more job stress.

Secondly, teachers’ coping resources include personal and social resources. In terms of personal resources, the overall average score for self-efficacy is 45.17, i.e., teachers’ self-efficacy is below moderate. Although the average score of self-efficacy in the non-pilot area is slightly higher than that in the pilot area (46.38 > 43.77), the difference in this distribution is not statistically significant, i.e., they are all at a moderately low level. In terms of social resources, the overall average score for social support is 59.34, i.e., the level of teachers’ social support is slightly above medium. Although the average score of social support in the non-pilot area is slightly higher than that in the pilot area (59.68 > 58.93), the difference in this distribution is not statistically significant, i.e., they are all at a moderately high level.

Finally, the overall average score of teacher career satisfaction is 53.61, indicating that teachers' emotional experiences are not so good and their career satisfaction remain at a medium level. Moreover, the average score of teacher career satisfaction in the pilot area is lower than that in the non-pilot area (51.76 < 55.21), and the difference in distribution is statistically significant, i.e. teacher career satisfaction is worse in the pilot area.

Table 3 shows that there is a significant correlation among job press, coping resources and teacher career satisfaction under the "double reduction" policy. Overall, the correlation coefficients between job stress and self-efficacy and teacher career satisfaction are −0.27 and −0.30 (p < 0.001) respectively, indicating a significant negative correlation. However, the correlation coefficients between self-efficacy and social support, as well as their relationship with teacher career satisfaction, are 0.50, 0.65, and 0.58 (p < 0.001) respectively, indicating a significant positive correlation. Moreover, in both the pilot area and the non-pilot area, the correlations among the three variables remain consistent with the overall findings.

Table 3.

Correlations among the main study variables

Variable	Total(N = 576)				Pilot area(N = 268)				Non-pilot area(N = 308)
	1	2	3	4	1	2	3	4	1	2	3	4
1 Job stress	1				1				1
2 Self-efficacy	−0.27***	1			−0.29***	1			−0.25 ***	1
3 Social support	−0.04	0.50***	1		−0.06	0.50***	1		−0.02	0.49***	1
4 Teacher career satisfaction	−0.30***	0.65***	0.58***	1	−0.36***	0.67***	0.55***	1	−0.22 ***	0.64***	0.62***	1

^***p < 0.001

Multivariate linear regression analysis of job stress and control variables on teacher career satisfaction

Guided by the stress process theory, this study examines the factors associated with teacher career satisfaction under the "double reduction" policy from two aspects: stress exposure and stress vulnerability. Table 4 analyzes the role of job stress and control variables along the direction of stress exposure. Among them, Model 1, Model 2 and Model 3 represent the situations of the total, the pilot area and the non-pilot area respectively.

Table 4.

Multivariate linear regression of job stress and control variables on teacher career satisfaction

Type	Total(N = 576)	Pilot area(N = 268)	Non-pilot area(N = 308)
	Model 1	Model 2	Model 3
	β	β	β
Job stress	−0.26***	−0.33***	−0.16**
Control variables
Gender	1.63	−0.20	4.90*
Age	0.22	−0.28	1.09*
Marital status	−3.79*	−3.66	−3.60
Family economy	4.12	2.18	3.84
Teaching age	−0.28	0.07	−0.93*
Teaching grade	−0.54*	−1.47**	0.62
Be class administrator or not	−1.44	−3.60	−0.55
Be school leaders or not	5.68***	6.29*	3.96*
School ranking	4.06**	1.87	6.24***
School location	−1.06	—	—
Constant	66.01***	94.40***	29.77*
F	8.45***	6.99***	5.05***
R2	0.14	0.21	0.15

^*p < 0.05, ^**p < 0.01, ^***p < 0.001

In Model 1, the F value is 8.45(p < 0.001) and R² value is 0.14. It indicates that job stress and control variables jointly explained 14% of the variance in teacher career satisfaction. Specifically, the regression coefficient for job stress is −0.26(p < 0.001), indicating that job stress significantly and negatively predicts teacher career satisfaction. Among the control variables, the regression coefficients for marital status and teaching grade are −3.79 and −0.54(p < 0.05), respectively, indicating that they are significantly negatively associated with teacher career satisfaction; while the regression coefficients for be school leaders or not and school ranking are 5.68 and 4.06 (p < 0.001, p < 0.01), respectively, indicating that they are significantly positively associated with teacher career satisfaction.

Model 2 and Model 3 indicate that, on the one hand, regardless of whether in the pilot area or the non-pilot area, the regression coefficients for job stress are negative (β = −0.33, β = −0.16), which is consistent with the overall findings and indicates a negative correlation. On the other hand, regarding control variables, in pilot area, teaching grade shows a negative correlation with teacher career satisfaction(β = −1.47, p < 0.01), while be school leaders or not is positively correlated with it (β = 6.29, p < 0.05); In non-pilot regions, teaching age shows a negative correlation with teacher job satisfaction (β = −0.93, p < 0.05), while gender, age, whether the teacher was a school administrator, school ranking all show positive correlations (β = 4.90, p < 0.05; β = 1.09, p < 0.05; β = 3.96, p < 0.05; β = 6.24, p < 0.001).

Thus, job stress is directly and negatively associated with teacher career satisfaction, and this relationship exhibits strong robustness across different regions (i.e., pilot and non-pilot areas for the "double reduction" policy). Hypothesis 1 is supported. This finding is consistent with the work, life and emotional responses of teachers under China’s "double reduction" policy. Zhong et al. pointed out that the "double reduction" policy has brought about numerous changes in teachers' work content and methods—they now need to participate in curriculum reform, optimize homework design, and provide after-school extended services, resulting in increased workloads and pressure. Teachers frequently report heavy workloads, with complaints like "tiredness" "heavy workload" and "the last straw that breaks the camel's back" becoming commonplace, leading to declining job satisfaction [34].

Testing the moderating role of social support

Unlike the stress exposure perspective represented by job stress, the following discussion will explore the role of coping resources—including social support and self-efficacy—from the direction of stress vulnerability. Table 5 presents the hierarchical regression results for social support on teacher career satisfaction.

Table 5.

Hierarchical regression model testing the moderating role of social support

Type	Total(N = 576)		Pilot area(N = 268)		Non-pilot area(N = 308)
	Model 4–1	Model 4–2	Model 5–1	Model 5–2	Model 6–1	Model 6–2
	β	β	β	β	β	β
Job stress	−0.26***	−0.48***	−0.31***	−0.65***	−0.17***	−0.28*
Social support	0.59***	0.32**	0.60***	0.19	0.58***	0.46**
Job stress × Social support		0.004*		0.006*		0.002
Control variables
Gender	0.27	0.15	−2.53	−2.74	4.36*	4.34*
Age	0.16	0.17	−0.15	−0.16	0.63	0.64
Marital status	−0.01	−0.62	3.04	1.73	−1.39	−1.63
Family economy	1.17	1.03	−0.08	−0.77	0.65	0.67
Teaching age	−0.23	−0.24	−0.17	−0.14	−0.46	−0.48
Teaching grade	−0.67*	−0.65*	−1.55***	−1.54***	0.47	0.47
Be class administrator or not	−1.87	−2.02*	−5.22**	−5.39**	0.28	0.20
Be school leaders or not	4.55***	4.67***	6.14**	6.03**	2.44	2.57
School ranking	1.95*	2.00*	1.74	1.91	2.45	2.42
School location	−0.37	−0.33	—	—	—	—
Constant	34.80***	50.26***	54.73***	80.31***	10.69	17.69
F	37.36***	35.13***	23.25***	22.01***	23.13***	21.25***
R2	0.44	0.45	0.50	0.51	0.46	0.46

^*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001

Regarding the independent function of social support, the total sample results are shown in Model 4–1. The F-value is 37.36(p < 0.001), indicating that the regression model is significantly effective and that a linear relationship exists in the regression model. The regression coefficient for social support is 0.59(p < 0.001), indicating that social support directly and positively predicts teacher career satisfaction. Specifically, greater social support is associated with higher job satisfaction. Furthermore, Models 5–1 and 6–1 reveal that the regression coefficients of social support are both positive (0.60, 0.58) and statistically significant at the 0.001 level. This indicates that, consistent with the total sample, social support exhibits a significant positive association with teacher career satisfaction, and this relationship holds robustly across both pilot and non-pilot areas. Hypothesis 2a is supported.

Regarding the moderating function of social support, the total sample results are shown in Model 4–2. The F-value is 35.13 (p < 0.001), indicating that the regression model is significantly effective and that a linear relationship exists in the regression model. The regression coefficient for the interaction term between job stress and social support is 0.004 (p < 0.05), indicating that social support positively moderates the negative association between job stress and teacher career satisfaction. Furthermore, Models 5–2 and 6–2 indicate that the moderating role of social support differs between pilot and non-pilot areas. In the pilot area, the regression coefficient for the interaction term between job stress and social support is 0.006 (p < 0.05), indicating that social support plays a significant positive moderating role, consistent with the total sample. However, in non-pilot area, the regression coefficient for this interaction term is 0.002 (p > 0.05), indicating that social support also plays a positive moderating role, although it is not statistically significant. Therefore, social support generally moderates the negative relationship between job stress and teacher career satisfaction. Hypothesis 2b is supported.

Testing the moderating role of self-efficacy

Similar to social support, self-efficacy is a key variable reflecting coping resources. Table 6 presents the hierarchical regression results for self-efficacy on teacher career satisfaction. Regarding the independent function of self-efficacy, the total sample results are shown in Model 7–1. The F-value is 40.33(p < 0.001), indicating that the regression model is significantly effective and that a linear relationship exists in the regression model. The regression coefficient of self-efficacy is 0.52 (p < 0.001), indicating that self-efficacy directly and positively predicts teacher career satisfaction. That is, teachers with stronger self-efficacy also exhibit higher career satisfaction. Furthermore, Models 8–1 and 9–1 reveal that the regression coefficients for self-efficacy are both positive (0.51, 0.49) and statistically significant at the 0.001 level, i.e., Consistent with the total sample findings, self-efficacy exhibits a significant positive correlation with teacher career satisfaction, and this relationship holds robustly in both pilot and non-pilot areas of the "double reduction" policy. Hypothesis 3a is supported.

Table 6.

Hierarchical regression model testing the moderating role of self-efficacy

Type	Total(N = 576)		Pilot area(N = 268)		Non-pilot area(N = 308)
	Model 7–1	Model 7–2	Model 8–1	Model 8–2	Model 9–1	Model 9–2
	β	β	β	β	β	β
Job stress	−0.12***	−0.35***	−0.18***	−0.48***	−0.05	−0.21*
Self-efficacy	0.52***	0.16*	0.51***	0.04	0.49***	0.25*
Job stress × Self-efficacy		0.005***		0.007***		0.004*
Control variables
Gender	0.43	0.43	−0.82	−0.53	2.47	2.31
Age	0.17	0.18	−0.29	−0.23	0.90*	0.87*
Marital status	−0.59	−0.50	2.28	2.29	−2.68	−2.65
Family economy	2.91	2.56	1.44	−0.11	3.00	3.12
Teaching age	−0.23	−0.23	0.05	0.01	−0.75*	−0.72*
Teaching grade	−0.74**	−0.69**	−1.35***	−1.36***	0.04	0.08
Be class administrator or not	−0.38	−0.38	−2.07	−1.93	0.28	0.20
Be school leaders or not	1.88	1.94	2.22	2.21	1.14	1.17
School ranking	0.82	0.78	0.09	0.32	1.77	1.48
School location	0.08	0.03	—	—	—	—
Constant	36.49***	52.63***	58.59***	80.24***	10.29	22.11*
F	40.33***	39.21***	25.52***	25.16***	20.70***	19.48***
R2	0.46	0.48	0.52	0.54	0.43	0.44

^*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001

Regarding the moderating function of self-efficacy, the total sample results are shown in Model 7–2. The F-value is 39.21(p < 0.001), indicating that the regression model is significantly effective and that a linear relationship exists in the regression model. The regression coefficient of the interaction term between job presses and self-efficacy is 0.005 and passes the test at a significance level of 0.001. This indicates that self-efficacy positively moderates the negative impact of job presses on teacher career satisfaction. The regression coefficient for the interaction term between job stress and self-efficacy is 0.005(p < 0.001), indicating that self-efficacy positively moderates the negative relationship between job stress and teacher career satisfaction. Furthermore, Models 8–2 and 9–2 reveal that the regression coefficients for the interaction term between job stress and self-efficacy are positive (0.007, 0.004) in both pilot and non-pilot areas of the "double reduction" policy, and both pass statistical tests (p < 0.001, p < 0.05). This indicates that self-efficacy robustly moderates the negative association between job stress and teacher career satisfaction. Hypothesis 3b is supported.

Discussion

The "double reduction" policy represents a comprehensive reform in China's education sector, poised to transform not only teachers' working environments and characteristics but also their career satisfaction—an aspect that has received limited attention in previous research. As Luo and Hou have pointed out, while current studies on the "double reduction" topic are relatively comprehensive, they still lack systematic research on teachers' psychological states and behaviors, an area that urgently requires supplementation and refinement [35]. Therefore, this study focuses on teacher career satisfaction under the "double reduction" policy, and guided by the stress process model, explores the factors related to teacher career satisfaction along the dimensions of stress exposure and stress vulnerability.This is of great significance to expand the application of stress process model and innovate the research on teacher career satisfaction.

Job stress and teacher career satisfaction show a significant negative correlation under the "double reduction" policy

Stressors constitute the core component in analyzing factors related to teacher career satisfaction under the direction of stress exposure [20]. Currently, the "double reduction" policy has restructured teachers' work pressure patterns, exhibiting characteristics of "persistent traditional pressures combined with new pressures": the former stems from "repetitive labor within the exam-oriented education framework", while the latter arises from "role restructuring and responsibility shifts during educational model transformation". This duality intensifies teachers' perception and response to stress [35]. Our research reveals that job stress directly and negatively predicts teacher career satisfaction. Furthermore, as the "double reduction" policy is implemented more thoroughly, the negative correlation between job stress and teacher career satisfaction has intensified, with this trend being more pronounced in pilot areas than in non-pilot areas. As Jiang noted, since the implementation of the "double reduction" policy, teachers have faced multiple responsibilities including after-school services, homework design, and home-school communication. Their workload and pressure have significantly increased, making them prone to negative emotions such as complaints, anxiety, and dissatisfaction, which has led to a decline in teacher career satisfaction [36]. In summary, our findings support the view of stress exposure within the stress process model [20].

This study demonstrates a negative correlation between job stress and teacher career satisfaction under China's "double reduction" policy, consistent with the vast majority of previous research in this field [9]. Reviewing previous relevant studies, whether focusing on routine teaching scenarios within traditional educational models or examining transitional characteristics during different phases of educational reform, most indicate that job stress is a key variable negatively predicting teacher career satisfaction, and this conclusion demonstrates remarkable consistency across diverse sociocultural contexts and stages of educational development. Under traditional educational models, scholars have pointed out that teachers' job stress primarily stems from high-intensity workloads and role expectations, such as heavy teaching tasks, frequent examinations and assessments, and meticulous classroom management, which can easily lead to emotional exhaustion and job burnout, thereby reducing career satisfaction [37]. For example, a study by Embse et al. found a negative correlation between teachers' stress and career satisfaction, with those teachers who reported greater stress having lower career satisfaction in comparison [10]. When entering the stage of education reform, scholars have pointed out that teachers face more complex and diverse sources of pressure, such as updating curriculum standards, innovating teaching methods, and reforming evaluation systems, which require them to improve their professional abilities in a short period of time, making them prone to professional discomfort and anxiety, and reducing career satisfaction [38]. For example, Popa and Bazgan pointed out that the implementation of Romania's curriculum reform resulted in a low overall level of teacher satisfaction, with a significant negative correlation between them [39].

In summary, our empirical analysis conducted against the backdrop of "double reduction" reaffirms the negative correlation between job stress and teacher career satisfaction. This not only provides the latest empirical evidence for research in this field but also offers an application context for numerous theoretical models of job stress. For example, Karasek's JDC model states that job stress results from a combination of high job demands and low job control. Teachers' work in the context of "double reduction" is a typical example of "high demand-low control", where they face more demands and pressures, but at the same time feel clueless and less autonomous, and this combination not only leads to high stress, but also directly leads to high burnout and low career satisfaction [40].

Social support serves as a crucial external resource that positively moderates the negative association between job stress and teacher career satisfaction under the "double reduction" policy

Social support constitutes a vital external resource for analyzing factors related to teacher career satisfaction under the dimension of stress vulnerability [20]. The "double reduction" not only poses a challenge of high job stress for teachers, but also brings about many new social supports. As an important external resource for individuals coping with job stress, it will profoundly impact teacher career satisfaction [41]. Our research indicates that under the "double reduction" policy, social support is a protective resource for teacher career satisfaction. It not only exhibits a direct and positive correlation with career satisfaction but also moderates the negative relationship between job stress and career satisfaction. Furthermore, the dual function of social support remains robust across both pilot and non-pilot areas of "double reduction". As Zhao and Cai noted, social support is a crucial component in establishing a positive support mechanism under the "double reduction" policy. It provides tangible assistance in collectively addressing job stress, helping alleviate teachers’ professional burnout and psychological burdens, thereby fostering higher career satisfaction [42].

This finding aligns closely with previous related research, profoundly revealing the "dual buffering" value of social support within the teacher professional ecosystem. Regarding the positive correlation between social support and teacher career satisfaction, scholars have noted that social support not only effectively alleviates the additional workload teachers face due to policy adjustments but also significantly enhances their sense of professional dignity and value, thereby sustaining high levels of career satisfaction. For example, Yang et al.’s study showed that social support is positively correlated with teacher career satisfaction and that increasing social support can improve teacher career satisfaction [43]. Regarding the moderating role of social support in the negative association between job stress and teacher career satisfaction, scholars have noted that can serve as a "buffer pool" for teachers under high stress. It provides problem-solving strategies (resources), outlets for emotional release, and psychological security. This effectively interrupts the simple linear progression from "high stress" to "low efficacy" and "high burnout", thereby safeguarding teacher job satisfaction. For example, Wong et al.’ s study showed that social support (e.g., informational support) was a moderator between job stress and teacher career satisfaction, and that access to social support resulted in less negative effects [44].

Thus, social support not only significantly and positively predicts teacher career satisfaction but also serves as a crucial moderating and buffering function, and this role has remained robust throughout the long course of educational development, with its value becoming particularly prominent during critical periods of major educational policy reforms. This study, which focuses on the relationship between social support and teacher career satisfaction under China's "double reduction" policy, provides the latest and most compelling empirical evidence for this. Meanwhile, It can be deeply interpreted through multiple classical theories. For example, the Resource Conservation Theory posits that social support, as a vital personal resource, can effectively counteract the resource depletion experienced by teachers due to policy adjustments, thereby reducing occupational burnout and dissatisfaction. Furthermore, the Job Demands-Resources Theory indicates that social support constitutes a core job resource, capable of mitigating the negative effects of demanding job requirements and consequently enhancing teachers' career satisfaction [45].

Self-efficacy serves as a crucial internal resource that positively moderates the negative association between job stress and teacher career satisfaction under the "double reduction" policy

Unlike social support, self-efficacy serves as a crucial internal resource for analyzing factors related to teacher career satisfaction in terms of stress susceptibility [20]. In the face of pressures stemming from "Double Reduction", while social support representing external resources is undoubtedly important, internal resources—particularly positive self-efficacy—are even more indispensable. It not only serves as the foundation and vehicle for external resources to take effect, but also has a direct and close connection with job satisfaction. Our research reveals that self-efficacy also serves as a protective resource for teacher career satisfaction under the "Double Reduction" policy. Self-efficacy exhibits a significant and direct positive correlation with teacher career satisfaction, while also positively moderating the negative relationship between job stress and career satisfaction. As Xu noted, self-efficacy enhances teachers' professional confidence, motivating them to proactively tackle workplace challenges and fostering a positive cycle of "self-identity → professional commitment → increased satisfaction". Ultimately, this becomes the core driver for elevating teachers' job satisfaction [46].

This finding is highly consistent with previous research conclusions, collectively confirming the central role of self-efficacy in the domains of teacher career satisfaction and educational organizational behavior. Regarding the direct positive correlation function of self-efficacy, scholars have noted that self-efficacy serves as the intrinsic engine for teachers, continuously activating positive experiences in their professional practice—including professional confidence, sense of control over their work, and fulfillment of values. This directly contributes to resilience against burnout and fosters positive work attitudes, such as career satisfaction. For example, research by Ortan et al. indicates that self-efficacy can positively predict teachers' job satisfaction. High self-efficacy directly shapes their optimistic and proactive work attitudes, laying a solid internal psychological foundation for enhancing job satisfaction [47]. Regarding the indirect moderating function of self-efficacy, Scholars have noted that self-efficacy serves as a crucial buffer for teacher career satisfaction. By altering teachers' perceptions of job stress and their coping strategies, it effectively mitigates the negative impact of external shocks on their professional mindset, thereby reducing the erosion and dissolution of job satisfaction caused by negative emotions such as anxiety and burnout. For example, Research by Skaalvik et al. indicates that self-efficacy plays a crucial moderating role in the relationship between job stress and teacher career satisfaction, and its moderating effect is primarily achieved by reshaping self-perceptions and buffering external stressors [48].

Therefore, in shaping teacher career satisfaction, social support functions as a dual safeguard mechanism combining "internal motivation + external buffering". It not only fundamentally stimulates teachers' professional identity and commitment but also builds psychological protective barriers against external risks. Furthermore, this study demonstrates that its role becomes even more prominent during periods of policy transformation, such as China's "Double Reduction" policy. The functional role of self-efficacy primarily stems from its unique position within the teacher's psychological system, as Bandura puts it, "Self-efficacy largelydetermines the degree to which people persist in the face of obstacles." [28] When teachers are convinced that "I can manage change," policy pressures will be transformed into internal motivation for professional reengineering, ultimately resulting in a sense of professional meaning and satisfaction. Therefore, cultivating teachers' self-efficacy cannot be overlooked—it is not only a psychological imperative for educational reform but also a critical pathway to modernizing educational governance.

Theoretical and practical implications

Teacher career satisfaction is important for maintaining individual work enthusiasm and deepening educational reform. The strength of this study lies in our timely exploration the topic of teacher career satisfaction in the context of China’s "double reduction". Existing literature has largely focused on the implementation of the "double reduction" policy, yet has paid relatively little attention to teachers' work conditions and psychological experiences. This study fills precisely this gap. Moreover, as the "double reduction" policy has altered the characteristics of teachers' work environments—simultaneously imposing multiple pressures while creating new resources—this study introduces Stress Process Model that integrates both "stress" and "support (i.e., coping resources)". This theoretical contribution comprehensively examines factors related to teacher career satisfaction and offers insights for advancing China's "double reduction" reform practices.

The theoretical contributions of our study are mainly in the following two aspects: on one hand, it extends the traditional boundaries of Stress Process Model. It has long focused on the unidirectional pathway from stressor → strain → negative outcome (e.g., burnout), often regarded as a "disease model". By introducing career satisfaction as an outcome variable, this study validates the applicability of stress process model in the realm of positive mental health, extending the continuum from unipolar pathology to bipolar health On the other hand, it innovates the research on teacher career satisfaction in the context of "double reduction". While existing literature has focused either on job stress or coping resources, this study integrates job stress and coping resources into a unified explanatory framework guided by the stress process model, thereby achieving a comprehensive analysis of teacher career satisfaction.

This study also has several important practical implications: First of all, alleviating the job stress stemming from "double reduction" is a fundamental prerequisite for maintaining teacher career satisfaction. In response to the "double reduction" policy, school administrators should advance educational reforms in a gradual and phased manner to prevent excessive concentration of work pressure, and they should also scrutinize and eliminate unreasonable work demands while encouraging teachers to adopt innovative work approaches—such as task decomposition, team collaboration, and outsourcing—to enhance efficiency. Secondly, perfecting the social support system is the external guarantee to improve teacher career satisfaction. The social support system can be established both within and outside schools. Recommendations for schools include strengthening teacher training programs, providing comprehensive logistical support, and fostering a positive psychosocial environment. External recommendations encompass policy, funding, and personnel support at the governmental level; parental support at the family level; and educational support at the community level. Finally, enhancing self-efficacy is the internal guarantee to improve teacher career satisfaction. Mental health support programs such as regular stress management, caring conversations, and emotion regulation workshops can be conducted to help teachers alleviate anxiety due to change and stress, increase mental resilience, and enable them to engage in their work with a more positive mindset.

Limitations and future research recommendations

This study has several limitations that warrant further investigation in future research, primarily as follows: First, since the study design and analysis are based on a cross-sectional survey, we should exercise caution in interpreting the relationship between job stress and teacher career satisfaction, as well as the moderating role of coping resources. As noted by Maxwell et al., temporal sequence cannot be overlooked when examining variable relationships—particularly causal or moderating relationships—as neglecting it may introduce estimation biases [49]. Therefore, future research should adopt longitudinal study designs incorporating time dimensions, alongside statistical methods such as structural equation modeling, to further validate the dynamic relationship among job stress, coping resources, and teachercareer satisfaction. Second, the sample was drawn from Jiangsu Province, China, and the respondents were relatively old, which limits the external validity of the findings and may not be applicable to all regions and types of teacher groups. Future research should enhance the diversity of samples, such as expanding the scope of the study and conducting cross-regional comparative studies; enriching the study population and conducting comparative studies of subgroups such as different teaching ages. Finally, there is insufficient attention to the effects of situational complexity. Since this study was conducted at the late stage of the COVID-19 pandemic, it could have a potential impact on teachers' professional satisfaction. Moreover, the "double reduction" policy is in progress, and the progress may vary from region to region. Future research needs to build a more comprehensive and contextualized analytical framework, as well as a tracking database for longitudinal tracking studies.

Conclusion

In order to gain a comprehensive and in-depth understanding of teacher career satisfaction under China's "double reduction" policy, this study proposes hypotheses on the relationship between job stress, coping resources, and teacher career satisfaction, following the dual dimensions of stress exposure and stress vulnerability within Stress Process Model, and empirically tested them using questionnaire survey data in Jiangsu Province, China. This study finds that under the "double reduction" policy, teacher career satisfaction is not particularly high, remaining at a moderate level overall, with pilot areas showing lower satisfaction than non-pilot areas. Further analysis finds that job stress exhibits a significant negative correlation with teacher career satisfaction, and this relationship holds robustly across both pilot and non-pilot areas of "double reduction". Meanwhile, coping resources play an important protective role in the relationship between job stress and teacher career satisfaction. Specifically, social support and self-efficacy—representing internal and external dimensions of coping resources—exhibit both direct positive associations with job satisfaction ("main effects ") and positive moderation of the negative relationship between work pressure and job satisfaction ("buffering effects "). These findings support the hypotheses of our study and offers implications for China's "double reduction" reform practices.

Although, as noted by Maxwell et al., this cross-sectional study carries risks of estimation bias, it lays the groundwork for future analyses examining the relationship between job stress, coping resources, and teacher career satisfaction under the "double reduction" policy. Future research could be enhanced through longitudinal study designs and rigorous statistical methods such as structural equation modeling.

Authors’ contributions

B D designed the study, performed the statistical analysis, and contributed to writing the manuscript. F L also contributed to writing the manuscript. Y W proofread the English expression and reviewed the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by National Social Science Foundation Program of China (22CSH087).

Data availability

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

This study was approved by the Department of Sociology at Hohai University (2022–0421). All of the procedures were performed in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and relevant policies in China. Informed written consent was obtained from all participants before their participation in this study.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.