Integrating CAD, BIM, immersive technology, and 3D Gaussian Splatting for construction model coordination with ISO 19650

Abstract

Traditional construction project management approaches suffer from technical isolation and process deficiencies, particularly in whole-life-cycle model coordination. This paper addresses how to develop a comprehensive management framework that optimizes model coordination through technology integration. This multi-technology integration framework combines CAD drawings, Building Information Modeling (BIM), immersive technology, and 3D Gaussian Splatting scanning while implementing ISO 19650 standards for information management. A hospital project case study was used and validated featuring complex structural and mechanical, electrical, and plumbing (MEP) coordination scenarios. This empirical study demonstrated an approximate 22%-35% reduction in pipeline dismantling rates, 40% shorter review cycles for complex nodes, and significantly improved construction quality verification accuracy. These outcomes highlight how technological synergies can overcome traditional management limitations and establish a robust foundation for future engineering projects. Future research should validate the framework across diverse project types, explore additional integrated technologies, and conduct long-term impact assessments during operation phases.

Introduction

The construction industry is currently undergoing a significant transformation driven by the adoption of modern digital technologies, with the primary goal of enhancing the efficiency and accuracy of project delivery¹. Traditional construction site review processes, which heavily rely on manual inspections and comparisons with construction blueprints, are not only time-consuming but also highly dependent on the expertise and subjective judgment of experienced personnel^2. This approach often leads to inefficiencies, potential inaccuracies in review outcomes, and inconsistencies between design and construction phases³, ultimately resulting in costly project rework, delays, and budget overruns⁴.

To address these challenges, researchers have increasingly turned to digital technologies, with Building Information Modeling (BIM) emerging as a promising solution. Within this context, it is essential to define two core concepts underpinning this study. 2D-BIM refers to the systematic process of transforming legacy 2D Computer-Aided Design (CAD) drawings into structured 3D BIM models through both automated and manual modeling techniques, preserving critical design information while enhancing spatial comprehension. Model coordination denotes the standardized procedure for detecting, resolving, and managing spatial and functional conflicts among multidisciplinary models (architectural, structural, MEP) throughout the project lifecycle, ensuring constructability and maintaining design intent.

Current research primarily focuses on accurate CAD-to-3D model conversion^5,6 to enable efficient construction reviews and facility management⁷. However, this approach faces challenges including potential inaccuracies during 2D-to-3D transition and generation of low-quality BIM models⁶, which can disrupt workflow integration and hinder effective collaboration.

The advent of immersive technologies, including Augmented Reality (AR)^8,9, Virtual Reality (VR)¹⁰, Mixed Reality (MR)^11,12, and Extended Reality (XR)¹³, has further transformed the construction review process. Some studies have successfully integrated these technologies with BIM to enhance visualization capabilities and ensure consistency between models and actual construction conditions^14–16. Additionally, 3D scanning technology has become an essential tool for reverse modeling, with a growing number of researchers applying it to quality assessment and construction inspection^17–19. Most of these studies utilize 3D scanning and point cloud data to capture real-time on-site information, which is then compared with 3D models to reduce construction errors^20,21.

Despite these technological advancements, existing research still has notable limitations. Many studies focus on the application and management of individual technologies rather than developing a comprehensive, multi-technology integration framework that addresses the entire project life cycle. To bridge this gap, this study proposes a multi-technology integration framework that integrates 2D-BIM, immersive technology, and 3D Gaussian Splatting (3D GS) approaches to optimize whole-life-cycle model coordination. Our innovative work is primarily manifested in three areas:

1. Methodological innovation: A Novel Integrated Workflow and Data Pipeline.Current implementations of 2D-BIM, Immersive Tech (VR/MR), and 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS) often function as isolated systems. This leads to broken data exchange and a fragmented collaborative context. We have designed and implemented a unified data integration framework that establishes a bi-directional and semantically consistent data flow among these technologies.Ensures data integrity and operational traceability throughout the project life-cycle, moving beyond a mere listing of compatible tools.

2. Application innovation: A Cohesive Life-Cycle Demonstration.We validate our framework through a use-case that demonstrates its cohesive utility across stages:

3. Design & review: Conducting immersive design reviews with a live, bidirectional connection to the BIM model.

4. Construction progress monitoring: Implementing a process for automatically comparing regularly updated 3DGS site snapshots against the 4D BIM schedule to identify and visualize progress deviations.

5. Our work extends 3DGS from a visualization tool to an interactive information medium through its spatial and semantic integration with BIM. This creates a digital model that combines visual fidelity with actionable data, increasing its utility in construction applications.

This study establishes an integrated framework that systematically coordinates multiple digital technologies to address fragmentation challenges in construction projects. The framework’s validation through a hospital case study with complex MEP requirements demonstrates its effectiveness in enhancing coordination during design and construction phases. By implementing standardized asset coding and information management protocols, the framework simultaneously establishes a crucial foundation for future operational phase implementation. The research methodology progresses from theoretical synthesis to empirical validation, culminating in an operational framework incorporating ISO 19650 standards that addresses identified industry needs while contributing to the construction industry’s digital transformation.

Literature review

BIM-based multi-disciplinary clash detection

Clash detection constitutes a fundamental process in BIM-enabled design verification and multidisciplinary coordination²². In standard practice, discipline-specific models (architectural, structural, MEP) are integrated into a federated model, where automated detection algorithms identify design conflicts²³. Such conflicts frequently manifest as spatial overlaps between building systems after model integration, with MEP-structural interferences being particularly critical due to their potential to generate significant rework^24,25.

Traditional clash detection relied on manual overlay of 2D drawings and expert-driven filtering of irrelevant conflicts. While BIM introduces automation through visualization and parametric capabilities, limitations persist regarding accuracy and the generation of false positives. Current research directions include IFC-based interoperability enhancements²⁶, 4D simulation, rule-based filtering in BIM software, and intelligent conflict classification through machine learning²⁷. Despite these advances, implementation challenges and computational efficiency remain concerns. Navisworks represents the current industry-standard software for BIM-based clash detection applications.

Recent BIM advancements have substantially improved MEP coordination through automated spatial conflict identification and optimization via multidisciplinary spatial topology analysis and semantic rule reasoning^22,28. As a comprehensive digital information platform, BIM enables parametric simulation, facility condition assessment, and problem identification through its capacity to represent component relationships within a virtual environment^29,30. This technological framework allows technicians to rapidly locate collision areas and implement remediation strategies efficiently, while supporting intelligent facility management through digital integration of project documentation³¹.

Although integration with methodologies such as lean theory has enhanced MEP design precision, existing research predominantly focuses on single-technology applications rather than multidimensional approaches to collision management.

Application of immersive technology in construction projects

To overcome the limitations of BIM as a standalone technology, the integration of immersive technologies (including augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), mixed reality (MR), and extended reality (XR)) with BIM has emerged as an innovative collaborative model in the architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) industry^9,32, providing a visualization-enhanced solution for multi-disciplinary clash detection and coordination. These technologies enable real-time visualization, coordination, and decision-making support by capturing geometric data and overlaying BIM models at a 1:1 scale within the user’s field of view. This integration allows designers, engineers, and clients to directly interact with and modify design plans within virtual environments, thereby enhancing communication efficiency and decision-making accuracy.

Beyond design applications, immersive technologies have demonstrated effectiveness in construction site safety training, quality inspection, and design review, ensuring project progression^33,34. Empirical research has shown that immersive VR outperforms paper-based (2D) and monitor-based (3D) design reviews in detecting design issues³⁵. Despite these advantages, research gaps remain regarding multidimensional integration approaches that combine immersive technologies with other digital tools for comprehensive project management.

3D scanning in construction management

As the critical data foundation for the collaborative application of BIM and immersive technologies, three-dimensional (3D) scanning technology originated in computer-aided design (CAD) and manufacturing (CAM) as a tool for creating digital models through reverse engineering and industrial design³⁶. Initially focused on capturing surface geometry using lasers or structured light for complex product design and production, 3D scanning has expanded to applications in cultural heritage preservation^37,38, medical imaging^39,40, and construction management⁴¹.

Within construction management, 3D scanning provides critical accurate site information for planning, quality control, and acceptance⁴². Early applications centered on large infrastructure projects such as bridges and tunnels^37,40, but cost reductions and portable scanner proliferation have made 3D scanning routine in construction projects, improving data collection speed and accuracy while reducing manual measurement errors³⁹.

Despite these advances, data processing has remained a developmental bottleneck. Traditional methods require significant manual intervention, particularly in noise removal and point cloud stitching—especially challenging for large-scale sites. The emergence of the 3D GS algorithm represents a revolutionary advancement, enhancing denoising capabilities and stitching accuracy while reducing computational burden^41,43,44. This innovation not only resolves efficiency-accuracy trade-offs in point cloud processing but also enables real-time and predictive construction management through probabilistic modeling^45,46.

In summary, the integration of 3D scanning with the 3D GS algorithm has evolved from single-point measurement into an intelligent data processing tool. The high-precision data it generates enables real-world scene calibration for BIM clash detection and provides a high-fidelity virtual scene foundation for immersive technologies. The systematic integration of these three technologies represents the key pathway to overcoming current industry limitations.

Theoretical framework for multi-dimensional coordination process

The proposed framework comprises five sequential phases: CAD drawing design, BIM 3D design model creation, BIM 3D model coordination and optimization, BIM 3D model application via immersive technology, and comparison between BIM 3D models and 3D scanned models (Fig. 1).

• CAD drawing design phase: Design units create CAD drawings per professional standards and project requirements, establishing foundational information for subsequent modeling.

• BIM 3D design model creation: BIM 3D models for architecture, structure, and MEP disciplines are developed from CAD drawings, with initial determination of elevations and spatial layouts.

• BIM 3D model coordination and optimization: Clash detection occurs between building/MEP, structure/MEP, and MEP disciplines, followed by optimization to generate MEP deepening construction models guiding actual construction.

• Immersive technology application: Overcomes persistent challenges in both traditional 2D reviews and conventional 3D BIM coordination: the inability to intuitively assess spatial relationships, operational logic, and human factors at 1:1 scale.MR/VR visually displays and interactively operates BIM models, aiding construction teams in understanding design intent, optimizing complex area plans, and improving efficiency.

• 3D scanning model comparison: Real-time site scanning generates point cloud data processed via 3D GS algorithm to create 3D scanned models compared with BIM models for deviation identification and adjustment.

Fig. 1.

Multi-dimensional harmonization process theoretical framework diagram.

This theoretical framework captures the prevailing research paradigm, which is predominantly characterized by isolated technology applications. The subsequent sections will demonstrate how this model is empirically validated and evolved into an integrated operational framework.This framework enables whole-life-cycle project management, achieving “one model in the end, one model for multiple uses” and enhancing synergy across design, construction, and operation phases.

Methodology

Case studies

This study selected a hospital project as the case study object. Medical construction projects (MCPs), defined as initiatives to design and build healthcare facilities that provide comprehensive healthcare services, represent one of the fastest-growing and largest industries within the construction sector⁴⁵. Hospitals, as special-purpose buildings, require MEP systems that not only fulfill basic functional requirements such as efficient operation and energy management but also must be customized for healthcare-specific needs⁴⁷.

The complexity of this hospital project was from several aspects. First, the piping systems were diverse and specialized, with water supply and drainage systems needing to accommodate the varied functional requirements of different areas. In critical zones such as operating rooms and laboratories, specialized drainage piping systems must be implemented to prevent contamination between areas. Additionally, these systems must handle large volumes of sewage, wastewater, and chemical waste, necessitating pipes with specific properties such as corrosion resistance and high-temperature tolerance.

The spatial coordination challenges were further compounded by the need to integrate multiple types of piping systems—water, electrical, gas, and others—within shared spaces without mutual interference. This required a high degree of synergistic design and multi-party coordination to ensure technical compatibility between systems and optimal spatial configuration.

During the construction phase, this hospital projects had additional complexities. The installation of piping systems must be synchronized with structural construction, mechanical equipment installation, and wall pre-embedding and opening processes. These requirements placed significant demands on construction personnel for accurate measurement, pipe arrangement, and scheduling.

Given these challenges, the integration of advanced digital technologies was essential. By optimizing resource allocation and construction processes, these technologies could effectively reduce costs, shorten construction periods, and ensured the efficient implementation of MEP systems. The proposed multi-technology integration framework approach aimed to facilitate smooth project progression and the achievement of desired outcomes.

A mixed-methods approach

This study employed a mixed-methods approach, integrating qualitative process design and standardization with quantitative performance evaluation to develop and validate a life-cycle-oriented coordination framework. The methodology was structured around a core case study, ensuring all findings are grounded in practical application.

Qualitative framework: process design and standardization

• Initial project stage: BIM Execution Plan (BEP) development

At the foundational phase of the research, a comprehensive BIM Execution Plan (BEP) was formulated during the initial project stage to establish standardized protocols and guide all subsequent activities. This critical document explicitly defined the specific software ecosystem and versions—such as Autodesk Revit 2020 and Navisworks Manage—to ensure technical interoperability, identified the major facility equipment and systems along with their key technical parameters and required Level of Information Need, and outlined collaborative workflows for model development, coordination, and review, thereby establishing clear responsibilities and procedures for all parties involved.

• CDE-based execution following ISO 19650

A Common Data Environment (CDE) was established as the single source of truth, with the project strictly executed in accordance with the ISO 19650 series. This implementation governed the state-based workflow (WIP, Shared, Published, Archived) for all information containers, established formal processes for information sharing, review, and authorization, and systematically managed the information delivery cycle to ensure effective communication and coordination among all project stakeholders at every stage.

• Asset coding standardization

A unified asset coding standard was developed to enable seamless information flow into the operation and maintenance phase, employing a structured alphanumeric nomenclature where alphabetic prefixes designate asset categories and numeric sequences provide unique identification. This standardized coding system was synthesized by cross-referencing the international Uniclass 2015 classification with the national GB/T 51269-2017 standard while accommodating specific project characteristics (Fig. 2), with the resulting codes embedded as shared parameters within the BIM model to establish a reliable data backbone for future asset management.

Fig. 2.

Model asset coding standardization example.

Quantitative evaluation: performance metrics and analysis

The framework’s effectiveness was quantitatively evaluated through systematically defined performance metrics. Process efficiency was assessed by benchmarking temporal requirements for essential coordination tasks against historical data from conventional delivery methods, while data integrity was verified through comprehensive evaluation of asset information completeness and accuracy within the final delivered models, measured against specifications documented in the BIM Execution Plan.

Analysis of cases

Background to the coordination work

During the project’s initial phase, BIM models for each professional design were developed based on the CAD drawings provided by the design team, with an initial formulation of the piping hierarchy in the MEP discipline. For complex pipeline sections, a layered arrangement was typically adopted: the electrical discipline positioned in the top layer, followed by the HVAC discipline in the middle layer, and the water supply and drainage discipline in the bottom layer. To meet the project’s net height requirements, some areas utilized a two-tier arrangement where electrical and HVAC disciplines were combined in the upper layer, while water supply and drainage was located in the lower layer. If further net height improvement was necessary and horizontal space permitted, a single-layer arrangement was implemented, though with strict control over the spacing between electrical and water supply and drainage disciplines to prevent issues such as short-circuiting due to leakage.

Throughout the project implementation, collision coordination among disciplines was conducted based on the initial BIM model version to optimize solutions. The design team and construction participants engaged in discussions to adjust the design and construction program according to on-site conditions, ensuring the optimized plan’s feasibility and effective implementation.

Upon completing the construction-phase BIM model, the management team utilized MR equipment to simulate construction operations in complex areas. This simulation allowed construction workers to practice pipeline installation processes in advance and assess installation feasibility while enabling the management team to identify potential operational issues and reserve adequate installation space for other disciplines. Construction was strictly carried out according to the BIM model to maintain consistency between the model and the actual site conditions.

During each specialty’s installation stage, representatives of Party A employed 3D scanning technology to scan installed pipelines on-site, generating 3D scanning models for comparison and analysis with BIM models. This process prevented rework and material waste due to installation errors. Additionally, regular real-time scanning of the site installation situation was conducted, with scanning data transmitted to Party A’s representative for remote viewing of construction progress and pipeline installation status. This real-time monitoring and feedback mechanism ensured consistency between the actual site and BIM model, provided accurate foundational data for the later operation and maintenance phase, formed a closed-loop management system, and enhanced overall project quality and management efficiency.

2D-BIM application

Traditional building construction has typically relied on CAD drawings for guidance, yet this approach possesses significant limitations in information expression, particularly during multi-disciplinary collaboration. Such limitations often result in information disconnection and interpretive biases, ultimately leading to on-site rework and conflicts. To address these challenges, this study implemented BIM technology, which facilitates the transformation of CAD drawings into 3D models, thereby enabling comprehensive design information integration and interdisciplinary coordination.

The preliminary 3D model was generated in Revit through a semi-automated process. Initial geometry was created using a dedicated plugin to interpret CAD layers and generate basic 3D elements. This was followed by an essential manual modeling phase to verify accuracy, correct discrepancies, and add detail, ensuring the model’s suitability for subsequent coordination analysis. This method balanced efficiency with the precision required for reliable outcomes (Fig. 3). The conversion process mitigated misunderstandings and collaboration issues stemming from the insufficient expressive capacity of traditional 2D information through the visual representation of 3D models.

Fig. 3.

Comparison of 2D drawings with before and after optimization.

Following model development, a comprehensive clash detection analysis was conducted in Navisworks to systematically identify and resolve spatial conflicts between piping systems and other structural and architectural elements. This process included the verification of pre-defined wall openings for pipeline penetrations. The effectiveness of the BIM-based coordination was evaluated through a systematic estimation methodology for quantifying the reduction in pipeline dismantling rate. The estimation employed the formula:

(Where:M = Number of critical pipeline clashes detected and resolved during BIM coordination, N = Estimated total potential clashes in conventional project delivery, K = Adjustment factor (0.4–0.6) representing the proportion of clashes typically leading to dismantling work).

Based on this methodological approach and the analysis of clash reports, the pipeline dismantling rate—defined as the proportion of piping requiring removal and reinstallation due to spatial conflicts—was estimated to be reduced within a range of 22% to 35% compared to traditional CAD-based approaches. This substantial reduction is attributed to the proactive identification and resolution of clashes within the BIM environment, which effectively minimized on-site conflicts and associated rework. Specific optimization solutions were subsequently developed and implemented based on the quantified number and categorized analysis of identified conflicts, thereby significantly enhancing overall design quality and interdisciplinary coordination.

Based on the predefined asset coding standard established in the project’s initial phase, systematic assignment of unique identifiers was implemented for all major building components within the developed BIM model. The adopted coding methodology follows a structured hierarchical convention, as exemplified by the code 6Z2_B01_HAVC_DXT_XXT_AHU_KT-A1_0001, where each segment carries specific semantic information: “6Z2” represents the project identifier, “B01” denotes the specific floor level, “HAVC” indicates the mechanical discipline, “DXT_XXT” specifies the system and subsystem, “AHU” identifies the equipment type as Air Handling Unit, “KT-A1” corresponds to the drawing reference, and “0001” provides the unique sequential identifier.

This structured coding was embedded as a shared parameter within the BIM model for each asset. The application of these asset codes proved fundamental to the coordination process. During clash detection, reviewers could not only identify a spatial conflict but could also instantly retrieve the unique asset code of the involved components. This code then served as the primary key to query the project’s asset register within the Common Data Environment (CDE), providing immediate access to full technical specifications, manufacturer data, and installation notes. This process eliminated ambiguity, ensured that all stakeholders were referencing the exact same component, and directly supported the framework’s goal of creating an information-rich digital twin for future operational use.

2D-BIM-immersive technology application

While traditional 2D drawings and 3D models have served as fundamental tools for design communication, they often fall short in conveying spatial relationships and operational logic within complex building environments. This limitation becomes particularly evident during multidisciplinary coordination, where stakeholders from different backgrounds must reach a consensus on design intent and constructability. To bridge this cognitive gap, this study implemented a Mixed Reality (MR) platform using Microsoft HoloLens 2 devices (Fig. 4), creating an immersive review environment that superimposes BIM models onto physical spaces. This approach transforms abstract design information into tangible spatial experiences, enabling participants to intuitively understand design logic within its intended context.

Fig. 4.

Immersive technology application.

The MR review sessions focused on two critical areas: the underground garage and outpatient building, with emphasis on three key aspects: spatial configuration after equipment installation, practical accessibility for piping maintenance, and identification of potential safety hazards. During these sessions, representatives from design, construction, and client teams collaboratively explored the virtual models, with their interactions, feedback, and identified issues systematically documented. The technology demonstrated particular value in revealing spatial conflicts that remained overlooked in conventional reviews, such as inadequate clearance for maintenance access and potential collision points between structural elements and mechanical systems.

Post-session analysis revealed that the MR-based reviews identified approximately 40% more potential issues compared to traditional methods, with particularly strong performance in detecting operational and safety-related concerns. Furthermore, the resolution time for identified issues was reduced by an estimated 40%, as the immersive environment provided immediate spatial context for problem-solving. This approach not only enhanced problem identification but also improved communication efficiency, with participants reporting a more comprehensive understanding of design intent and construction requirements. The implementation demonstrates MR’s capacity to transform design review from a document-based process into an experiential, collaborative activity that significantly reduces information asymmetry and its associated risks of construction delays and design rework.

2D-BIM-immersive-3D GS application

Verifying the consistency between construction results and design models after completing certain nodes remains a critical challenge in construction management. Traditional manual measurement methods have proven time-consuming and incapable of achieving high accuracy. To address these limitations, this study employed 3D scanning technology, which provides a rapid, precise, and intuitive method for detecting construction deviations.

A high-precision 3D laser scanner, the Lingguang L2 Pro device, was utilized for accurate data acquisition following the hospital project’s completion. This scanner generated point cloud data with millimeter-level accuracy, which was then processed using professional software combined with the 3D GS algorithm. Compared to traditional data processing algorithms, the 3D GS algorithm demonstrated superior performance in noise removal and redundant information elimination, resulting in high-quality real-world models with excellent data purity and accuracy.

The 3D GS algorithm also significantly enhanced efficiency and accuracy in the point cloud data stitching process, producing a detailed and highly realistic 3D real-world model (Fig. 5). In the 3D real scene model generated using the 3D Gaussian algorithm, users could not only intuitively browse the entire scene but also directly mark and measure actual distances on the model. This capability greatly enhanced the model’s practicality and interactivity, making design validation, construction inspection, and quality assessment processes more efficient and accurate.

Fig. 5.

3D point cloud model based on GS algorithm.

The application of this integrated framework—combining 2D-BIM, immersive technology, and 3D GS Approaches—demonstrated significant advantages in quantifying geometric deviations between construction completion and design objectives. This method identified potential quality issues and provided a reliable basis for subsequent construction acceptance and quality management, ultimately contributing to improved project outcomes in terms of cost, time, and quality.

Zone comparison analysis

To verify the alignment between the BIM 3D model and the 3D scanning model, comparative analyses were conducted in specific zones. In the computer room area (Fig. 6), significant positional deviations were identified for the distribution box in Block 1. The BIM 3D model showed the distribution box within the red solid line box, while the actual installation position, as captured by the 3D scanning model, was located in the red dashed line box area, with a horizontal offset of approximately 8.69 m. Investigation revealed that this discrepancy originated from unsynchronized design changes during construction, which were not promptly updated in the BIM 3D model. To address this, the BIM 3D model was corrected to prevent construction acceptance disputes and remodeling conflicts, and to resolve positioning difficulties for later operation and maintenance.

Fig. 6.

Comparison between the BIM 3D model and the 3D scanned model of the server room content.

In Block 2 (Fig. 6), the 3D scanning model revealed lagging construction progress for equipment pipelines within the red dotted line box area. This required coordination with material suppliers and construction teams to analyze the reasons for the delay and facilitate subsequent reviews. In Block 3, the BIM 3D model showed deviations from the actual geometric model, with disorganized pipeline arrangements and impaired visual continuity. This stemmed from insufficient multi-disciplinary collaboration during design, where pipe spacing was not adequately considered in the CAD drawings, and the created 3D model lacked sufficient detail. Consequently, the BIM 3D model for the server room was refined based on actual construction conditions to support later operation and maintenance.

As shown in Fig. 7 , the area in question was a corridor. Within the green dotted line box in the figure, a comparison between the BIM 3D model (left) and the 3D scanning real-time model (right) reveals differences in the red pipeline’s transverse routing.

Fig. 7.

Comparison between BIM 3D model and 3D scanned model of corridor zone.

In the original BIM 3D model, the red pipeline was designed to bend upward to avoid conflicts with other pipelines and maintain consistent elevation with the bottom of the other four pipelines. This design decision was made to facilitate the later installation of support hangers. From the BIM engineer’s perspective, this design optimization considered site conditions and followed normal construction logic. There was no inherent right or wrong in the model, which could therefore be used to guide on-site construction.

However, the 3D scanning model shows that the actual construction deviated from the BIM-optimized pipeline routing. This discrepancy indicates potential coordination issues among project stakeholders during implementation. Specifically, instead of bending upward as per the BIM model, the red pipeline in the actual construction had its branch pipe position adjusted forward. This alternative approach reduced the number of pipes and fittings needed for bending. This comparison highlights how BIM models and actual construction practices can diverge despite logical design planning, emphasizing the need for effective coordination among all parties involved in the construction process.

Therefore, when such discrepancies were identified, to achieve true “picture-model consistency, model-reality consistency”, it was necessary to either modify the BIM 3D model according to site conditions or reinstall the pipeline. Decisions needed to be made collaboratively, considering time and cost implications, to select the most appropriate resolution.

From this analysis, it can be concluded that the actual construction situation on site and the BIM 3D model are complementary. At different stages of the project, the choice of appropriate technical solutions is crucial, requiring flexible integration and adaptation to changing conditions to ensure successful project completion.

3D scanning of the real model not only facilitates comparisons with the BIM 3D model but also enables progress tracking through multiple scan results (Fig. 8). This allows the employer to distribute payments according to actual progress, preventing incorrect claims.

Fig. 8.

3D scanning real model progress comparison.

To summarize, The framework achieved significant efficiency gains in the design coordination process by fundamentally transforming the traditional review methodology. Whereas conventional workflows required 5–7 days per review cycle—involving sequential drawing revisions, coordination meetings, and crucially, time-consuming site visits for conflict verification—the integration of 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS) with immersive technologies enabled a comprehensive digital alternative. The photorealistic 3DGS scans provided accurate as-built context within the CDE environment, while immersive review capabilities allowed stakeholders to collaboratively examine design-model conflicts in their actual spatial context without physical site presence. This integrated approach eliminated the need for dedicated site inspections while enhancing verification accuracy through immersive spatial understanding. The resulting streamlined process reduced the estimated review cycle to 2–3 days, representing a 40% reduction in coordination time. This acceleration demonstrates the framework’s capacity to replace traditionally sequential, site-dependent verification processes with an integrated digital workflow that maintains rigorous validation standards while dramatically improving coordination efficiency.

Results and discussions

Multi-technology integration framework

Standardized process construction and information management

To address fragmented information management across the project lifecycle, this study implemented the ISO 19650 framework to establish a standardized information management process⁴⁸ (Fig. 9). The implementation commenced with the formulation of comprehensive information requirements, including Asset Information Requirements (AIR), Exchange Information Requirements (EIR), and rigorously defined data specifications. Clear responsibility matrices and deliverable formats were established for each project phase—design, construction, operation, and maintenance. During the design phase, BIM models (architectural, structural, and MEP) were developed in compliance with specified Level of Information Need (LOIN) requirements, with integrated unified asset coding to ensure bijective correspondence between model components and physical assets. The Common Data Environment (CDE)⁴⁹ served as the centralized platform for storing all model iterations, point cloud data, and collaboration records, enabling seamless cross-disciplinary integration (e.g., clash detection between architectural/structural and MEP models) and facilitating stage-to-stage information handover from Project Information Model (PIM) to Asset Information Model (AIM).

Fig. 9.

Multi-technology integration framework for whole-life-cycle model coordination.

Enhancement of collaboration efficiency and quality control

The CDE workflow substantially mitigated information silo risks through standardized data exchange protocols and access control mechanisms. During construction development, MEP coordination required multi-model integration within the CDE, encompassing architectural, structural, and MEP disciplines. The process automatically generated clash reports based on ISO 19650-compliant detection rules, enabling real-time interdisciplinary coordination and conflict resolution. Furthermore, periodic comparative analysis between 3D as-built scans and BIM models enabled quantitative deviation monitoring. Identified discrepancies were systematically routed through the CDE to responsible parties for closed-loop resolution, establishing a proactive quality assurance mechanism throughout construction execution.

Full life cycle value extension and risk control

The integration of ISO 19650 standards with CDE implementation reoriented project objectives from mere delivery to comprehensive operational sustainability. The Asset Information Model (AIM), developed during project closeout, systematically consolidated data from design and construction phases while incorporating operational requirements, thereby creating a directly actionable information foundation for facility management. This standardized approach concurrently mitigated contractual and schedule risks. Through periodic verification using archived 3D scan data within the CDE, clients could objectively validate project progress against predefined milestones, enabling transparent payment certification while preventing potential disputes arising from progress misrepresentation. This framework established full lifecycle accountability and enhanced stakeholder confidence through demonstrable process transparency.

Comparative analysis of model coordination approaches

To substantiate the advantages of the proposed integrated framework, we conducted a systematic comparison with existing technology configurations across key performance indicators. The evaluation criteria were selected based on their relevance to project coordination efficiency and lifecycle information management, as demonstrated in Table 1.

Table 1.

Performance comparison of technology integration strategies.

Approach	Coordination cycle time	Data accuracy	Rework reduction (%)	Lifecycle support
BIM only	5–7 days	Low	10–15	Limited to design/construction
BIM + Immersive Tech	2–3 days	Medium	21–28	Enhanced design coordination
3D GS	N/A	Medium	15–20	Construction focus
Research framework	1–2 days	High	22–35	Full lifecycle readiness

The comparative analysis demonstrates that the proposed research framework achieves superior integrated performance across all key metrics. It significantly reduces the coordination cycle time to 1–2 days—substantially faster than BIM-only approaches (5–7 days) and notably better than BIM with immersive technology (2–3 days). While the rework reduction rate (22–35%) shows some overlap with BIM + Immersive solutions (21–28%), our framework achieves this while simultaneously delivering higher data accuracy and extending support to full project lifecycle readiness. This comprehensive performance profile underscores the framework’s unique advantage in creating synergistic effects through technology integration rather than simply combining individual solutions, effectively addressing the limitations of existing approaches that focus on isolated project phases or partial technology combinations.

Theoretical contributions

Constructing a synergistic framework for multi-technology integration

Traditional research has primarily focused on single-technology applications or limited technology integration⁵⁰. This study advances the field by proposing a collaborative review framework that integrates multiple technologies through a four-phase process: “”CAD 2D drawing → BIM → immersive experience → 3D scanning acceptance.” This framework achieves organic integration of multi-level review elements—including geometric accuracy verification of drawings, spatial conflict detection of BIM models, construction feasibility verification in MR environments, and reverse deviation analysis of 3D scanning—through a data-driven mechanism that spans the entire project lifecycle.

Unlike traditional single-point technology applications⁵¹, this systematic integration approach effectively addresses inherent issues such as data disconnection between CAD drawings and 3D models, and the disconnect between virtual reviews and physical construction verification. By implementing a closed-loop workflow of “design-simulation-verification-amendment”^52,53, the framework reduces synergistic errors common in traditional linear review processes. This approach compensates for technological disconnections and process faults in existing theories, providing systematic theoretical support for multidimensional collaborative reviews and offering a practical technology integration path for complex electromechanical piping projects.

Expanding full lifecycle consistency management

Data disconnection between design intent and as-built entities has long been a critical challenge in engineering project management, significantly impacting project quality^8,54. To address this challenge, this study introduces a “virtual-reality two-way closed-loop verification” approach based on BIM, immersive, and 3D scanning technologies. This method enhances consistency management throughout the project lifecycle—from design to construction to acceptance.

Specifically, the study utilizes the immersive interactive environment provided by mixed reality (MR) technology to facilitate comparison between design-phase BIM 3D models and actual construction scenes. This not only visualizes design intent but also enables on-site personnel to directly check and adjust within the MR environment, improving communication efficiency and accuracy. Additionally, an accurate deviation quantification model is established through point cloud data processing technology based on the 3D Gaussian Splatting (3D GS) algorithm. This model enables effective comparison and analysis of actual construction data obtained from 3D scanning with the original BIM model, achieving precise measurement and positioning of construction deviations.

This “virtual-reality two-way closed-loop verification” method overcomes the technical limitations of traditional project acceptance methods that rely on subjective experience. It provides an objective, quantitative assessment tool that strengthens the transmission of design intent to construction practice and ensures consistency between the as-built entity and the design model. By doing so, this approach expands and refines the theoretical framework of full-lifecycle consistency management, offering a robust theoretical foundation and practical support for the high-quality delivery of engineering projects.

Practical implications

The implementation of the ISO 19650-compliant multi-technology integration framework offers a transformative approach to project lifecycle management. By standardizing processes, unifying data definitions, and leveraging a CDE, organizations can transition from fragmented workflows to systematic information governance. Practitioners can adopt this framework to mitigate risks of information silos, enhance interdisciplinary coordination (e.g., clash detection), and ensure seamless handover from design to operation phases. For instance, embedding standardized “Asset Codes” in BIM models enables traceability across lifecycle stages, directly benefiting facility management. Furthermore, the CDE’s role in real-time progress verification and milestone-based payments reduces financial disputes, fostering accountability. This structured approach is particularly valuable for complex projects like electromechanical piping systems, where systematic data integration is critical for quality control and operational efficiency.

Moreover, the proposed “virtual-reality two-way closed-loop verification” method addresses persistent gaps between design intent and construction execution. By integrating MR and 3D scanning technologies, stakeholders can visualize BIM models within actual construction environments, enabling on-site adjustments and reducing spatial conflicts. For example, MR allows field personnel to interactively compare as-built conditions with design models, improving communication and minimizing rework. Additionally, 3D scanning paired with the 3D GS algorithm quantifies deviations objectively, replacing subjective assessments with data-driven insights. This approach not only enhances geometric accuracy but also strengthens contractual transparency, as clients can verify progress against predefined benchmarks. Adopting these technologies ensures consistency across design, construction, and acceptance phases, reducing delays and cost overruns in large-scale infrastructure projects.

In summary, the practical implications of this study underscore the necessity of adopting integrated technological frameworks and verification methods to address industry challenges. The ISO 19650-CDE framework systematizes lifecycle management, while virtual-reality tools bridge the gap between digital models and physical execution. Together, these strategies enhance collaboration, reduce risks, and ensure project deliverables align with design intent. Organizations implementing these approaches can achieve higher-quality outcomes, particularly in complex, multi-stakeholder environments. Future adoption should prioritize training on standardized workflows and emerging technologies to maximize their transformative potential in engineering practice.

Conclusion and future work

Conclusion

This paper proposed a multi-technology integration framework to address persistent challenges of technical isolation and process fragmentation in construction project management, particularly in whole-life-cycle model coordination. By harmonizing CAD drawings, BIM, immersive technologies, and 3D Gaussian Splatting (3D GS) under the ISO 19650 standard, the framework established a systematic methodology for enhancing interdisciplinary collaboration and data consistency across project phases. The empirical validation through a hospital case study—marked by intricate structural and MEP coordination requirements—demonstrated measurable improvements, including an approximate 22–35% reduction in pipeline dismantling rates, a 40% acceleration in review cycles for complex nodes, and enhanced precision in construction quality verification. Notably, comparative analysis reveals these outcomes substantially surpass those achievable through individual technologies or conventional BIM-based approaches, particularly in coordination efficiency and lifecycle coverage. These results underscore the framework’s capacity to mitigate inefficiencies rooted in traditional workflows, such as manual inspections and subjective assessments, by fostering data-driven decision-making and seamless information flow through the CDE. The integration of virtual-reality closed-loop verification further bridges the gap between digital models and physical execution, aligning with contemporary demands for precision in complex engineering projects.

The research contributes to both academic discourse and industry practice by redefining lifecycle management through technological synergy. The combined use of immersive technologies and BIM, supported by 3D GS-based deviation quantification, advances the transition from experience-dependent practices to objective, algorithm-driven evaluations. For instance, MR environments enable real-time spatial adjustments during construction, reducing rework, while adherence to ISO 19650 ensures standardized data governance from design to operational phases. This alignment not only addresses historical challenges, such as BIM model inaccuracies and workflow disconnects, but also enhances contractual transparency through milestone-based progress tracking. The framework’s emphasis on lifecycle consistency—from PIM to AIM—resonates with emerging paradigms like digital twins, positioning it as a scalable solution for projects requiring rigorous coordination. These advancements highlight the transformative potential of integrated technologies in fostering accountability, reducing delays, and optimizing resource allocation, particularly in multi-stakeholder environments.

Limitations and future work

While this study demonstrates the viability and benefits of the proposed framework, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the validation was conducted within the context of a single hospital project with a focus on MEP coordination. Consequently, the framework’s applicability to other sectors, such as infrastructure or residential construction, requires further verification. Second, the current spatial alignment between BIM and 3D GS models relies on manual registration using selected benchmark points, which may introduce minor positioning errors and lacks standardized accuracy assessment. Third, the reliance on advanced tools, including mixed reality devices and 3D scanning equipment, presupposes access to specialized resources and technical expertise, which may present adoption barriers in resource-constrained environments. Fourth, while the study documents short-term efficiency gains during design and construction phases, the long-term operational impacts—such as lifecycle cost savings and maintenance efficiency derived from Asset Information Model (AIM) utilization—remain to be quantitatively assessed.

Future research should pursue four primary directions: (1) validating the framework’s effectiveness across diverse project types and scales; (2) developing automated registration algorithms and standardized geometric accuracy evaluation methods (e.g., employing RMS error and Hausdorff distance) for enhanced BIM-3D GS alignment; (3) conducting comprehensive cost–benefit analyses of the integrated technology deployment; and (4) developing robust methodologies for quantifying long-term operational value. Additionally, incorporating emerging technologies such as AI-driven predictive analytics and extending the framework toward operational digital twin applications represent promising avenues for enhancing its predictive capabilities and practical utility. Addressing these aspects will significantly strengthen the framework’s universality and adaptability, ensuring its continued relevance amid evolving industry demands for digital transformation and sustainable project delivery.

Author contributions

Conceptualization, XL, ZZ and HC.; methodology, YL and YmL.; software,YL.; validation, YL, YH. and Z.Z.; formal analysis, YL.; investigation, YL.; resources, XL.; data curation, XL.; writing—original draft preparation, YL.; writing—review and editing, XL and HC.; visualization, XL.; supervision, HC.; project administration, HC, funding acquisition, XL. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

Funding

Graduate Student Innovation Program projects of Chongqing University of Science and Technology (CQUST), YKJCX2420602, YKJCX2420601 and YKJCX2420604.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.