The mediating role of expectational trust in the relationship between emotional intelligence and awareness about child sexual abuse perpetrators

Abstract

Background

Child sexual abuse perpetrators (CSAPs) differ from the usual criminal stereotype in terms of their modus operandi. This study examines the relationship between emotional intelligence, their expectational trust (i.e., expectational benevolence/malevolence), and awareness of the CSAPs’ characteristics and grooming methods.

Method

This study employed a correlational, cross-sectional research design within a quantitative framework. In this correlational study, 1137 senior pre-service teachers enrolled in the faculty of education.

Results

According to the findings, emotional intelligence predicted awareness of CSAPs. Besides, in the relationship between emotional intelligence and awareness of CSAPs, expectational malevolence played a mediating role. Namely, individuals with high emotional intelligence can more easily sense the expectational malevolence of the other party and know more about the characteristics of CSAPs.

Conclusions

This study highlights the importance of emotional intelligence and expectational malevolence in enhancing individuals’ awareness and grooming strategies of CSAPs. These psychological capacities may serve as foundational elements in the training of future professionals.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40359-025-03731-8.

Introduction

Child sexual abuse (CSA) constitutes a profound individual and societal problem, producing both immediate and long-term psychological, emotional, and social consequences for victims [1]. The responsibility for preventing and identifying CSA lies not only with families but also with key professionals such as teachers and mental health practitioners [2]. Although substantial research has sought to understand the nature of CSA [3, 4], most studies have focused on victim-survivors rather than perpetrators, mainly due to difficulties in obtaining reliable data from child sexual abuse perpetrators (CSAPs) [3]. These challenges stem from the ability of CSAPs to conceal their identities, their reluctance to participate in research, and the unreliability of their disclosures [3].

Existing literature shows that most empirical investigations focus on identifying CSAPs’ characteristics and grooming strategies [5–7]. A consistent finding is that CSAPs tend to be more strategic and manipulative than other offenders, employing calculated methods to build trust and gain access to their victims [3, 8]. Grooming strategies enable them to deceive children, manipulate families and professionals, and devise a false sense of safety, thereby reducing the likelihood of detection [9].

While mandatory reporting obligations exist, the ability of professionals—particularly educators—to recognize early indicators of abuse remains crucial. Numerous studies underline the need to enhance the knowledge, sensitivity, and intervention skills of professionals, beginning with pre-service education [10]. However, in the Turkish context, there is a notable lack of curriculum content or structured in-service training focused on CSAP profiles and grooming tactics. This absence raises concerns about educators’ readiness to recognize and respond to complex abuse dynamics.

Beyond technical knowledge, emotional intelligence (EI) may represent a crucial factor influencing professionals’ capacity to identify CSA. EI involves the ability to perceive, regulate, and manage one’s own emotions and to understand and respond appropriately to others’ emotions. Professionals with higher EI may be better able to detect subtle emotional or behavioral changes in children—changes that can serve as early signs of abuse [11]. Since social cognition, including the interpretation of social cues and emotional expressions, is a core component of EI, it is reasonable to suggest that EI contributes to CSA detection efforts [12]. Although EI is partly influenced by genetic factors [13], research shows that it can be enhanced through targeted interventions. For example, Karahan and Yalçın [14] found that a 12-session program significantly improved university students’ EI, and these gains were maintained over time. Likewise, a systematic review of 46 intervention studies confirmed the overall effectiveness of EI training in adult populations [15]. In professional contexts where children rarely disclose abuse directly, emotional sensitivity becomes essential. Victim-survivors often communicate their distress through indirect signs such as self-harming behaviors or subtle help-seeking expressions [16, 17]. Thus, EI serves as a psychological foundation enabling professionals to detect early warning signs of grooming or maltreatment through empathy and emotional awareness. Taken together, these insights suggest that EI may play a significant role in enhancing professionals’ awareness and responsiveness regarding CSA. However, no empirical studies have systematically examined the relationship between EI and professionals’ awareness of CSAPs’ characteristics or grooming tactics.

Another key construct in this context is expectational trust, which represents a cognitive–affective orientation shaping individuals’ worldviews and interpersonal behavior. Expectational trust refers to a confident expectation regarding others’ behavior, involving a willingness to accept vulnerability despite uncertainty and risk [18]. The concept includes both the assumption that others act benevolently and the possibility that they may behave with harmful intent. Building on this conceptual duality, Cunha [19] proposed a two-dimensional framework of expectational trust, comprising expectational benevolence and expectational malevolence. Interpersonal trust itself is broadly defined as an individual’s willingness to accept vulnerability based on positive expectations regarding another party’s intentions or actions [18]. Benevolent trust reflects the belief that others will act with sincerity, goodwill, and integrity, while malevolent trust involves expectations of self-serving or harmful behavior from others [20, 21]. Previous research often viewed trust as a unidimensional construct, primarily focusing on its positive (benevolent) dimension. However, recent theoretical developments argue that trust and distrust are not polar opposites on a single continuum but rather distinct, coexisting dimensions [21, 22]. By framing expectational trust as bidimensional, this approach offers a deeper insight into how individuals develop expectations about others’ intentions. It also advances the literature by recognizing that EI may foster benevolent expectations while reducing malevolent ones, thus shaping individuals’ awareness and understanding of behaviors related to CSAP.

Professionals working with children, such as educators, counselors, and social workers, ensure that children are in a safe environment and are in a fundamental position to prevent maltreatment [23]. Consequently, it is imperative that these professionals receive comprehensive training on the identification of CSAPs and the grooming strategies commonly employed to gain access to children and reduce suspicion [24]. Despite this critical need, existing teacher education and training programs appear insufficient in equipping future and current professionals with the necessary knowledge and skills. For instance, a study involving Australian student-teachers revealed that they felt unprepared and lacked sufficient knowledge regarding CSA, including institutional policies set forth by the Department of Education [25]. Similarly, another study revealed that over half of in-service teachers had never received formal training on CSA, and a large majority were unfamiliar with indicators of CSA or the strategies used by CSAPs [26]. These findings point to a significant gap not only in terms of knowledge, but also in terms of professionals’ socio-emotional preparedness to interpret and respond to the complex interpersonal dynamics associated with grooming.

Adding to the complexity of the issue, CSAPs often diverge from stereotypical portrayals of criminal offenders. Rather than presenting as overtly threatening or deviant, they frequently adopt prosocial roles and identities, such as volunteer workers, caregivers, educators, or clergy, to build trust and gain access to children [3, 27]. These “socially acceptable” personas can act as protective masks, enabling CSAPs to operate undetected within institutional settings [28, 29]. In cases of educator-perpetrated CSA in particular, grooming behaviors may closely resemble normative adult-child interactions, making them especially difficult to detect without specialized training [30, 31]. These findings underscore the necessity for targeted training modules that go beyond general awareness of abuse and focus specifically on grooming patterns and the behavioral nuances of CSAPs. However, awareness is not solely a cognitive process; it also involves an affective dimension. In this context, EI emerges as a key psychological factor that may enhance professionals’ ability to identify subtle risk cues and respond appropriately [32, 33]. EI, which encompasses emotional awareness, empathy, and social sensitivity, may enable professionals to sense discomfort, manipulative interactions, or behavioral incongruities that precede abuse.

Therefore, professionals working with children must be equipped not only with sufficient knowledge to recognize CSAPs but also with the social-emotional competencies necessary to detect CSAPs who may attempt to gain access to children through subtle and strategic methods. Despite the critical importance of these affective capacities, a review of the existing literature reveals a notable gap: no empirical studies have specifically examined the emotional or affective characteristics, such as EI, of child-facing professionals or preservice educators in relation to their ability to recognize CSAPs. The current study addresses this theoretical and empirical gap by examining how EI and expectational trust jointly contribute to professionals’ awareness of CSAPs and their grooming tactics, highlighting how emotional and cognitive factors together shape professionals’ awareness in CSA prevention.

Aim of the present study

This study aims to fill the gap in the literature on the EI levels of prospective professionals who will work with children and their awareness of CSAPs’ features/grooming methods. When previous studies are examined, study findings show that the knowledge of professionals or undergraduate students about CSAPs is not sufficient [34, 35] and that people with a high level of empathy have fewer CSA myths [36]. However, no study in the literature focuses on the relationship between the EI of specialist candidates or specialists who will work with children and their awareness of the characteristics/grooming methods of CSAPs. Indeed, EI, in terms of understanding the feelings of others, can be an important variable in recognizing both the victim-survivors who do not report and CSAPs who try to hide themselves and manipulate their environment with various tactics.

It is stated in previous studies that people with high EI have high social competencies and social sensitivity [37]. In this context, people with a high level of EI are likely to be more competent in expectational benevolence/malevolence, and people who can recognize expectational benevolence/malevolence are likely to be more aware of the CSMs’ characteristics and grooming tactics. However, when the literature was examined, no study could be found in which expectational benevolence/malevolence was examined in the relationship between EI and awareness of CSAPs. Revealing the relationships between EI, expectational benevolence/malevolence, and awareness of CSAPs can shed light on the training of professional groups in education, psychology, and social work that will work with children, protecting children from possible CSA or detecting CSA.

This study targeted prospective professionals in assessing knowledge and affective competencies in recognizing the tactics of CSAPs. The main reason for this is that undergraduate students will work directly with children in the future; therefore, gaining early awareness and recognition skills about CSAPs has a preventive role. In addition, it is important to analyze the knowledge levels of individuals who have not yet gained professional experience in order to understand how adequate the current curriculum is regarding child abuse and CSAP profiles. Importantly, despite growing research on CSA awareness and EI in professional contexts, no study to date has empirically examined how EI relates to awareness of CSAPs through the mediating role of expectational trust. This study addresses this gap by developing and testing a novel mediation model in a sample of pre-service teachers. By integrating EI and expectational trust in relation to CSA awareness, the study offers both a conceptual and empirical contribution to the literature on child protection and professional training. These contributions extend current understanding by highlighting how emotional and cognitive competencies jointly influence safeguarding capacities, and provide evidence-based insights for developing targeted curriculum and training programs aimed at preventing CSA. In cybersecurity contexts, expectational malevolence—the anticipation of negative intentions—may strongly influence vigilance and awareness [38, 39]. By contrast, expectational benevolence, or expectations of positive intentions, may have a more limited impact, as risk concerns often outweigh general trust [40]. Investigating both dimensions provides a nuanced perspective on how trust shapes awareness of CSAPs. Because of all these reasons, this study will examine the relationship between the participants’ EI, their expectational trust (i.e., expectational benevolence/malevolence), and their awareness of the CSAPs’ characteristics and grooming methods. Consistent with broader trust frameworks, our conceptualization of expectational trust—comprising benevolence (positive expectations) and malevolence (negative expectations)—builds on the multidimensional model advanced by Lewicki et al. [21], which posits that trust and distrust can coexist and jointly shape relational dynamics. This duality is particularly salient in high-stakes contexts, such as child protection, where anticipatory distrust may enhance vigilance toward potential threats [21, 41]. By integrating these dimensions with EI, the present study extends existing theory to CSAPs’ awareness, demonstrating that malevolence may exert stronger effects due to the asymmetric influence of negative expectations on decision-making and behavioral outcomes. In particular, the study investigates whether expectational trust functions as a mediator in the relationship between EI and awareness of CSAPs, using path analysis. Within this framework, expectational trust is conceptualized as a mediating variable rather than a moderating one. Specifically, EI is posited to enhance individuals’ capacity to perceive, interpret, and respond to others’ intentions and emotional cues, thereby fostering greater expectational trust. This heightened sensitivity to trust is expected to facilitate deeper awareness of CSAPs’ grooming tactics and behavioral characteristics. Thus, expectational trust is positioned as a psychological pathway through which EI influences awareness, rather than as a condition that alters the strength or direction of this relationship. This conceptualization aligns with established mediation theory [42, 43], which distinguishes mediation as a process that explains how an independent variable affects a dependent variable, in contrast to moderation, which explains when or under what conditions such a relationship occurs. In this context, the hypotheses and mediation model, which were devised to conceptualize the relationship between the variables in this study, are presented below (see Fig. 1):

Fig. 1.

Conceptual Framework of the Study

EQ the level of emotional intelligence, CSAP  the level of awareness of CSAPs’ characteristics and grooming methods, ET the level of expectational trust

H1

EI is positively associated with knowledge and awareness of CSAPs.

H2

EI is positively associated with expectational trust (benevolence and malevolence).

H3

Expectational trust (benevolence and malevolence) is positively associated with awareness of CSAPs.

H4

Expectational trust (malevolence) mediates the relationship between EI and CSAP awareness.

Method

This study employed a correlational, cross-sectional research design within a quantitative framework. A correlational, cross-sectional research design is a non-experimental approach used to examine the statistical relationships between two or more variables measured at a single point in time, without manipulating any variables. This design allows researchers to identify associations and potential predictive patterns but does not permit conclusions about causality [44].

In the present study, since the research specifically aimed to reach teacher candidates in their final year at the faculty of education, a purposive sampling method was used. Purposeful sampling is described as a technique in which participants are selected based on specific characteristics or qualities that align with the purpose of the research [45]. The rationale for selecting pre-service teachers as the study sample was twofold. First, teacher candidates represent a professional group who will have direct, long-term interaction with children, making their awareness and attitudes toward CSA prevention particularly consequential. Second, as future educators, they are expected to play a key role in early identification, reporting, and prevention efforts within educational settings. Therefore, this group constitutes a critical population for investigating how EI and expectational trust relate to awareness of CSAPs.

Participants and process

Universities in seven regions of Türkiye (n = 18) were selected for the study sample, and permission was requested. Students from the departments of educational sciences at the seven universities (Cukurova University, Uludag University, Selcuk University, Ordu University, Dokuz Eylül University, Atatürk University, and Sinop University) where permission was obtained were selected as the sample of this study. The first author’s university ethics committee granted institutional permissions and ethical approval for the study.

Data was collected through both electronic surveys (via Google Forms) and paper-based forms. The use of both paper and online surveys aimed to maximize participation and accessibility among teacher candidates. The two versions of the survey were identical in terms of wording, structure, and item order, and were administered under similar conditions. Since consent was required to participate in the study during the data collection process via Google Forms, it is unknown how many prospective participants declined to participate in the research. In the paper-based data collection process, 15 participants did not wish to participate in the study. Although prospective teachers were not asked about their reasons for not participating in order to avoid psychological pressure, the refusal rate among all participants was 1.3% (n = 15). Participants who voluntarily agreed to participate in the study were given an informed consent form, and their consent was obtained. Informed consent was also obtained from online participants using Google Forms. Online participants who agreed to participate in the study could access the scales after checking the consent box. Finally, while 60% of the data (n = 682) was collected electronically, 40% (n = 455) was collected on paper. Table 1 presents the demographic characteristics of the participants.

Table 1.

Demographic characteristics of the participants

Gender	f	%	Levels	f	%	Living area	f	%	Witness	f	%
Female	917	80,7	1.grade	232	20,4	Rural	291	25,6	Yes	276	24,3
Male	195	17,2	2.grade	268	23,6	Urban	846	74,4	No	800	70,4
No preference	25	2,2	3.grade	300	26,4				No answer	61	5,4
			4.grade	205	18,0
			5.grade	36	3,2
			6.grade	1	,1
			7.grade	95	8,4
Total	1137	100,0	Total	1137	100,0	Total	1137	100,0	Total	1137	100,0

Of the participants, 917 (80.7%) were female and 195 (17.2%) were male; 25 participants did not specify their gender preference. In addition, 847 (74.4%) of the participants stated that they lived in an urban area, while 291 (25.6%) stated that they lived in a rural area. Again, 276 (25.6%) of the participants stated that they had witnessed an incident of CSA, while 801 (74.4%) stated that they had not. The participants were aged between 18 and 29 years (M = 19.936; SD = 1.644). The sample size (N = 1,137) was more than sufficient for structural equation modeling. Methodological guidelines indicate that SEM requires at least 200 observations for stable estimation [46] and recommend 10–20 cases per parameter [47]. Thus, the current sample exceeds conventional thresholds, ensuring robust model stability and statistical power [48].

Measures

CSAP Knowledge and Awareness Scale

This scale was developed by Gönültaş and Sarıçam [24] to assess the level of knowledge and awareness on the characteristics and grooming methods of CSAPs. It consists of 19 items and two subscales (Characteristics of CSAPs = six items, Grooming Methods of CSAPs = 13 items, “Child sexual abuse perpetrators are those who cannot restrain their sexual impulses towards a child”, “Child sexual abuse perpetrators are skilled at deceiving not only children but also the adults around the child”). The items were arranged to have a 7-point Likert-type rating (1 = Strongly Disagree to 7 = Strongly Agree).

Rotterdam Emotional Intelligence Scale (REIS)

 EI was assessed with the REIS, initially developed by Pekaar et al. [49], consists of 28 items and four factors (Self-focused emotion appraisal, Others-focused emotion appraisal, Self-focused emotion regulation, and Others-focused emotion regulation), (e.g., “When I look at other people, I can see how they feel.”, “I can judge well if events touch others emotionally.”). The items in the scale are scored on a five-point Likert-type scale (1 = Strongly Disagree, 5 = Strongly Agree). Sarıçam [50], Sarıçam and Fazlıoğlu [51] conducted the Turkish adaptation of the scale.

Expectational Trust Scale

 The Expectational Trust Scale developed by Cunha [52] evaluates the level of cognitive-based trust that individuals show to the other party. The scale has 15 items and two dimensions. The expectational malevolence dimension has ten items, and the expectational benevolence dimension has five items (e.g., “Most people are self-centered and are not considerate of others.”, “When I meet someone for the first time, I usually assume he will treat me well”). Scale items are scored on a five-point Likert scale (1 = Strongly Disagree, 5 = Strongly Agree). The scale was adapted to Turkish by Uymaz [53].

To sum up, all variables were measured using established and validated instruments which demonstrated acceptable model fit and validity (see Supplementary Material for full psychometric details, including factor loadings, fit indices, and validity values).

Data analysis

Data were analyzed using SPSS 23, AMOS Graphics version 22, and JASP 0.11.1. As a preliminary step, the scale means were determined. The regenerators’ defined parameters established the knowledge and awareness of CSAPs, Expectational trust (malevolence and benevolence), and EI’s sub-dimensional structure. The normality assumption was ana­lyzed in data analysis with skewness and kurtosis values. After the normality assumption was met, descriptive statistics, reliability values such as Cronbach’s alpha Guttman’s λ2, the Pearson correlation coefficient between EI, knowledge, and awareness of CSAPs, and expectational malevolence and expectational benevolence were evaluated (Table 1). Both Cronbach’s α and Guttman’s λ₂ were reported to provide a comprehensive assessment of internal consistency. Cronbach’s alpha, though widely recognized, assumes tau-equivalence and may underestimate reliability. Guttman’s λ2 offers a more accurate lower-bound estimate, particularly when this assumption is violated [54]. Reporting both enhances comparability with prior studies and strengthens the methodological rigor of the reliability analysis. Multicollinearity was checked with variance-inflated factor (VIF), tolerance, and Durbin–Watson (DW) values. All tolerance values were above 0.10, and VIFs were lower than 4. The DW values were 1.98 and 1.92, indicating no significant association between the residuals. After the initial analysis, the proposed structural model was tested using a two-stage approach [55].

The measurement model was tested initially to ensure a suf­ficient level of goodness of fit. The structural model was examined after the measurement model was confirmed. Hence, a model was devised with EI, knowledge, and awareness of CSAPs and expectational malevolence and expectational benevolence. The expectational trust (malevolence and benevolence) mediates the relationship between EI, knowledge, and awareness of CSAPs examined with structural equation modeling (SEM). In this model, EI is the independent variable, knowledge and awareness of CSAPs are the dependent variables, and expectational malevolence and expectational benevolence are parallel mediators. As gender has been consistently identified in the literature as a key demographic factor influencing attitudes toward CSAPs [56], we controlled gender as a covariate. The indices measuring the goodness of fit of the model include the ratio of CMIN to degrees of freedom, comparative fit index (CFI), incremental fit index (IFI), normed fit index (NFI), Tucker- Lewis’s index (TLI), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) and standardized root mean square error of approximation (SRMR). Various indices were utilized to assess the general goodness of fit of the model to the data: CMIN/df < 5; RMSEA and SRMR < 0.08; CFI, IFI, NFI, RFI, and TLI >0.90 as cut-off levels as recommended in Kline [46]. The confidence interval is based on 95%.

Results

Correlations among variables

As seen in Table 2, there were positive relationships between EI and awareness of CSAPs (r =.22; 0.29; p <.01), representing small-to-moderate effects [57]. Similarly, EI was positively correlated with both expectational malevolence and benevolence (r =.24, p <.01 for each), also reflecting small-to-moderate relationships. In addition, significant positive relationships were observed between malevolence and awareness of CSAPs (r =.11; 0.24, p <.01), corresponding to small effect sizes. Although the relationship between benevolence and awareness was statistically significant (r =.06; 0.15, p <.05), it reflected a very small association. Overall, these results indicate that higher EI and expectational trust are associated with greater awareness of CSAPs, though the magnitudes of these associations are generally modest.

Table 2.

Descriptive Statistics, cronbach’s α, correlation analysis

Variables	1	2	3	4	5
1. CSAP (Characteristics)	-	0.42**	0.22**	0.11**	0.15**
2. CSAP (Grooming)		-	0.29**	0.24**	0.06*
3. EQ (Total)			-	0.24**	0.24**
4. Malevolence				-	0.03
5. Benevolence					-
Mean	31.20	81.43	54.75	36.93	16.20
SD	6.31	9.68	7.93	7.30	3.86
Skewness	− 0.50	−1.60	− 0.50	− 0.38	0.05
Kurtosis	− 0.10	3.28	0.82	− 0.18	0.13
Cronbach’s α	0.62	0.91	0.86	0.85	0.73
Guttman’s λ2	0.64	0.91	0.86	0.86	0.73

EQ the level of emotional intelligence, CSAP  the level of awareness of CSAPs’ characteristics and grooming methods, ET the level of expectational trust

*p <.05, **p <.01

Measurement model

The measurement model comprised three latent variables—EI, knowledge, and awareness of CSAPs, and expectational trust —and eight observed variables. The results of the measurement model demonstrate that the model has an acceptable fit with the data: χ2(16) = 78.304, p <.05; χ2/df = 4.894; IFI = 0.958; NFI = 0.948; CFI = 0.958; TLI = 0.926; RMSEA = 0.059 (90% CI 0.046–0.072); SRMR = 0.035. The factor loadings of the measurement model were significant and varied between 0.16 and 0.80 (p <.01).

Parallel mediational analyses

In the SEM (see Fig. 2), EI predicted awareness of CSAPs in the first stage. In the second stage, when expectational trust (malevolence and benevolence) was included between EI and awareness on CSAPs, the beta value (prediction coefficient) decreased. In the relationship between EI and awareness on CSAPs, expectational trust (malevolence and benevolence) played mediating roles χ2(38) = 160.899, p <.05; χ2/df = 4.234; IFI = 0.966; NFI = 0.956; CFI = 0.966; TLI = 0.951; RMSEA = 0.053 (90% CI 0.045–0.062); SRMR = 0.036, and all paths are significant. In other words, we can say that individuals having good EI can sense the ulterior motives of the other party and recognize CSAPs more quickly. Taken together, these indices confirm that the model demonstrates an excellent fit [58] to the data, reflecting both parsimony and theoretical coherence without signs of overfitting.

Fig. 2.

The Structural Equation Model of Emotional Intelligence Predicting CSAPs Awareness via Expectational Malevolence and Benevolence

The parallel mediation model showing expectational malevolence and expectational benevolence in EI and awareness on CSAPs, *p <.001. Values are standardized coefficients. ParMal = parcels of malevolence; ParBen = parcels of benevolence. The SEM model examined the direct and indirect paths from EI to CSAPs awareness, mediated by expectational malevolence and benevolence. Mediation was assessed via indirect effects using bootstrapping with 10,000 resamples and bias-corrected 95% confidence intervals (Table 3).

Table 3.

The mediator role of the expectational trust in the relationship between EI and CSAP

Effects	Paths	β	SE	p	95%Bootsrap CI
Total effect	EI→CSAP	0.442	0.050	0.000	[0.361; 0.527]
Direct effect	EI→M	0.264	0.041	0.000	[0.196; 0.331]
Direct effect	EI→B	0.327	0.045	0.000	[0.252; 0.398]
Direct effect	M→CSAP	0.264	0.039	0.000	[0.140; 0.267]
Direct effect	B→CSAP	0.022	0.051	0.684	[−0.080; 0.129]
Indirect effect1	EI→M→ CSAP	0.050	0.012	0.000	[0.030; 0.078]
Indirect effect2	EI→ B→CSAP	0.007	0.044	0.658	[−0.026; 0.043]
Direct effect	EI→ ET (M + B) →CSAP	0.385	0.054	0.000	[0.302; 0.479]
Indirect effect	EI→CSAP	0.057	0.022	0.000	[0.022; 0.095]

β Standardized estimate, SE Standard error, CI Confidence intervals; ET: Expectational Trust

The direct path from EI to malevolence was positive and significant (β = 0.26, SE = 0.04, p <.001, CI [20, 0.33]), indicating that higher EI increases negative expectations. Malevolence, in turn, positively predicted CSAPs awareness (β = 0.20, SE = 0.04, p <.001, CI [0.14, 0.27]), suggesting that anticipated harm heightens vigilance. For benevolence, the path from EI was positive (β = 33, SE = 0.04, p <.001, CI [0.25, 0.40]), and benevolence weakly predicted CSAPs awareness (β = 0.02, SE = 0.05, p >.05; CI [−0.08, 0.129]). This effect is not statistically significant. On the other hand, when looking at the lower bounds (10,000 resampling bootstrapping method), benevolence can also take negative coefficients. In other words, the expectational benevolence may negatively affect CSAPs awareness. Finally, the total effect of EI on awareness of CSAPs was statistically significant (β = 0.442, p <.01). When both expectational malevolence and expectational benevolence were included in the analysis, the effect of EI on awareness of CSAPs dropped (β = 0.38, p <.01). The indirect effect between EI and awareness of CSAPs was 0.057, and the 95% confidence interval was [0.022–0.095], and this interval was found to be statistically significant because it did not contain the zero value.

Discussion

This study, conducted with senior pre-service teachers enrolled in the faculty of education, examined the relationship between the participants’ EI, their expectational trust (i.e., expectational malevolence and benevolence), and their awareness of the CSAPs’ characteristics and grooming methods. In addition, this study examined whether expectational trust moderates the relationship between EI and awareness of the CSAPs through Pearson correlation analysis and path analysis. In correlational analysis, the correlation coefficients were small to moderate, they are consistent with previous studies examining complex socio-emotional constructs (e.g., Joseph & Newman [59]; Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey [60]), where modest associations are theoretically expected due to multifactorial influences. As a result of the path analyses, striking findings were obtained regarding the relationship between the participants’ EI, their expectational trust (i.e., expectational malevolence), and their awareness of the CSAPs’ characteristics and grooming methods.

An essential finding of this study is a statistically significant positive relationship between EI and knowledge and awareness of CSAPs. Individuals with higher EI scores were more likely to report heightened awareness of grooming tactics and CSAPs’ characteristics. This aligns with existing literature emphasizing the role of EI in facilitating sensitive and adaptive responses in emotionally charged or ethically complex professional contexts. For instance, Fernandes et al. [61] demonstrated that EI in police officers is associated with adherence to forensic interviewing protocols, particularly in CSA investigations. It is therefore plausible that emotionally intelligent individuals are more capable of interpreting subtle interpersonal cues, sustaining emotional regulation, and exercising empathetic vigilance—skills that may improve their detection of CSA risk indicators. Conducting interviews with victim-survivors or CSAPs, in particular, demands emotional composure and emotional alertness; hence, individuals with higher EI may anticipate grooming behaviors more effectively by interpreting relational dynamics through a suspicious lens. From a theoretical standpoint, this relationship can be further explained through the lens of social cognitive theory [62], which highlights the reciprocal interaction among personal factors, behavior, and environmental influences. Within this framework, EI functions as a personal determinant that supports emotional regulation and self-reflective learning, both of which enhance professional vigilance. Individuals with higher EI are more likely to engage in self-regulatory processes that strengthen their self-efficacy and confidence in identifying grooming tactics. As suggested by Schutte et al. [63] and Mikolajczak et al. [64], emotional regulation and social awareness (empathy)—core elements of EI—facilitate adaptive decision-making and reduce susceptibility to emotional fatigue in demanding professional contexts. This perspective aligns with social cognitive theory [60] principle of reciprocal determinism, indicating that emotionally intelligent professionals actively shape their behavioral responses to potential abuse indicators through self-regulated emotional and cognitive processes.

Another notable finding of this study is that individuals with higher EI tend to report higher expectational trust scores. Consistent with previous literature [65], participants with higher levels of EI also tended to report higher expectational benevolence and malevolence scores. These results suggest that EI and expectational trust are related in ways that may support the recognition of subtle interpersonal cues. Individuals with higher EI appeared to be more attentive to emotional and behavioral signals that could indicate potential grooming behaviors, possibly reflecting greater social sensitivity and interpersonal awareness [37, 66]. The relationship between EI and expectation-based trust may be related to professionals’ ability to recognize early indicators of CSAP grooming behaviors. Individuals with higher EI are more capable of perceiving emotional incongruities, subtle manipulations, and relational boundary violations, whereas balanced expectational trust enables them to evaluate others’ behaviors without excessive suspicion or overconfidence [67, 68]. Together, these qualities may foster a form of professional vigilance that supports the early detection of grooming patterns before they escalate into direct CSA. By developing EI, empathy, and emotional regulation, it may enable professionals to remain observant and calm in complex interpersonal situations, while an appropriate level of trust may facilitate discerning judgment in interactions with both children and adults [69]. However, considering that this study was conducted using a correlational model, causal studies are needed to reach a definitive conclusion on this matter. Therefore, the findings reported here should be interpreted as associations rather than direct causal relationships. The cross-sectional and correlational nature of the data does not allow for firm conclusions about directionality or causation among EI, expectational trust, and CSAP awareness. It is possible that higher awareness may also influence EI or trust orientations over time. Future longitudinal or experimental studies are required to clarify these causal pathways and determine whether enhancing EI directly leads to greater CSAP awareness or whether other mediating variables account for this association.

Another key finding of this study is the positive relationship identified between expectational trust and professionals’ knowledge and awareness of CSAPs. While the concept of expectational malevolence has been debated in the literature, Lumineau [41] argues that it should not be regarded as inherently negative. Instead, he suggests that expectational malevolence can foster healthy skepticism, promote vigilance, and ultimately serve as a protective factor. In contrast, expectational benevolence may act as both a strength and a vulnerability. Although it facilitates positive interpersonal engagement and trust-based collaboration, it may also increase susceptibility to manipulation—particularly in contexts involving grooming behaviors. This tension between trust and critical skepticism is especially relevant when evaluating potentially harmful adult–child interactions. Our results support this notion, indicating that expectational malevolence is a stronger predictor of CSAP awareness than benevolence, albeit with small but meaningful effect sizes [57]. This finding aligns with prospect theory, which suggests that negative expectations tend to carry greater psychological weight than positive ones [40]. Similar patterns have been observed in fields such as cybersecurity, where perceived threats heighten vigilance and caution [70]. The too weak effect of benevolence (which is not even statistically significant) may be due to the lower salience of positive expectations in threat detection scenarios, or potential limitations in how benevolence was measured in this study. Lumineau [41] also notes that excessive benevolence can hinder objectivity and promote biased, homogeneous thinking. In line with these theoretical explanations, expectational malevolence can be considered a protective and adaptive trait in the specific context of CSA prevention. The strong model fit indices (e.g., CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.05) confirm the adequacy of the proposed structural model and reinforce the validity of the findings. High CFI and TLI values indicate that the mediation pathways—from EI through expectational malevolence (stronger effect) and benevolence (weaker effect) to CSAP awareness—are well represented, reducing the likelihood of model misspecification. To our knowledge, no prior study has investigated the relationship between expectational benevolence and CSAP awareness using a similar sample. Nevertheless, it is theoretically plausible that individuals with high benevolence may be more prone to manipulation, whereas those with heightened malevolence expectations may more easily detect grooming behaviors [71, 72]. The absence of a negative correlation between benevolence and CSAP awareness in our data may be due to the influence of an unmeasured mediating variable. For instance, prior research shows that victim-survivors often exhibit high levels of goodwill, which can obscure danger perception, and that individual and sociocultural factors—such as gender and cultural norms—can contribute to the endorsement of myths about CSAPs [73]. Future research may explore potential mediators such as gender, culture, and cognitive bias in the relationship between expectational benevolence and CSAP awareness. Addressing this gap could provide deeper insights into how trust orientations influence professionals’ capacity to recognize abuse and may inform the development of culturally sensitive training programs.

Another striking finding of this study is the mediating role of expectational malevolence in the relationship between EI and CSAP awareness. This suggests that emotionally intelligent individuals may be more inclined to engage in anticipatory suspicion when evaluating social cues, thereby increasing their awareness of abuse risk. Theoretically, this aligns with work by Lewicki et al. [21], who noted that expectation of malevolent behavior may facilitate preemptive protective strategies in ambiguous social interactions. Nevertheless, given that the present study relies on correlational data, this mediating effect should be interpreted with caution. While the analysis provides information about possible indirect relationships, it cannot establish temporal or causal direction. Replication in diverse cultural and professional settings is needed to validate these preliminary patterns. While the study focuses on individual-level psychological factors, it is critical not to overlook the broader systemic context in which safeguarding occurs. Personal competencies such as EI and relational skepticism are necessary but insufficient conditions for effective CSA prevention. Power asymmetries, organizational cultures, and policy frameworks significantly shape whether risk is recognized and addressed. Moreover, safeguarding cannot be ethically or effectively pursued without accounting for intersectional identity markers—such as gender and disability—that influence whose voices are trusted and which risks are deemed credible [74]. Future research should thus adopt an intersectional lens to investigate how such identity factors affect professionals’ and young people’s experiences within safeguarding systems.

As a result, this study highlights the importance of EI and expectational malevolence in enhancing individuals’ awareness, and grooming strategies of CSAPs. These psychological capacities may serve as foundational elements in the training of future professionals. Still, it is important to emphasize that these conclusions are based on correlational evidence. On the other hand, these individual attributes must be embedded within a larger framework of institutional safeguards, inter-agency collaboration, and social justice-informed policy for child protection to be effective. Yet, the effectiveness of these psychological and structural elements must be interpreted within the specific socio-cultural and institutional context of Türkiye. Cultural taboos surrounding open discussion of CSA, a high power-distance between professionals and authority figures, and prevailing beliefs in family honor can hinder the recognition and reporting of grooming behaviors [75, 76]. In particular, professionals’ perceptions of trust and their interpretation of behavioral cues may be shaped by cultural norms and gendered expectations. For instance, female professionals may feel a heightened ethical responsibility to intervene, while male professionals might be influenced by social norms that valorize authority and emotional restraint [77]. These dynamics can significantly influence how EI and expectational trust are activated in professional settings. Furthermore, structural limitations—such as inconsistent enforcement of mandatory reporting laws, lack of specialized training on CSAPs profiling, and fragmented institutional accountability—can weaken professionals’ trust in protective mechanisms and their ability to act effectively [76]. A truly ethical and inclusive safeguarding approach demands emotionally attuned professionals and structurally competent systems capable of recognizing and responding to abuse in all its complexity.

Implications

This study contributes to future research by providing an empirically tested model that links EI, expectational trust, and awareness of CSAPs, a connection not previously examined in the literature. Future studies could investigate the generalizability of the model by testing it in various individual and cultural contexts, such as different occupational groups and personality traits [78], based on these findings. Additionally, longitudinal research could examine how these competencies develop over time and impact safeguarding practices. From a training perspective, the findings highlight the importance of integrating EI development and awareness of grooming tactics into teacher education programs. Teacher education programs, especially for senior teacher candidates, may include targeted curriculum components addressing both EI and CSA awareness. Such curriculum development may incorporate specialized modules on grooming, combining theoretical knowledge with practical application. For example, a module could begin with a theoretical overview of CSA characteristics and grooming methods, supported by real-life examples drawn from research. This could be followed by interactive workshops where students analyze scenarios to identify grooming patterns and evaluate behavioral cues of expected malicious and benign intent. Additionally, the training can strengthen students’ ability to recognize grooming patterns by developing their emotional awareness, social awareness, emotional alertness, and empathy. Ultimately, educational institutions and academics can integrate these competencies into teacher candidate training, thereby strengthening their capacity for early diagnosis and intervention of CSA and contributing to its prevention. Embedding these components in pre-service education and in-service professional development would contribute to building an emotionally attuned and ethically responsive workforce within child protection systems. However, mixed-pattern and causal studies with people with high EI scores and a high level of knowledge about the CSAPs are needed to reach a definite opinion on this subject. Since the sample consisted solely of pre-service teachers, future research could replicate these findings with other groups who work closely with children, such as social workers and psychologists, to assess their generalizability.

Limitations

This study has some limitations. First of all, because the model of the study is relational, a cause-and-effect relationship cannot be established between EI and other variables. Although mediation analyses were conducted, these findings should be interpreted with caution, as the cross-sectional and correlational design of the study does not allow for causal inference. The causality of these findings can be evaluated with experimental and mixed-method studies that can be carried out in the future. Secondly, the online data collection method enabled data collection from many different universities and cities, and enabled individuals with internet access to participate in the research. However, collecting data online may also introduce certain response biases. Specifically, since all data were based on self-reports, the results may be influenced by self-report bias and social desirability bias, as participants might have provided answers they considered socially acceptable rather than entirely accurate reflections of their experiences. Moreover, potential differences between online and paper-based data collection formats should be acknowledged, as the mode of response can subtly affect how participants perceive and answer survey questions. Thirdly, while the geographical diversity of the sample is a strength, it should be noted that 82.4% of the participants were female and all were senior pre-service teachers in Türkiye. This gender imbalance and occupational homogeneity substantially limit the generalizability of the findings. Therefore, future studies should aim to include more gender-balanced and professionally diverse samples, as well as participants from different educational or cultural backgrounds, to strengthen external validity. Additionally, comparative studies involving teacher education students from other countries would provide a valuable cross-cultural perspective and help determine whether the observed relationships hold across different sociocultural contexts. Finally, only gender was included as a control variable in the analyses. Other potentially relevant factors, such as empathy, moral reasoning, prior exposure to child protection or CSA-related training, age, cultural background, and socioeconomic status, were not collected. Because the participants were preservice teachers from a faculty of education, the sample represented a relatively homogeneous age group and educational background, which likely reduced the influence of variability for these factors. Nevertheless, the absence of such data limits the comprehensiveness of the analysis. Furthermore, since this research was conducted in Türkiye, contextual factors unique to the Turkish educational and sociocultural environment should be taken into account. For instance, cultural norms surrounding communication about CSA, gendered expectations in teacher education, and regional disparities in access to preventive training may influence how EI and expectational trust are expressed and developed among pre-service teachers. Therefore, the implications of the present findings should be interpreted within the broader cultural and institutional context of Türkiye.

Authors’ contributions

MBG and HS collected data, analyzed. All authors prepared and contributed in writing the manuscript. All authors also read and approved the final manuscript.

Funding

This manuscript involved no financial support.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. The data are not publicly available due to privacy or ethical restrictions.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

All procedures followed were in accordance with ethical standards of responsible communities on human experimentation (institutional and national) and with the Helsinki Declaration of 1975, as revised in 2000. Informed consent was obtained from the participants via online form. The study was approved by the [Sivas Cumhuriyet University Social Sciences Research Evaluation and Ethics Committee]. Participants provided informed consent and were informed of their right to withdraw at any time. Given the sensitive nature of CSA, participants were provided with contact information for the research team, two of whom are qualified psychological counselors. Participants experiencing distress during or after the study were encouraged to contact these counselors for support.

Consent for publication

Not Applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.