Regular-wrinkling tunable MXene lattice for electromagnetic interference shielding

Abstract

Protecting sensitive equipment from electromagnetic radiation damage requires the development of high-performance electromagnetic interference shielding films. As the film thickness is reduced to micro/nano scales, electromagnetic interference shielding capability generally decreases rapidly due to the weaker reflection. As a result, enhanced electromagnetic interference shielding performance in sub-μm thin films remains as an unsolved challenge. Inspired by the naturally wrinkling of fruit skin, we propose a homogeneous strain strategy to achieve self-wrinkling-induced lattice-structured MXene by uniform polymer shrinkage due to dehydration. Uniform wrinkle amplitude can be tuned from 0.8 to 6 μm, which results in additional surface scattering of electromagnetic-waves and electrical conduction paths. The obtained lattice-structured films demonstrate an excellent electromagnetic interference shielding of up to 81.5 dB for a thickness of 17 μm, maintaining high electromagnetic interference shielding performance and stability after enduring various harsh testing conditions. These results demonstrate the potential of wrinkling-induced, surface regular patterns for improving the electromagnetic interference shielding performance of ultra-thin films based on conventional materials.

This study reports self-wrinkling MXene films with lattice structures achieving exceptional electromagnetic interference shielding (81.5 dB at 17 μm), offering ultra-thin protection for sensitive electronics.

Introduction

The ongoing miniaturization and integration of electronic components in consumer electronics, wearable devices, and advanced communication systems have created an urgent demand for ultra-thin electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding films^1–3. Conventional bulky EMI shielding materials have become unsuitable for compact device architectures. The ultra-thin EMI shielding film can effectively isolate EMI without significantly increasing the volume or weight of the device, thereby ensuring the integrity of high-frequency and high-speed signal transmission^4,5. Furthermore, their application has expanded to extreme environments such as aerospace and polar research, where high-efficiency EMI shielding performance and reliable operation under harsh conditions are critically required^6,7.

MXenes are a type of two-dimensional layered materials composed of transition metal carbides, nitrides, or carbonitrides. Their most notable characteristics are their excellent intrinsic electrical conductivity and rich surface chemistry, making them ideal candidates for constructing high-performance EMI shielding materials^8,9. The EMI shielding effectiveness of MXene-based materials stems from the synergistic effects of conductive loss, polarization relaxation, and efficient internal reflection within their layered structures^10,11. Although the layered structure of MXene inherently enables a certain synergy between reflection and absorption, its shielding mechanism reverts predominantly to a single, dominant surface mirror-like reflection when processed into macroscopic films¹². Reducing the interlayer spacing through methods such as vacuum annealing or ion crosslinking can enhance EMI shielding performance^13,14. However, the improvement remains limited due to reliance on a single mechanism of conductivity enhancement. Alternatively, introducing magnetic or dielectric components can enhance absorption through magnetic loss or interfacial polarization, but this often comes at the cost of increased material thickness^15,16. Therefore, achieving further improvement in EMI shielding performance without increasing the thickness of MXene remains difficult.

Surface pattern structures possess significant potential for substantially enhancing EMI shielding performance. This enhancement can be achieved through mechanisms such as multiple scattering within the lattice, particularly when the feature size of the patterns is reduced to the micro or nano scale^17–19. A common physical strategy for creating wrinkled structures involves pre-stretching an elastomer, depositing a rigid material on its surface, and then releasing the pre-strain to exploit interfacial instability^20–22. However, conventional fabrication methods relying on wrinkle-induced patterning often struggle to form uniform micro/nano-scale surface patterns due to inherent issues like non-uniform force application and macroscopic shrinkage²³. The Turing pattern mechanism, a chemical approach based on reaction-diffusion theory, presents another effective route for constructing micro/nano-scale patterns^24–26. Nevertheless, the morphology and stability of Turing patterns obtained through chemical processes are highly dependent on dynamic conditions such as reactant concentration and diffusion rates, leading to challenges in controllability and long-term stability²⁷. Consequently, achieving uniform, stable, and tunable patterns at the micro and nano scale, especially for MXene materials, remains a formidable challenge.

Inspired by the regular wrinkling of hierarchically structured natural organisms, we propose a strategy to achieve a uniform scaled regular-wrinkling tunable MXene lattice. The film exhibits exceptional EMI shielding performance due to the enhanced scattering of electromagnetic waves and additional conductive pathways. The lattice-structured MXene demonstrates an excellent EMI shielding of up to 81.5 dB at a thickness of 17 μm. The unique surface structure enables MXene to retain high EMI shielding performance in a variety of harsh environments, and also exhibit hydrophobicity and fast Joule-heat de-icing properties. This work demonstrates a bottom-up strategy for the preparation of EMI shielding films with micro/nanoscale regular patterns. The approach offers an avenue for the development of development in composite films for EMI shielding.

Results and discussion

Formation and physical property of lattice-structured MXene

In nature, tree-detached fruits with skins dehydrate and wrinkle when exposed to air for long periods of time (Fig. 1A). Above room temperature, the process of wrinkling is accelerated and different kinds of pattens can be achieved. Inspired by this natural phenomenon, we load a concentrated MXene solution on the polymer surface. After solvent volatilization and thermal contraction, the MXene coating shows pseudo-regular wrinkle structures on the PI surface, which is referred to as the lattice structure.

Fig. 1. Formation process and characterization of lattice-structured MXene.

A The skin of fruit forms wrinkles in nature. B Schematic fabrication of the latticed MXene. C Cross-sectional SEM image of the MXene on the PI surface. Data are representative of ten independent experiments (n = 10) with similar results. D SEM image with different magnifications of the latticed MXene. Data are representative of ten independent experiments (n = 10) with similar results. E 3D AFM images of the latticed MXene. F Comparison of the EMI shielding performance of the lattice-structured MXene with other recently reported EMI shielding materials. The five five-pointed stars within the red circle represent the samples prepared by this method. An enlarged version of this panel with all data points annotated with their reference numbers is provided in Fig. S13.

The fabricating process of latticed MXene is shown in Figs. 1B and S1. The lattice is formed in two steps. First, a high-concentration MXene solution self-assembles on the surface of the PAA film. The bonding between the MXene and PAA results in anchoring of MXene to the PAA surface (Figs. S3 and S4). The H₂O solvent in the MXene solution and N, N-dimethyl-formamide (DMF) solvent in the PAA solution evaporate during drying. Under the effect of surface tension generated by solvent evaporation and the bi-directional shrinkage driving force of the polymer^28,29, the MXene wrinkles on the PAA surface, with 600–800 nm amplitude height for the wrinkles (Fig. S5).

Subsequently, the MXene/PAA films is heat-treated slowly increasing the temperature from 20 to 300 °C. During the high temperature treatment process, the dehydration cyclization of the PAA lead to uniform contraction of the PI (Figs. S6 and S7), with simultaneous removal of interlayer water molecules in MXene¹³. As a result, the MXene coating shrinks further inward on the PI surface, with the MXene layer spacing decreasing from 1.23 to 1.08 nm (Fig. S8), and the amplitude of the lattices increases to 1–2 μm (Fig. S9). Figure 1C clearly shows that the MXene is spread over the entire PI surface with obvious wrinkles. From the top-view SEM image of the MXene/PI film, the wrinkles of MXene on PI form a regular lattice structure (Figs. 1D and S10). AFM imaging reveals the three-dimensional lattice structure of MXene on the PI surface (Fig. 1E). Thanks to the simplicity and rapidity of the adopted blade coating and heat treatment, the MXene/PI films can be easily made onto large plates with film size of 45 cm × 45 cm (Fig. S11).

The formation of a regular MXene lattice structure on the PI surface is primarily attributed to the strong hydrogen bond between MXene and PAA and the uniform dehydration thermal shrinkage during the conversion of PAA to PI^30,31. The MXene patterning on the polymer surface is related to the force between the MXene and polymer. Notably, MXene does not show a similar lattice structure on any of the considered polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), poly (vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) and glass substrates (Fig. S12). The lattice-structured MXene exhibits a superior EMI shielding performance, surpassing most previously reported works, particularly in the field of ultra-thin EMI shielding films, as shown in Figs. 1F and S13 and Table S1.

The morphology of the MXene on the PI surface is closely related to the thickness of both the polymer and MXene. The adjustable parameters of the lattice structure are amplitude, wavelength and width (Fig. S14). As shown in Fig. S14, coating the same thickness of MXene on different thickness of PAA, the shrinkage of the polymer becomes large with the increase of PAA thickness, resulting in the increase of the amplitude of MXene on the polymer surface by 0.8-6 μm. However, when the polymer thickness is above 25 μm, the MXene forms an irregular patterned morphology on the PI surface (Fig. S15 and Table S2). We selected multiple coatings on PAA to regulate the thickness of MXene, and then explored the influence of coating thickness on the patterning morphology. With the increase of coating thickness, amplitude, wavelength and width all increase (Fig. S16 and Table S3). In brief, we have prepared structurally stable patterned morphologies that can be autonomously tuned with the thickness of both the polymer and MXene.

EMI shielding mechanism and performance of lattice-structured MXene

Electrical conductivity is a critical parameter for evaluating the EMI shielding performance of MXene. Firstly, the conductivity of flat MXene on PET and lattice MXene on PI under the same preparation conditions is measured. The latticed MXene exhibited a higher conductivity of 3500 S/cm compared to 2500 S/cm for the flat MXene (Fig. S17 and Table S4). The EMI shielding performance of the lattice-structured MXene was subsequently measured and compared to results for flat MXene. As depicted in Fig. 2A, the average EMI SE (SE_T) of the lattice-structured MXene is 50.4 dB in the X-band (8.2–12.4 GHz), significantly higher than for the flat MXene (38.6 dB). Compared with the flat MXene, the reflection loss (SE_A) and absorption loss (SE_R) of the latticed MXene increase by 10.3 dB and 1.7 dB (Table S5). This demonstrates that the enhanced EMI SE of the latticed MXene stems from both the improved SE_R due to enhanced electrical conductivity and the increased SE_A resulting from the surface structures responsible for promoting diffuse reflection of electromagnetic waves. According to Fig. S18, the 1% increase in the reflection coefficient (R) indicates that the additional conductive paths introduced by the lattice structure enhance electrical conductivity. This constitutes the primary contributor to the 31% improvement in EMI SE. When the thickness of the latticed MXene is 2.8 μm, and the SE_T of MXene/PI film can reach 50.4 dB. (Fig. 2B).

Fig. 2. EMI shielding performance and mechanism of the lattice-structured MXene.

A Average value of SE_T, SE_A and SE_R of the flat MXene and latticed MXene in the X band. B EMI SE and cross-sectional SEM images of the latticed MXene. Data are representative of ten independent experiments (n = 10) with similar results. C EMI SE of the lattice-structured MXene in the Ku, K and Ka band. D EMI SE of different MXene-VAF, flat MXene and latticed MXene films. E EMI SE of the latticed MXene with various thicknesses in the X band. F Finite element simulated current density map and G electric field direction maps of lattice-structured films at 10 GHz. H Schematic of EMI shielding mechanism in the lattice structured MXene film. The blue curve with arrows represents the incident electromagnetic wave, the yellow curve with arrows represents multiple scattering, and the orange curve with arrows represents the reflected electromagnetic wave from the surface. In the enlarged image, the red straight line with an arrow and emitting blue light indicate the conductive paths, while the yellow arrows represent the scattering of electromagnetic waves within a single lattice.

The latticed MXene achieves excellent EMI shielding performance also in the ultrabroadband GHz frequency range, including the Ku, K and Ka bands, with average EMI SE of 50.9 dB, 51.3 dB and 53.8 dB, respectively, further broadening the potential application range of the patterned films (Fig. 2C). Compared with the MXene films prepared by vacuum filtration (MXene-VAF) and flat MXene, the lattice-structured MXene can achieve the equivalent SE_T values at lower MXene thickness of 2.8 μm (Figs. 2D and S19 and Table S6). The EMI SE increases from 38.6 to 81.5 dB as the thickness of latticed MXene varies from 0.7 to 17.0 μm (Figs. 2E, S20 and Table S7), revealing that the latticed MXene can be used in high-end fields.

According to the result of calculation, the EMI SE of the latticed MXene is significantly increased. This is attributed to the fact that the prominent lattice structure introduces additional conductive paths in the system (Figs. 2F and S21–23). Additionally, non-uniform electric field distribution is observed in latticed surfaces when subjected to an external electric field, leading to higher power loss density at the lattice (Fig. S24), suggesting that electromagnetic waves are not only subjected to reflection loss but also diffuse reflection on surfaces with structures. Simulations of the EF direction in the y-z plane (Figs. 2G and S25) demonstrates that the direction of the electric field of the lattice structure changes at the raised lattice. This indicates that the formation of the raised structure on the surface facilitates the enhancement of diffuse EM wave scattering, while influencing the electric field distribution at the surface. The potency of the raised lattice structure can be explained by the bandwidth of GHz frequency electromagnetic waves and its interaction with micrometer scale regular structures through Rayleigh scattering ^32–35. Previous works indicated that wrinkled structures can effectively enhance electromagnetic wave absorption, with a 5 μm thick wrinkled MXene film for a shielding effectiveness of 58 dB³⁶. Here, we achieved an ultrathin MXene film (2.8 μm) with a patterned lattice structure, exhibiting the nearly similar ultrahigh EMI SE. The unique shielding enhancement mechanism of our lattice architecture lies in its ability to provide additional conductive pathways through the crossed lattices, thereby enhancing the overall electrical conductivity of the film. Simultaneously, the uniform micro/nano lattice configuration induces Rayleigh scattering, which further augments electromagnetic wave absorption. The synergistic enhancement of both reflection and absorption results in a significantly higher total shielding effectiveness in the lattice-patterned MXene compared to other surface-patterned films reported in the field^13,36,37 (Fig. 2H).

Mechanical properties and durability under extreme environments

Stable mechanical properties of the MXene/PI film are essential for practical application of high-performance EMI shielding materials. The tensile strength of the MXene/PI composite film is 141 ± 10 MPa, which is 47 times higher than that of the MXene-VAF film (3 MPa). The measured tensile strain of 13 ± 1% is 4.6 times higher than that of the MXene-VAF film (2.8%) (Figs. S26, S27 and Table S8). Fig. S28 illustrates the high strength and flexibility of ultra-thin MXene/PI films. Compared with the reported flexible EMI shielding films, the MXene/PI films offer noticeable advantages in terms of mechanics, flexibility, thickness and EMI SE (Fig. 3A and Table S9)^38–46.

Fig. 3. Mechanical properties and durability of the MXene/PI films after enduring various harsh testing conditions.

A Performance comparison of the MXene/PI film with other MXene-based electromagnetic shielding materials. B Electrical conductivity and EMI SE of the MXene/PI film after stressing. C SEM images of the MXene/PI film at the initial state, 8% strain, and 11% strain. The cracks that appear in the crossed lattice area after stretching are located within the dashed circle. Data are representative of ten independent experiments (n = 10) with similar results. D Resistance of the latticed MXene, flat MXene and MXene-VAF after bending 180°. EMI SE of the MXene/PI film before and after E ultrasonic cleaning, F treatment at 300 °C, −196 °C and pH=1, thermal shock. G The antioxidant activity of the latticed MXene, flat MXene and MXene-VAF.

In aerospace or defense applications, materials face extreme conditions such as physical shocks, high temperatures, and low temperatures^47,48. We performed unidirectional stretching of the lattice-structured MXene/PI film and found that the MXene coating remained uncracked on the PI surface at 8% stretching rate (Fig. 3C). When the stretching rate is 11%, cracks appear in the MXene coating at the lattice connection points (Figs. 3C and S29). During the stretching process, the PI is deformed by the tensile force, and the MXene coating with a raised lattice structure pulls outward with the deformation of the PI. Wavelength becomes larger, and the lattice structure increases energy dissipation and provides a stress cushion (Fig. S30)¹⁹. Compared to flat MXene coatings, the lattice-structured MXene coatings are less susceptible to cracking under small stresses. As the tensile force increases, MXene cracks at the raised lattice and the stress is released. The cracks are created on the lattice and do not extend to the entire MXene layer, so they have little effect on the EMI shielding performance. Therefore, when the MXene/PI film is stretched to 11%, the conductivity and EMI SE remains stable (Fig. 3B and Table S10).

Compared to MXene-VAF and flat MXene films, the electrical resistance of the MXene/PI films with lattice structure is virtually unchanged after thousands of bends (Fig. 3D). In sharp contrast, the MXene/PI films obtained after heat treatment have a tight bonding with an adhesion class of 5B due to the strong interaction force between MXene and PAA, which reiterates the role of strong bonding and lattice structure (Figs. 31 and S32). Supplementary Movie 1 clearly shows that for the MXene/PET film, the solution begins to turn cloudy after 1 s of sonication, accompanied by the diffusion of MXene into the aqueous solution. For the MXene-VAF film, cracking is observed after approximately 35 s of sonication, followed by gradual clouding of the solution. In contrast, no detachment of MXene is observed for the MXene/PI film even after 6 h of sonication, and the aqueous solution remains clear (Fig. S33). Compared with flat films, the MXene/PI with lattice structure has higher resistance to physical impact.

Remarkably, the MXene/PI films in ultrasonic treatment, high temperature (300 °C), low temperature (−196 °C) acid solution (pH = 1) for 24 h, and 30 times repeated cyclic thermal shock between the above temperatures (∆T = 496 °C), maintain an EMI shielding efficiency of more than 75 dB in the X-band. (Fig. 3E, F and Table S11). The stability of the EMI shielding performance of the MXene/PI films treated in harsh environments is attributed to the excellent stability of MXene and PI at both high and low temperatures (Figs. S34 and S35)⁴⁹. Supplementary Movie 2 demonstrates that MXene/PI films remain capable of withstanding repeated bending and folding without fracture even after removal from liquid nitrogen immersion, highlighting the application potential of latticed MXene in cryogenic environments. At the same time, the mechanical properties of the MXene/PI films remain excellent after treatment in harsh conditions (Fig. S36). In view of the easy oxidization of MXene in humid air, the long-term stability of EMI shielding performance of lattice-structured was investigated and compared with that of MXene-VAF and flat MXene films. As shown in Fig. 3G and Table S12, the EMI SE of the latticed MXene did not decrease significantly in a hygrothermal environment (40 °C, 60–80% humidity) over timescales of months. These results demonstrate that the MXene/PI film is a comprehensive EMI shielding material, which is highly appealing for a wide range of practical applications involving moving components and mechanical deformations.

Joule heating and deicing properties

MXene/PI films exhibit controllable Joule heating performance, adhering to Joule’s law (Q = U²R^–1t) (Fig. S37)⁵⁰. In contrast, the MXene-VAF fractures at 4 V owing to overheating, while the temperature of the MXene/PET film shows no significant change with increasing voltage, owing to the delamination between MXene and PET during heating (Fig. S38). Benefiting from the high-temperature-resistant polymer substrate and the strong interfacial interaction between MXene and PI, the MXene/PI film exhibits controllable Joule heating performance under applied voltages ranging from 1 to 7 V. The temperature measured by infrared imaging varies from 34.7 to 397.0 °C, showing good agreement with thermocouple readings (Figs. 4A and S39). The surface temperature of the MXene/PI film experiences rapid elevation within 10 s and holds steady under the external voltage (Fig. 4B). The MXene/PI films maintain long-lasting stability after multiple heating and cooling cycles (Fig. S40). Compared with the performance of EMI shielding materials with joule heating in the literature, the MXene/PI films achieve controlled temperature rise at a lower voltage (Fig. 4C and Table S13). The temperature of the MXene/PI films is close to 400 °C at 7 V driving voltage, surpassing the values previously reported for EMI shielding materials with Joule heating performance^44,51–72. The convex surface structure may confer the material excellent hydrophobic properties^73,74.

Fig. 4. Joule heat and deicing properties of MXene/PI films.

A The IR thermal images of the MXene/PI film at different driving voltages in 10 s. B Temperature-time curves of the MXene/PI film at different driving voltages C Comparison of the voltage and temperature for the MXene/PI film with previously reported values from cited literature. D Water contact angle of MXene-VAF, flat MXene and latticed MXene films. E Photographs of freezing experiments. F Icing time of MXene-VAF, flat MXene and latticed MXene films. G Ice block melts and slips with applied voltage.

Compared with the MXene-VAF (34.9°) and flat MXene (50.6°), the lattice-structured MXene exhibits a larger water contact angle of 125° (Fig. 4D). The enhancement of hydrophobicity in the latticed MXene is attributed to the combined effect of its unique lattice-patterned structure and the removal of surface polar groups through heat treatment. When the material is exposed to extremely cold and humid environments, the icing time of the lattice-structured MXene is significantly prolonged compared to the material with flat surface (Fig. 4E, F), which proves that the surface of latticed MXene is less susceptible to freezing in a cold environment. The delayed icing is attributed to the wrinkled morphology of the lattice structure, which facilitates the formation of a stable air cushion beneath the water droplet. This air layer reduces solid-liquid contact and effectively impedes thermal transfer. Once formed on the film, ice can be melted by rapid Joule heating. Obviously, the ice block placed on the films with a low voltage of 3 V on a 20° slope can melt and slide away in 40 s (Fig. 4G). This demonstrates that latticed MXene exhibit low ice adhesion and efficient de-icing capabilities under low voltage and slight inclination, indicating their energy-saving potential and practical applicability in anti-icing and de-icing systems. The EMI SE of the latticed MXene shows no significant change after several Joule heating deicing cycles (Fig. S41), which can be attributed to the excellent electrothermal stability and structural integrity of the lattice-structured MXene film under high electrical load (Fig. S42). This indicates that the internal structure of the material remains unchanged after multiple electro-cycling as a smart heater, resulting to stable EMI shielding performance. These results reiterate that the latticed MXene can be applied in cold and humid extreme environments with excellent durability.

We have reported a self-wrinkling-induced lattice-structured MXene obtained by polymer shrinkage in a dehydration reaction. The lattice structure provides scattering interfaces and more electrical conduction paths, thus enhancing the electromagnetic wave loss. The lattice-structure endows the wrinkled MXene with a high EMI SE of up to 81.5 dB for a thickness of 17 μm. Thanks to the unique lattice structure, the MXene retains EMI shielding effectiveness above 75 dB even after enduring mechanical stretching, ultrasonic treatment, high/low temperatures, acidic solutions, and hygrothermal environment. Furthermore, the MXene/PI films exhibit also hydrophobicity and fast Joule-heat de-icing properties. This work introduces a promising approach for spontaneous patterning of inorganic materials with demonstrated potential for EMI shielding applications in a variety of harsh environments or demanding operating conditions.

Methods

Synthesis of Ti₃C₂T_x MXene Flakes. Few-layer Ti₃C₂T_x flakes were synthesized by selective etching of Ti₃AlC₂ powder using LiF/HCl solvent. Firstly, 7.5 mL of deionized water was added to 22.5 mL of analytically HCl (37.0 wt%) and diluted to obtain a hydrochloric acid solution with a concentration of 9 M. Then the prepared hydrochloric acid solution was added to a 100 mL of PTFE reactor, followed by the addition of 1.6 g of LiF, and stirred for 30 min. Then 1 g Ti₃AlC₂ was slowly added to the above solution and stirred continuously at 35 °C for 24 h. The product was washed with deionized water and centrifuged at 1380 × g. Finally, the few-layer Ti₃C₂T_x MXene dispersion solution was obtained by ultrasonication under the protection of argon gas stream for 1 h, followed by centrifugation at 1380 × g for 20 min. The obtained low-layer MXene solution was centrifuged at 13640 × g for 30 min at high speed to obtain concentrated Ti₃C₂T_x condensation, and then the MXene condensation was diluted with water into 40 mg/mL MXene solution.

Preparation of Ti₃C₂T_x MXene/Polyimide (PI) composite film. A certain amount of 4,4′-oxydianicurve (ODA) was added into a clean three-neck round-bottom flask, and organic solvent DMF was added subsequently. After the ODA is completely dissolved, an appropriate amount of Pyromellitic dianhydride was added in batches, and the mixture was mechanically stirred in an ice-water bath for 4 h. The yellow colloid in the three-necked flask is poly(amic acid) (PAA) solution. The latticed MXene was prepared using blade-coating on PAA surface and heat treatment. Firstly, the PAA solution was coated on glass and then dried in a vacuum oven at 60 °C for 40 min. The MXene (40 mg/mL) solution was blade-coated on PAA and dried in a vacuum oven at 60 °C for 1 h. The obtained MXene/PAA film was heat-treated in N₂ atmosphere (gradient temperature rise: 80 °C, 30 min; 120 °C, 30 min; 180 °C, 30 min; 250 °C, 30 min; 300 °C, 30 min), and latticed MXene was obtained. The thickness of the PAA layer is regulated by changing the height H = 125, 500, 2000 μm between the PAA and the blade edge. MXene was blade-coated on PAA once, twice, three times, five times, and eight times to regulate the thickness of MXene on PAA, where H (PAA) = 500 μm, H (MXene)=100 μm. The thicknesses of the latticed MXene after heat treatment were 0.7 μm, 1.5 μm, 2.8 μm, 7 μm, and 17 μm, which were named as 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, respectively. For comparison, the MXene solution was blade-coated onto PET, PTEF, PVDF, glass to study MXene morphology and adhesion.

Statistics and Reproducibility. The reproducibility of the synthesis process for surface-patterned MXene films was rigorously evaluated through ten independent experimental replicates under identical conditions. The resulting structural morphology and key functional characteristics, including EMI shielding effectiveness, mechanical strength, Joule heating efficiency, hydrophobicity, and deicing performance, were all confirmed to be highly consistent across every replicate.

Material characterization. The morphology was observed by a scanning electron microscope (SEM, Quanta 250 FEG and JEOL, JSM-7500F). The transmission electron microscopy images of MXene flakes were recorded by field-emission transmission electron microscopy (FETEM, JEM-2100F). The crystal structure was investigated by powder X-ray diffraction (XRD, Rigaku Ultima IV). The surface element and element valence states were investigated by X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS, Thermo Scientific K-Alpha). The chemical bonds of the composite films were analyzed via a Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR, Nicolet iS50, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA). The height morphology of MXene flakes was characterized by the atomic force microscope (AFM, dimension icon, Bruker). The thermal stability was investigated by a thermal analyzer (Netzsch, STA449F3). Thermal imaging camera was used to record the temperature of composite films in the photothermal experiment (ST9450). The infrared emissivity of MP and CMP was revealed by a dual-band emissivity meter (IR-2, Shanghai Chengbo Optoelectronic Technology, China) in the wavelength range of 2–25 µm.

The sample surface square resistance/electrical conductivity was measured by KDB-3 double combination four-point probe tester, the electrical conductivity of the composite film is calculated as follows:

$$\mathrm{\sigma }=1/\left(\mathrm{R}\times \mathrm{t}\right)$$ 1

where $\sigma$ (S/cm) denotes the electrical conductivity and t (cm)denotes the thickness of the sample.

The EMI shielding performance of the composite films was tested using an Agilent PAN-N5244A vector network analyzer via the waveguide method (X band). The measured scattering parameters (S₁₁ and S₂₁) were used to calculate the absorption, reflection, and total shielding value of the samples. EMI SE (SE_T) was divided into three parts: reflection loss (SE_R), absorption loss (SE_A), and multiple reflection loss (SE_MR).

The mechanical property was tested by a Shimadzu AGS-X 1 kN universal mechanical testing machine, the load-displacement and stress-strain data are transformed as follows:

$$\mathrm{\sigma }=\mathrm{F}/\left(\mathrm{d}\times \mathrm{t}\right)$$ 2

$$\mathrm{\epsilon }=\mathrm{x}/\mathrm{l}\times 100\%$$ 3

Where σ (MPa) denotes stress and ε denotes strain, d (mm), t (mm) and l (mm)represent the width, thickness and the length of the sample, respectively.

MXene-VAF, MXene/PET and MXene/PI films were respectively placed on a cold table at −15 °C and relative humidity (RH) < 20% to observe the icing process of the films.

Electrical conductivity and EMI SE calculation of lattice-structured MXene. To understand the contribution of the lattice structure to the excellent EMI shielding of the composite films, the conductivity of the lattice-structured MXene (${\sigma }_{latticedMXene}$) were calculated as follow (Fig. S18),

$${\sigma }_{latticedMXene}=\frac{\left({\phi }_A+{\phi }_{B}R\right)}{R\left[{\phi }_A\left({\phi }_A+{\phi }_{B}R\right)+{\phi }_B\right]}{\sigma }_A$$ 4

Where ${\phi }_A$ and ${\phi }_B$ is the volume fractions of lattice network and flat bottom, R is the ratio of the thickness of the flat bottom to the total MXene film, ${\sigma }_A$ is electrical conductivity of MXene. Since $\left({\phi }_A+{\phi }_{B}R\right)$>$R\left[{\phi }_A\left({\phi }_A+{\phi }_{B}R\right)+{\phi }_B\right]$, the conductivity of the latticed MXene film is larger than that of a flat one. According to Simon’s formula, the EMI SE can be expressed as⁴,

$$\mathrm{EMI\; SE}=50+10\lg \left(\frac{\sigma }{f}\right)+1.7t\sqrt{\sigma f}$$ 5

where f (MHz) is the frequency of incident EMWs, σ (siemens percentimeter) is the electrical conductivity, and t (centimeters) is the thickness of the EMI shielding film.

Reporting summary

Further information on research design is available in the Nature Portfolio Reporting Summary linked to this article.

Author contributions

Conceptualization: S.Z., G.S.W., J.T.W., and L.M.L. Methodology: S.Z., P.F.H., Z.L.H., P.Y.Z., and L.Z. Investigation: S.Z., J.T.W., W.H.L., C.M.L., and Y.F.X. Visualization: S.Z., C.M.L., L.Z., and P.F.H. Funding acquisition: G.S.W., M.J.L., and L.M.L. Supervision: G.S.W., M.J.L., L.M.L., and P.F.H. Writing—original draft: S.Z., J.T.W., and G.S.W. Writing—review & editing: S.Z., B.C., M.C.K., G.S.W., and L.M.L.

Peer review

Peer review information

Nature Communications thanks Chong Min Koo, and Zhikun Zheng for their contribution to the peer review of this work. A peer review file is available.

Data availability

The authors declare that data supporting the findings of this study are available within the paper and its Supplementary Information Files. Data are also available from the corresponding author upon request. Source data are provided with this paper.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Supplementary information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41467-025-68035-2.