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. 2026 Jan 18;105(4):106471. doi: 10.1016/j.psj.2026.106471

Effects of Arbaroi (Phyllanthus acidus) pulp extract on physicochemical characteristics, oxidative stability and antimicrobial activity in chicken patties at refrigerated storage

Ritu Akter Lima a, Md Mohaiminul Islam a, Md Nayim Hossain a, Md Tanveer Hossain a, Md Golam Rabby a, Md Hasan Mahmud Noor b, Rashida Parvin a, Md Ashrafuzzaman Zahid a,⁎
PMCID: PMC12860945  PMID: 41579600

Abstract

The antioxidant and antimicrobial effects of Phyllanthus acidus fruit pulp (PAFP) extract were evaluated and compared with those of butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and sodium nitrate (SN) in uncooked chicken patties on the 1st, 5th and 10th days of refrigerated storage. Five types of meatballs were formulated: control (T0), 0.1% PAFP extract (T1), 0.3% PAFP extract (T2), 0.02% BHT (T3) and 0.007% SN (T4). Physicochemical characteristics were assessed by measuring pH, cooking loss, and color. To evaluate the antioxidant activity, heme iron content, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging capacity and Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Substances (TBARS) value were evaluated. Antimicrobial activity was also determined by measuring the total viable count. Incorporation of PAFP extract, BHT, and SN in patties resulted in significantly (p < .05) lower TBARS values, enhanced DPPH scavenging activity, and better retention of heme iron content compared to control. PAFP extract showed better antimicrobial properties, particularly at the 0.3% level, and retained lower pH over time. Chicken patties formulated with PAFP extract revealed higher redness and chroma values and lower hue angles compared to control indicating better color stabilizing capacity of PAFP extract. We conclude from these findings that, PAFP extract can be applied in chicken patties as a natural antioxidant to improve physicochemical characteristics, oxidative stability, antimicrobial and color stability.

Keywords: Chicken patties, Phyllanthus acidus fruit pulp extract, Oxidative stability, Antimicrobial activity, Color stability

Introduction

Meat is an important component of the human diet, providing proteins, lipids, vitamins, and minerals necessary for normal physiological functions (Ponnampalam et al., 2024; Sze Wei et al., 2024). In recent decades, the consumption of meat-based products has increased consistently, largely due to their high nutritional value and wide consumer acceptance (Velázquez et al., 2021). However, elevated workload and time constraints have significantly increased consumers’ preference for ready-to- eat processed meat products including bacon, patties, ham, sausage, and meatballs which are prepared using a number of condiments and cooking techniques, such as grilling, smoking, frying, and curing (Unzil et al., 2021; Lu et al., 2022). Among such products, chicken patties are popular option because of their nutritional value and palatability (Unzil et al., 2021).

However, due to their substantial protein, mineral, and particularly fat content, meat and meat products are highly perishable. Lipid oxidation is one of the most frequent processes that alters the sensory and nutritional qualities of meat products in unanticipated ways through the formation of alkanes, aldehydes, alcohols, esters, and carboxylic acid (Rashidaie Abandansarie et al., 2019; Velázquez et al., 2021; Orădan et al., 2024). Chicken patties are particularly susceptible to oxidation because the grinding process ruptures cell membranes, thereby increasing their exposure to oxygen (Bellucci et al., 2022a). Similarly, heating disrupts muscle cell structures, inactivates antioxidative enzymes, and causes myoglobin to release catalytic iron. These changes create a strongly pro-oxidant environment that can affect both proteins and lipids (Yim et al., 2019). The color, flavor, aroma, and other sensory attributes of meat are altered by these undesirable processes, reducing the overall acceptability of meat and meat products (Nguyen et al., 2017). To mitigate oxidative deterioration, synthetic antioxidants, such as butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA), tert‑butylhydroquinone (TBHQ), sodium erythorbate, sodium ascorbate, propyl gallate, nitrite and nitrate are commonly incorporated into meat products to delay oxidation, preserve quality and extend shelf life (Pogorzelska et al., 2018; Velázquez et al., 2021; Bellucci et al., 2022a). The phenolic structure of these compounds allows them to scavenge free radicals, thereby suppressing oxidative reactions and preventing the development of undesirable sensory attributes (Bellucci et al., 2022b).

Nevertheless, growing concerns regarding the potential health risks of synthetic antioxidants have shifted research interest toward natural alternatives (Lourenço et al., 2019). Accordingly, Researchers have increasingly focused on antioxidants derived from natural sources, particularly those obtained from fruits and vegetables, to address concerns about safety and health benefits (Hossain et al., 2025a). Because of the presence of bioactive compounds such as tanins, vitamins, alkaloids, organic acids, flavonoids and phenolic compounds, several plant components exhibit strong antioxidant and antimicrobial activities (Das et al., 2021; Velázquez et al., 2021).

Phyllanthus acidus fruit, commonly known as Arbaroi in Bangladesh or Star Gooseberry in India, belongs to the genus Phyllanthus of the family Phyllanthaceae and is widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions of south and southeast Asian countries like India, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, Philippines and Laos (Rahman et al., 2011; Geng et al., 2021; Zhu et al., 2024b; Hazarika et al., 2025). This species is also found in parts of Central Africa, central America and South America and is recognized for its sour, tangy berries (Nguyen et al., 2023). P. acidus fruit contains numerous bioactive constituents including phenolics, flavonoids, kaempferol, gallic acid, ascorbic acid, quercetin, alkaloids, tannins, lignans, and terpenes, which have been associated with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties (Chakraborty et al., 2012; Hazarika et al., 2025). Previous studies have demonstrated that PAFP extract has exhibited strong free-radical scavenging capacity, leading to reduced lipid oxidation and medicinal properties against various bacterial disease (Brooks et al., 2020).

However, limited information exists regarding the application of PAFP extract in poultry meat products and the potential use of it as a natural antioxidant in chicken patties has not been documented. Therefore, the objective of this study was to examine the antioxidant and antibacterial properties of PAFP extract in chicken patties. Specifically, this study investigates the effectiveness of PAFP extract by analyzing the color retention capacity, microbiological load, lipid oxidation rate, and pH stability of chicken patties. Additionally, the PAFP extract activity was compared with that of commercially available synthetic antioxidants, including BHT and SN. This study aims to address the existing knowledge gap regarding the application of PAFP extract in poultry meat systems, while providing a scientific basis for its potential use as a natural antioxidant to promote more safe and healthier poultry products.

By evaluating the effects of PAFP extract on meat products, the study contributes to current research by elucidating its role as a natural alternative to synthetic antioxidants for the development of healthier meat products.

Materials and methods

Preparation of PAFP extract

The fruit, Phyllanthus acidus was purchased from the local market at Jashore, Bangladesh. The pulp and seed were separated and the pulp were dried in an electric dryer at 55 °C for 72 h. Then the dried fruit pulps were ground in a grinder (230 VAC-50 Hz, GAZI, Bangladesh) and sieved properly to obtain fine powder and kept in an air-tight container. The extraction procedure was carried out by following the ethanolic extraction method described by (Nishad et al., 2018). 20 g of sample was dissolved in 80% aqueous ethanol at a 1:5 (w/v) ratio and kept at 55 °C for 15 h (total extraction time) for continuous solvent extraction with an automated Soxhlet device. The process involves “cellulose-based thimbles” that holds the fine powder inside the Soxhlet machine, while the solvent in the bottom flask was heated, vaporized into the thimbles, condensed through the condenser and dipped back onto the sample. The process was repeated until the siphon arm was filled and the solvent containing the extract was collected. The resultant solution was filtered by using Whatman no. 1 filter paper. Then the filtrate was evaporated by using a rotary evaporator at 60 °C to completely remove the solvent out to obtain a concentrated, semi-liquid extract. Finally, a dark brown sticky substance is produced as an extract. The PAFP extract was stored for 10 days prior to use in airtight containers under refrigerated conditions (4°C) and protected from light. Before incorporation into the chicken patties, the antioxidant capacity of the extract was re-evaluated to confirm that no significant change in activity had occurred during storage.

Preparation of chicken meat patties

Fresh chicken breast pieces were purchased from a local market in Jashore, Bangladesh. The meat was cleaned and the water was drained properly. Then the meat was minced finely using a meat grinder and was divided into five batches. 40 g of grounded chicken was used to prepare each patty and a total of five batches were formulated for the study. Each patty was composed of the following basic ingredients: 90% chicken meat, 4% ice water, 4% corn starch, and 2% salt. No modifications were done to the “T0” batch where 0.1% PAFP extract was added to the “T1” batch, 0.3% PAFP extract was added to the “T2” batch, 0.02% BHT was added to the “T3” batch and 0.007% SN was added to the “T4” batch. The formulation of chicken meat patties in different formulation showed in Table 1. Each batch contains 27 samples and a total of 135 samples were made including the control. The patties were hand-shaped to uniform size and stored individually for subsequent analysis. Physiochemical analyses for the samples were done on day 1, day 5 and day 10. Samples were kept at refrigerated condition (4° C) for further analysis (Ashrafuzzaman Zahid et al., 2020).

Table 1.

The formulation of chicken meat patties with the addition of PAFP extracts.

Ingredients (%) Treatments
T0 T1 T2 T3 T4
Chicken meat 90 90 90 90 90
Salt 2 2 2 2 2
Corn starch 4 4 4 4 4
Iced water 4 4 4 4 4
Sodium Nitrate - - - - 0.007
Butylated hydroxytoluene - - - 0.02 -
0.1% PAFP extract - 0.1 - - -
0.3% PAFP extract - - 0.3 - -
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pH measurement

The pH was measured using a pH meter equipped with electrodes (Hanna HI2211-2, Made in Romania). A 3 g portion of each sample was mixed with 27 mL of distilled water and homogenized for 30 sec using a DWB homogenizer (D160, Made in USA). The pH meter was calibrated using pH 7.00, 4.01, and 9.21 standard buffer solutions. Reading was taken in triplicate for each sample and the mean value was reported (Hossain et al., 2025b).

Cooking loss

The cooking loss of patties was measured by the method performed by (Rabby et al., 2025) where the weight difference between the initial (raw patties) weight and final (cooked patties) weight after cooking was calculated. The patties were boiled at 100 °C for 15 min using the water bath (HH-S6 China) and excess water is drained properly. The patties were cooled for 30 min at room temperature and the cooking loss was measured by using following equation:

Cookingloss%=wt.ofrawmeatpattay−wt.ofcookedmeatpattywt.ofrawmeatball×100

Color measurement

Color measurement was done by using a Minolta CR 300 colorimeter (Minolta, Tokyo, Japan); measured the L* (lightness), a* (redness), and b* (yellowness) value of the patties. Color was measured from the outermost surface of the patties in proper lighting conditions. The colorimeter was calibrated with the white standardization plate (Y = 93.5; x = 0.3132; y = 0.3198) and a triplicate test from each sample was done. The hue angle (ho) and chroma value (C*) were calculated using the following equation, as described by (Parvin et al., 2020).

C*=(a*)2+(b*)2
ho=tan−1b*a*

Heme iron

Heme iron content of patties was measured by following (Ozer and Sariçoban, 2010) with some modifications. Acidified acetone was prepared for the test by mixing acetone, distilled water, and hydrochloric acid where the ratio in a 90:8:2 (v/v/v) ratio. A 1 g portion of patties was added to acidified acetone solution in a polypropylene tube and kept closed with a cap and kept for 1 h in darkness at room temperature. Then the tube content was filtered with Whatman GFA glass filter paper. Finally, the absorbance was taken at 640 nm by using a spectrophotometer (Cary 60 UV-Vis, Agilent Technologies Inc., Seoul, Korea). The heme iron content was calculated by calculating the whole pigment as hematin using the following formulas:

Whole pigment (mg/kg)= Absorbance × 680
Heme−iron(mg/kg)=Wholepigment(mg/kg)×8.82100

DPPH (2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl)

The radical scavenging activity of DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) was measured by following the method described by (Thaipong et al., 2006) with some modifications. A stock solution of DPPH (0.61 mM) was prepared by dissolving 24 mg of DPPH in 100 mL of methanol and stored at −20°C until use. A working solution was prepared through combining 10 mL of stock solution with 45 mL of methanol. A 3 g of sample is mixed with 27 mL of distilled water and homogenized for 20 sec. Then the mixture was centrifuged at 4000 rpm for 20 min and filtered with double filter paper (Whatman No 1). 150 μL of the filtered sample was then mixed with 2850 μL of DPPH working solution. The mixture was kept for reacting in a dark condition for 24 h and absorbance was measured. A blank solution was prepared by replacing the sample with distilled water. Absorbance was taken by using a spectrophotometer (Cary 60 UV-Vis, Agilent Technologies Inc., Seoul, Korea) at 515 nm. The measurement was calculated by using the following equation.

DPPH(%)=Absorbanceofblank−AbsorbanceofsampleAbsorbanceofblank×100

Triplicate samples were taken from each treatment and control group and all measurements were done in three independent replicates.

TBARS value (lipid oxidation)

The TBARS assay was conducted with some minor modification to the extraction procedure proposed by (Bozkurt and Erkmen, 2004) while following the method outlined, the TBARS value was measured and expressed as milligram of malondialdehyde (MDA) per kg of the sample. A 3 g portion of the patties was taken and homogenized with 27 mL of 3.86% perchloric acid for 20 sec by using a digital homogenizer (DLAB USA, d-160, Made in USA) and kept for 1 h at low temperature to facilitate proper sedimentation. Then the mixture was centrifuged at 2000 rpm for 10 min and filtered with Whatman no. 1 filter paper. 2 mL of 20-mM TBA solution was mixed with 2 mL of filtered solution in a test tube by using a pipette. A blank solution was prepared by replacing the filtered solution with 2 mL of distilled water. All of the solutions were kept at room temperature for 15 h. Finally, the TBARS value was evaluated by using a spectrophotometer (Cary 60 UV-Vis, Agilent Technologies Inc., Seoul, Korea) taking absorbance at 531 nm. The triple sample was taken from each treatment and control for the test. TBARS levels were expressed as milligrams of malondialdehyde per kilogram of sample.

Microbial activity

The Total Viable Count (TVC) was measured by following the outline given by (Ugbaja et al., 2015) with minor modifications. A small portion of the patties samples was taken for the experiment. For the culture media, nutrient agar (HiMedia Laboratories, India) solution and saline water were prepared and then sterilized by using an autoclave at 121 °C for 20 minutes. After sterilization, all the materials and chemicals were transferred to the laminar airflow cabinet. Around 15 mL of the sterile nutrient agar was poured on each sterile petri dish and set to be solidified. After being diluted 1:9 with sterile 0.85% normal saline, the samples were plated on nutrient agar (NA) agar plates and kept for incubation at 37°C for 24 h. The number of colony-forming units (CFU) was detected after the incubation and multiplied by the dilution factor per plate to get the bacterial concentration (CFU/mL).

Statistical analysis

The results were presented as mean values of triplicate measurements along with their standard errors (SEM). Statistical analyses for the chicken patties samples (5 treatments × 3 replications × 3 storage periods) were performed using a completely randomized design conducted at different times in the same laboratory. All data were analyzed using SPSS software (version 26). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was applied to evaluate and compare the mean values of the measured parameters, and Duncan’s multiple range test was employed to determine significant differences among the treatment means at a significance level (P < 0.05).

Result and discussion

Effects of PAFP extracts on the pH stability of raw chicken patties during refrigerated storage

pH is an important indicator of meat quality, as it reflects biochemical changes and microbial activity that directly impact freshness, safety, and shelf life (Bojorges et al., 2020). The pH values of all treatments are summarized in Table 2. On day 1, all patties exhibited slightly acidic pH values ranging from 5.64 to 5.85. Among the treatments, T2 exhibited the lowest pH (p < 0.05), followed by T1, while T0, T3 and T4 showed significantly higher pH (p < 0.05) values. By day 5, the pH values in all treatments increased slightly. The absence of significant differences among treatments indicates that none of the treatments differentially influenced pH during this period. However, on day 10, the pH of T2 was the lowest among all treatments. Onion extract (Rguez et al., 2025) and lemongrass extract (Zaki, 2022) in chicken patties have been shown to maintain a lower pH. A reduction in pH has also been reported in beef meat treated with rosemary extract (Rashidaie Abandansarie et al., 2019). The gradual increase in pH during storage is commonly attributed to lactic acid fermentation and protein breakdown (Rani et al., 2024). Spoilage bacteria gradually metabolize amino acids and peptides, producing alkaline compounds and volatile bases which directly contribute to an upward shift in pH (Zhu et al., 2022; Mir et al., 2023). The comparatively lower pH observed in PAFP extract treated patties may be associated with the presence of organic acids and phenolic acids previously reported in Phyllanthus acidus (Tan et al., 2020). These compounds are known to possess antimicrobial activity, which may suppress spoilage microorganisms and slow the increase in pH in chicken patties (Yoon et al., 2024). This pH trend supports the objectives of the study and suggests a potential functional role for PAFP extract in meat patties.

Table 2.

Effects of PAFP extracts on the pH stability of raw chicken patties during refrigerated storage.

Storage day T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 SEM
1 5.85Aa 5.71Ab 5.64Ac 5.82Aa 5.81Aa 0.016
5 5.99Ba 5.92Ba 5.98Ba 5.99Ba 5.96Ba 0.033
10 6.21Ca 6.41Cb 6.07Ba 6.09Ca 6.30Cb 0.05
SEM 0.02 0.06 0.04 0.01 0.03
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a–c Mean values in the same row with different letters exhibited significant differences (P < 0 .05) for treatment.

A–C Mean values in the same column with different letters exhibited significant differences (P < 0.05) for storage time.

T0: Control; T1: added 0.1% PAFP extract, T2: added 0.2% PAFP extract, T3: added 0.02% BHT, T4: added .007% SN.

SEM: Standard error of the mean.

Effects of PAFP extracts on the cooking loss of raw chicken patties during refrigerated storage

Cooking loss refers to the weight loss of meat during cooking because of moisture loss, drip loss, fat melting and protein denaturation (Vujadinović et al., 2014) . Table 3 shows the results of cooking loss of all chicken patties during the refrigerated storage period. On day 1 and day 5, no significant differences (p > 0.05) were observed among treatments. However, by day 10, cooking loss decreased across all treatments, especially in T1. The lack of significant differences among the control (T0), synthetic antioxidants (T3, T4), and natural treatments (T1 and T2) suggests that the inclusion of antioxidants, whether synthetic or natural, had no noticeable impact on cooking loss. This aligns with previous works where no effect of both synthetic and natural antioxidants on cooking loss in meat products was observed (Zahid et al., 2020; Bergamaschi et al., 2023). Similarly, pomegranate extract had no significant impact on cooking loss in cooked chicken meat (Al-Hijazeen, 2022). The gradual progression in cooking loss over storage days is consistent with the report that structural and biochemical changes in muscle proteins during refrigerated storage can alter water distribution and retention (Hughes et al., 2014). The present findings demonstrate that despite PAFP extract offers antioxidant and antimicrobial benefits (Foyzun et al., 2016) its incorporation has a limited effect on cooking loss and the water-holding capacity of chicken patties during refrigerated storage.

Table 3.

Effects of PAFP extracts on the cooking loss of raw chicken patties during refrigerated storage.

Storage day T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 SEM
1 13.96Aa 17.28Aa 17.56Aa 17.09Aa 15.77Aa 1.53
5 13.92Aa 16.37Aa 17.16Aa 15.94Aa 14.10Aa 1.69
10 13.44Aa 10.66Ba 14.75Aa 13.47Aa 11.46Ba 1.16
SEM 1.44 1.00 1.32 2.17 1.16
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a–b Mean values in the same row with different letters exhibited significant differences (P < 0 .05) for treatment.

A–B Mean values in the same column with different letters exhibited significant differences (P < 0.05) for storage time.

T0: Control; T1: added 0.1% PAFP extract, T2: added 0.2% PAFP extract, T3: added 0.02% BHT, T4: added .007% SN.

SEM: Standard error of the mean.

Effects of PAFP extracts on the color attributes of raw chicken patties during refrigerated storage

Color is an important parameter since it has a direct impact on assessing the quality of meat by consumers (El-Din Ahmed Bekhit et al., 2018). Fig. 1. presents the variations observed in the color attributes of the chicken patties, including lightness (L*), redness (a*), yellowness (b*), chroma (c*), and hue angle (h°) value. Both lightness and redness values significantly decreased (p < 0.05) over time. On days 1 and 10, no significant differences in lightness were observed among the different groups of patties. However, on day 10, the lightness value of T1 was slightly higher (p > 0.05) compared to the other antioxidant treated patties. Our results are consistent with previous findings reporting no significant differences in lightness between control and chicken patties treated with natural antioxidants (Pires et al., 2017).

Fig. 1.

Fig 1 dummy alt text

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Effects of PAFP extracts on the color attributes of raw chicken patties during refrigerated storage. a–e Means with different lowercase letters indicate significant differences (P < 0 .05) among treatments on the same day. A–C Means with different uppercase letters indicate significant differences (P < 0.05) among treatments on different days. T0: Control; T1: added 0.1% PAFP extract, T2: added 0.2% PAFP extract, T3: added 0.02% BHT, T4: added .007% SN.

Throughout storage, the redness of the T4 remained consistently higher, indicating a brighter color compared with the other treatments. In contrast, the control group (T0) exhibited the lowest redness values. On days 5 and 10, no significant variations (p > 0.05) in redness were observed among T1, T2, and T4. However, on day 10, redness was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in T1, T2, and T4 in relation to T0 and T3. The improved redness in antioxidant treated samples may be due to the protective effects of phenolic compounds, which prevent the oxidation of myoglobin and delay the subsequent formation of metmyoglobin, a key factor in meat discoloration (Faustman et al., 2010). The yellowness and chroma values of all treatments were considerably higher compared to the control group. On day 5, T1 and T2 exhibited higher chroma values than T3 and T4, with T1 maintaining a significantly (p < 0.05) higher chroma value by day 10. On day 10, the control (T0) group showed the highest hue angle, signifying an increased progression from redness to yellowness, whereas T4 exhibited the lowest hue angle, followed by T1 and T2. Recent studies have demonstrated that the application of natural antioxidants in meat patties is effective in preserving color stability during storage (Pires et al., 2017; Rakasivi and Chin, 2022; Gonçalves et al., 2024). In agreement with these findings, our study indicates that PAFP extract can be a promising natural alternative to synthetic antioxidants for improving color attributes in chicken patties.

Effects of PAFP extracts on the heme iron content (mg heme iron/kg sample) of raw chicken patties during refrigerated storage

Heme iron is a form of iron derived from the porphyrin ring of hemoglobin and myoglobin found in animal tissue (Xing et al., 2022). Disruption of the porphyrin ring during processing or storage releases free iron, which in turn drives lipid and protein oxidation in meat (Dragoev, 2024). The heme iron content for each treatment over the storage period is presented in Table 4. On day 1, T2 recorded the highest heme iron content compared to the other treatments, while T0 showed the lowest value. As storage progressed, a significant decline in heme iron content was observed. By the final storage day, T1 showed the highest amount of heme iron, suggesting that 0.1% PAFP extract was effective in retaining heme iron compared to other treatments. Similar findings were reported in studies on chicken patties and raw beef meat treated with lemongrass leaves and African spices (roots of Raphiostylis beninensis, fruits of Xylopia aethiopica, and seeds of Piper guineense) respectively, where the natural antioxidant treatments led to higher heme iron levels (Eldeeb and Mosilhey, 2018; Evuen et al., 2025). The higher heme iron content observed in PAFP extract treated patties may be related to phenolic acids and flavonoids reported in Phyllanthus acidus, as their phenolic hydroxyl and carboxyl functional groups can contribute to antioxidant mediated protection of heme proteins (Xin et al., 2025). These compounds reduce oxidative stress by scavenging reactive species, chelating pro-oxidant iron, reducing metmyoglobin back to ferrous myoglobin, and interrupting heme protein mediated lipid oxidation (Richards et al., 2022; Zhu et al., 2024a). These findings suggest that PAFP extract may help to reduce oxidative damage in meat and meat products, preserve nutritional quality, and enhance the shelf life of meat.

Table 4.

Effects of PAFP extracts on the heme iron content (mg heme iron/kg sample) of raw chicken patties during refrigerated storage.

Storage day T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 SEM
1 9.48Aa 10.15Aa 12.12Aa 11.50Aa 11.60Aa 1.04
5 7.24Ba 9.46Aa 9.29 Bb 8.58Bb 10.39Ab 0.78
10 5.22Bb 8.42Ab 6.83Bb 6.83Bb 3.60Ba 0.96
SEM 1.00 1.43 0.84 0.58 0.52
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a–b Mean values in the same row with different letters exhibited significant differences (P < 0 .05) for treatment.

A–B Mean values in the same column with different letters exhibited significant differences (P < 0.05) for storage time.

T0: Control; T1: added 0.1% PAFP extract, T2: added 0.2% PAFP extract, T3: added 0.02% BHT, T4: added .007% SN.

SEM: Standard error of the mean.

Effects of PAFP extracts on the DPPH (%) of raw chicken patties during refrigerated storage

DPPH is a stable free radical that is widely used to evaluate the antioxidant potential of compounds based on their free radical scavenging capacity (Baliyan et al., 2022). Table 5 presents the DPPH free radical scavenging activity of each treatment over a 10-day refrigerated storage period. Patties treated with PAFP extract (T1 and T2) exhibited significantly higher (p < 0.05) DPPH scavenging activity than the control throughout refrigerated storage, showing a capacity to quench free radicals in the meat matrix. These findings are similar to previous studies where plant extracts such as Caesalpinia sappan (Yim et al., 2019), Nigella sativa (Zwolan et al., 2020) seed and Ephedra alata (Elhadef et al., 2020) maintained higher free radical scavenging activity in meat products during refrigerated storage. Another study found that Phyllanthus acidus leaves extract have DPPH scavenging activity over control on minced pork (Nguyen et al., 2017). The improved radical scavenging capacity of PAFP extract treated patties may be attributed to the presence of phenolic and flavonoid compounds previously reported in Phyllanthus acidus (Xin et al., 2025), which are known to donate hydrogen atoms, chelate pro-oxidant metal ions, and interrupt free radical propagation in lipid-rich systems (Baba and Malik, 2014; Do et al., 2014). A gradual reduction of DPPH scavenging activity was noticed over time. This reduction may be associated with the progressive depletion or oxidative degradation of active antioxidant constituents during storage. The sustained DPPH scavenging activity observed in this study suggests that these bioactive constituents remain functionally active within the complex meat matrix during refrigerated storage. Similar antioxidant trends have been reported in meat products supplemented with plant-derived extracts; however, studies investigating P. acidus in meat systems remain limited. Therefore, the present findings provide novel evidence supporting the potential application of PAFP extract as a natural antioxidant in meat patties. Future studies involving detailed phytochemical profiling and correlation analysis between specific bioactive compounds and antioxidant efficacy would further clarify the underlying mechanisms of action and strengthen its application as an alternative to synthetic antioxidants.

Table 5.

Effects of PAFP extracts on the DPPH (%) of raw chicken patties during refrigerated storage.

Storage day T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 SEM
1 55.81Aa 59.17Ac 71.70Ad 67.44Ab 59.94Ac 0.54
5 44.33Ba 50.12Bb 59.55Bc 48.05Bb 48.96Bb 1.44
10 25.04Ca 42.37Cc 40.30Cc 36.72Cb 41.80Cc 0.98
SEM 1.48 1.37 1.02 1.14 1.27
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a–d Mean values in the same row with different letters exhibited significant differences (P < 0 .05) for treatment.

A–C Mean values in the same column with different letters exhibited significant differences (P < 0.05) for storage time.

T0: Control; T1: added 0.1% PAFP extract, T2: added 0.2% PAFP extract, T3: added 0.02% BHT, T4: added .007% SN.

SEM: Standard error of the mean.

Effects of PAFP extracts on the TBARS of raw chicken patties during refrigerated storage

Lipid oxidation in meat refers to the oxidative breakdown of fats and oils, primarily initiated when unsaturated fatty acids interact with molecular oxygen which deteriorates the quality of meat (Domínguez et al., 2019). TBARS value evaluation is a widely applied method for assessing lipid oxidation in meat and meat products. It measures malonaldehyde (MDA), a secondary oxidation product, expressed in mg MDA/kg and is correlated with the degree of rancidity (Biswas et al., 2015). The changes in TBARS values across different treatments over the storage period are represented in Table 6. No significant difference in TBARS values was observed among the antioxidant treated groups (p > 0.05) up to day 5, although the MDA/kg concentration in T0 exhibited a slight increase over this period, suggesting that rancidity developed gradually, with only a slight onset up to day 5. As lipid oxidation progressed, the TBARS values noticeably increased (p < 0.05) in all groups on day 10. The MDA contents both in T1 and T2 were significantly lower (p < 0.05) than in the control (T0) on day 10, indicating that PAFP extract effectively delayed lipid oxidation. Furthermore, T2 exhibited a lower TBARS value than T1, suggesting that PAFP extract at 0.3% has greater potential as a natural antioxidant than at 0.1%. Similar effects of natural antioxidants were observed in beef patties, as previously reported (Zahid et al., 2020). In another related study, the incorporation of onion peel extract into beef patties resulted in a significant reduction in TBARS values compared to untreated control group after three days of refrigerated storage (Nguyen et al., 2017). The control (T0) group, without antioxidants, exhibited the highest TBARS value (1.69 mg MDA/kg), likely due to excessive peroxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids. These results support the potential of PAFP extract, with its lipid oxidation delaying capacity, as a natural alternative to synthetic antioxidants. Due to its flavonoid content, phenolic components, and ability to donate hydrogen atoms to counteract free radicals, PAFP extract demonstrated this antioxidant capability (Foyzun et al., 2016).

Table 6.

Effects of PAFP extracts on the TBARS of raw chicken patties during refrigerated storage.

Storage day T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 SEM
1 0.38Aa 0.35Aa 0.39Ba 0.44Aa 0.38Aa 0.09
5 0.43Aa 0.43Aa 0.33Aa 0.28Aa 0.36Aa 0.08
10 1.69Ba 0.78Bb 0.64Cd 1.03Bb 0.83Bc 0.09
SEM 0.08 0.07 0.08 0.11 0.08
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a–d Mean values in the same row with different letters exhibited significant differences (P < 0 .05) for treatment.

A–C Mean values in the same column with different letters exhibited significant differences (P < 0.05) for storage time.

T0: Control; T1: added 0.1% PAFP extract, T2: added 0.2% PAFP extract, T3: added 0.02% BHT, T4: added .007% SN.

SEM: Standard error of the mean.

Effects of PAFP extract on the total microbial count of raw chicken patties during refrigerated storage

The microbial status of chicken meat is one of the key indicators of its freshness and shelf life during storage (Katiyo et al., 2020). Fig. 2. shows the total microbial count of raw chicken patties during the refrigerated storage period. Microbial counts increased significantly in all treatments over time, reflecting favorable conditions for bacterial growth during refrigeration. The control group consistently exhibited the highest microbial counts (p < 0.05), indicating greater susceptibility to spoilage due to the absence of preservatives and the high moisture and nutrient content of chicken patties (Usman et al., 2024). Patties treated with PAFP extract at both concentrations showed lower counts than those treated with SN and BHT throughout storage, demonstrating superior antimicrobial efficacy. On day 10, lower microbial growth was observed in the T2 (7.12 log CFU/mL) group than in T1 (7.22 log CFU/mL), indicating a concentration-dependent antimicrobial effect of PAFP extract. Similar antimicrobial effects of natural antioxidants in chicken patties during storage have been reported previously (Thakur et al., 2019). Consistent findings were obtained with the incorporation of clove extract and rosemary extract in chicken meat (Zhang et al., 2016). The antimicrobial activity observed in PAFP extract treated patties is likely related to bioactive constituents of Phyllanthus acidus, which can reduce bacterial growth by slowing the rate of lipid and protein oxidation, impairing essential biological functions, disrupting bacterial cell membranes and inhibiting enzymes (Moura-Alves et al., 2023; Bai et al., 2025). These mechanisms may have contributed to the reduced microbial proliferation observed in PAFP extract treated samples compared with the control.

Fig. 2.

Fig 2 dummy alt text

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Effects of PAFP extracts on the total microbial count of raw chicken patties during refrigerated storage. a–b Means with different lowercase letters indicate significant differences (P < 0 .05) among treatments on the same day. A–B Means with different uppercase letters indicate significant differences (P < 0.05) among treatments on different days. T0: Control; T1: added 0.1% PAFP extract, T2: added 0.2% PAFP extract, T3: added 0.02% BHT, T4: added .007% SN.

Conclusion

This study demonstrated that PAFP extract enhanced oxidative stability, microbiological safety, and color retention quality in chicken patties during refrigerated storage. Patties treated with PAFP extract showed higher DPPH scavenging activity, lower TBARS values, and reduced heme iron oxidation compared to the control, indicating antioxidant potential. The PAFP extract exhibited significantly reduced microbial growth in patties compared to the control. The PAFP extract did not significantly affect cooking loss, but revealed better maintenance of color attributes. These findings suggest that PAFP extract has functional effects in meat products. Further studies need to be conducted to investigate more about Phyllanthus acidus, as limited information exists about its bioactive compounds and the mechanisms of their action. In conclusion, PAFP extract shows natural antioxidant potential in chicken patties, though its efficacy and applicability are limited to the conditions tested in this study.

Ethical statement

No human or live animal subjects were involved in this study. Chicken meat used in this research was purchased from market, and no live animal experimentation was conducted.

Funding statement

This research was funded by the Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh.

Data availability

All data are included in the manuscript.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Ritu Akter Lima: Writing – original draft, Software, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation. Md. Mohaiminul Islam: Writing – original draft, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation. Md. Nayim Hossain: Writing – original draft, Validation. Md. Tanveer Hossain: Visualization, Formal analysis. Md. Golam Rabby: Methodology, Investigation. Md. Hasan Mahmud Noor: Formal analysis. Rashida Parvin: Writing – review & editing. Md. Ashrafuzzaman Zahid: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Conceptualization.

Disclosures

No funding is applicable for this research work. There are no conflicts of interest. The undertaken study is completely original, it was not submitted in any other journal. The research being reported has been conducted ethically and responsibly (no human or animal has been used). All authors have the consent of participation and publication of this research work; they have read this manuscript, approved the manuscript and they are aware of its submission in thr Journal of Poultry Science.They have no objection to the submission of this manuscript. All data and materials are included and available in the manuscripts. Code availability does not apply to this research work.

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