Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants gathered and sold by Jbala society in the Tingitan Peninsula (Northwest Morocco)

Abstract

Background

Wild edible plants (WEPs) are a vital supplementary food source for many rural populations worldwide. In the rural communities of northwest Morocco, the consumption and trade of these plants play a crucial role in both the local diet and as a source of income, particularly for women. This ethnobotanical study aimed to identify and document the WEPs consumed and sold in local markets, with a focus on women vendors.

Methods

An ethnobotanical survey was conducted across thirteen local markets in northwest Morocco, involving semi-structured interviews with 728 women vendors. Data were collected on the plant species used, preparation methods, collection habitats, and seasonal availability, as well as their culinary and trade applications. Quantitative indices, including Frequency of Relative Citations (FRCs), Use Reports (UR), and the Cultural Importance Diversity Index (CUDI), were calculated to assess species importance and cultural relevance.

Results

The study recorded 55 market-traded WEP species (43 genera, 23 families), with Asteraceae being the most dominant (followed by Apiaceae, Lamiaceae, and Malvaceae). Seasonal availability peaked in spring (43.8%) and winter (37.5%), with most species gathered from cultivated or ruderal areas (39%), forests (23%), and other natural habitats (38%). Leaves (45%) and stems (39%) were the most utilized parts, while fruits accounted for 10%. Primary uses included vegetables (39 species), fruits (10 species), flavoring agents (8 species), and raw consumption (8 species).

Conclusions

Wild edible plants significantly contribute to food security and local livelihoods in northwest Morocco. Women vendors act as key custodians of traditional ecological knowledge, and local markets serve as hubs for the preservation and transmission of these cultural practices. Supporting these systems can contribute to biodiversity conservation and food sovereignty.

Background

Humans have long depended on diverse plant species found in their local environments as vital natural resources for various uses [1, 2]. Among these uses, food is often seen as the most important resource derived from wild plants. Wild edible plants (WEPs) are those whose entire or parts of the plant, such as roots, leaves, or fruits, are suitable for consumption by both urban and rural communities [3]. These plants grow naturally in self-sustaining populations within natural or semi-natural ecosystems and can flourish without direct human intervention [4]. Gathering wild edible plants dates back to ancient times, especially during periods of scarcity or famine [5, 6]. Over the years, various social groups and communities have developed numerous traditional recipes and dishes incorporating WEPs, making these plants an integral part of human diets and traditional food systems [7, 8]. The knowledge on how to select and prepare WEPs has been shaped by the specific cultural and environmental backgrounds of each community or ethnic group [9–12].

WEPs have played an essential role in human nutrition, significantly contributing to the diets of millions in developing countries and ensuring food security for various tribal groups and communities worldwide [13–16]. The benefits of WEPs extend beyond nutrition, including poverty eradication, increased food availability, agricultural diversification, alleviation of malnutrition, and income generation [2, 5, 17, 18]. In addition to their nutritional and economic importance, WEPs help to preserve local knowledge systems, traditions, and food cultures [19, 20].

Despite the numerous benefits of WEPs, a global decline in their consumption and the erosion of traditional knowledge surrounding them have been widely documented [9, 21–23]. This decline is linked to factors such as developmental changes, socio-cultural shifts, declining interest among younger generations, and the gradual loss of skills required to identify and process WEPs [24–26]. In response, ethnobotanical studies and research on the traditional uses and practices of WEPs and their derived products have seen a notable rise in recent decades [27–29].

As part of the Mediterranean basin, the Moroccan diet closely follows the Mediterranean dietary pattern, which is characterized by an abundance of plant-based foods, fresh fruits often served as dessert, olive oil as the primary fat source, and a preference for fish and seafood, with limited consumption of red meat [9, 30]. What sets it apart, however, are the unique local and regional traditions shaped by a rich tapestry of cultural influences, religious practices, ecological conditions, and historical evolution [7]. WEPs have always played a crucial role in Morocco’s folk traditions as a source of food. The culinary use of wild edibles in Morocco originated during of food scarcity and gradually became deeply ingrained in the country’s cultural heritage [7]. These plants have become essential ingredients in numerous traditional foods and dishes. Historical research and articles have showed that certain drought years, such as the 1944–1945 “Hunger Year” were named after specific plants, including the “Year of golden thistle (Scolymus sp. L.) " (Year of gournina), the “Year of Malva sp. L.” (Year of khobbiza), and the “Year of larus (Arisarum vulgare O. Targ. Tozz.)” (Year of Yarneh), reflecting the widespread consumption of these plants during those times [31].

In Morocco, WEPs are traditionally considered a domain of women, who serve as vital custodians of unique knowledge [7, 32, 33]. Women play a crucial role in the transmission of traditional knowledge across generations. Rural women, in particular, possess specialized knowledge in identifying and classifying WEPs. They are skilled in gathering, understanding habitats, recognizing edible parts, and determining the optimal times and methods for collection [7, 32, 33]. Additionally, they excel in preparing these plants into nutritious and delicious dishes [7]. Beyond providing food, WEPs serve as a vital source of income for rural Moroccan communities, especially for women.

The documentation of ethnobotanical knowledge has become critically important in today’s rapidly changing world, where declining plant biodiversity and the loss of traditional knowledge about wild plants are increasingly evident [11, 20]. Regional ethnobotanical studies in Morocco have shown a decline in traditional knowledge concerning WEPs, particularly among younger generations, with much of this knowledge now primarily held by elders [33, 34]. However, the growing interest in the health benefits of natural foods highlights the continued significance of WEPs as valuable sources of these benefits.

The primary aim of this study is to address the gap in scientific documentation on wild edible plants (WEPs) in Morocco, as highlighted by previous research [7, 32]. This is the first study to focus on the North-West region, where no prior research has documented WEPs, their economic potential, or consumption patterns. The objectives of this study are to:

(i) Assess the diversity of wild edible plants (WEPs) gathered and sold by Jbala women in the Tingitan Peninsula; (ii) Document and analyze indigenous knowledge systems related to WEP usage, harvesting practices, seasonal patterns, and culinary traditions among women vendors; (iii) Identify the most economically significant and frequently marketed WEP species, evaluating their role in sustaining local food security and household income; (iv) Examine the contribution of WEP-based activities to the socio-economic resilience and livelihoods of local women vendors in the study area; and (v) Conduct a cross-cultural comparison to situate the findings within broader Mediterranean and mountainous regional contexts, identifying commonalities and divergences in WEP knowledge, usage, and market dynamics.

Materials and methods

Study area

The study was conducted within the Tingitan Peninsula, located in the extreme northwest of Morocco, bounded by the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the east, and the Strait of Gibraltar to the north (Fig. 1). It spans between the coordinates 34° 47’ and 35° 55’ latitude north, and 5° 24’ and 5° 34’ longitude west. This region falls within the western part of the Rif Mountains, which has been listed as one of the Mediterranean biodiversity hotspots [35, 36]. The topography includes diverse landscapes, alluvial plains on the Atlantic oceanic side, hills on the pre-Rif rim, and the rest of the territory is mountainous rising to an elevation of 2159 m in Jbel Lakraa mountain. The dominant climate is Mediterranean sub-humid to humid with oceanic influence [37]. The winter is wet and cool, and the summer is warm and dry, with an average annual temperature of 23.1 °C and yearly average rainfall of 1200 mm [38].

Fig. 1.

Geographical location of the markets surveyed within the Tingitan Peninsula, northwest Morocco

Natural vegetation covers 23.8% of the region’s surface area, mainly consisting of forests and matorrals [39]. The dominant forest species include various oak trees (Quercus suber L., Quercus coccifera L., Quercus rotundifolia Lam., Quercus canariensis Willd., and Quercus pyrenaica Willd.), as well as pine (Pinus pinaster var. maghrebiana Villar), thuja (Tetraclinis articulatae (Vahl) Mast.), cedar (Cedrus atlantica (Endl.) Manetti ex Carrière), and fir (Abies maroccana Trab.) [37, 40]. On the other hand, utilised agricultural area (SAU) covers 33.56% of the region’s area, with cereals occupying 56.1%, followed by orchards, pulses, vegetables, and fodder, respectively [41].

Administratively, the study area falls within the Tanger – Tetouan – Al Hoceima region, encompassing six of its seven provinces, specifically Chefchaouen, Fahs Anjra, Larache, M’diq-Fnideq, Ouezzane, Tanger-Assilah, and Tetouan. The Tingitan Peninsula occupies an estimated total area of 12 460km², with a population of approximately 3 658 695 inhabitants [42]. Among them, 2 226 491 reside in urban areas, while 1 190 216 are rural dwellers, resulting in a population density of 274.2 individuals per square kilometer [39]. The primary rural inhabitants of the region are the Jbala people (meaning mountain people), who primarily rely on the surrounding resources for their livelihoods. These resources include subsistence farming, livestock rearing, beekeeping, and gathering wild edible plants. Traditionally, men engage in agricultural work and livestock herding, while women collect and market local products in local markets or nearby towns. Specifically, the collection and trade of wild plants are predominantly carried out by women known locally as ‘Jebliates’, who possess extensive ethnobotanical knowledge passed down through generations. Similar observations have been reported in previous studies [43, 44]. For these reasons, the study exclusively focused on women vendors. Informants were selected directly in local markets through purposive sampling, targeting active vendors of wild edible plants present during survey days, following standard ethnobotanical methodologies [45, 46].

Data collection

This study was conducted in thirteen of the largest open-air markets, known as “Souks,” located within the ten primary urban centers of the region: Tangier, Tetouan, Larache, Chefchaouen, Assilah, Ksar El Kbir, Ouazzane, Martil, M’diq, and Oued Laou (Table 1). This research was conducted in accordance with the International Society of Ethnobiology (ISE) Code of Ethics [47]. Prior informed consent was obtained from all participants before interviews were conducted, and anonymity was strictly maintained. Informants were informed of the objectives of the study, and participation was entirely voluntary. A total of 728 interviews were conducted across 13 markets in the study area (Table 2). All participants across the surveyed markets shared the same sociodemographic characteristics: Muslim women of Jbala ethnic origin. A total of 56 female informants were interviewed per market, reflecting the predominant role of Jebliates in the collection and trade of wild plants in the region. All participants are self-employed workers and sellers of wild plants and food products. Out of the 728 women vendors interviewed in this study, 65.1% were aged between 41 and 60 years, whereas 24% were between 20 and 40 years, and 10.6% were above 60. Regarding socio-economic status, 76% of the women were married, 11% were widowed, 9% were unmarried, and 4% were divorced. In terms of education, 80% of the vendors had not attended school, whereas the remaining 20% had a primary level of education.

Table 1.

The main characteristics of the prospective markets

Locality	Market name	Market number	Market location*	Latitude	Longitude	Altitude (m)	Ecology	Population Estimate	Mean (Min; max) of age (year)
Assilah	Souk Central-Anoual	S1	Urban	35.460895	−6.03749	24.73	Coastal	~ 69,502	47.21(25; 66)
Chefchaouen	Souk Abdrahman Chrif	S2	Urban	35.172039	−5.268047	632.62	Mountainous	~ 412,713	49.73(25; 73)
Ksar El Kbir	Souk Lalla Rkia	S3	Urban	34.996197	−5.907983	18.47	Inland Plain	~ 124,701	46.73(27; 66)
Larache	Jnan franciis	S4	Urban	35.186576	−6.152363	43.92	Coastal	~ 385,510	47.59(27; 65)
Larache	Souk Sahel	S5	Rural	35.258137	−6.074565	178.71	Coastal		50.62(26; 69)
M’diq	Souk Central	S6	Urban	35.68321	−5.323119	9.15	Coastal	~ 158,168	47.39(34; 63)
Martil	Marché central	S6	Urban	35.625508	−5.275655	2.81	Coastal	~ 95,896	45.55(28; 61)
Ouazzane	Marché central	S8	Urban	34,796959	−5.577708	299.27	Hilly	~ 274,577	51.41(29; 69)
Ouazzane	Marché Hebdomadaire	S9	Rural	34.806352	−5.552369	245.20	Hilly		53.75(27; 72)
Oued Laou	Souk Sebt Ouad-Laou	S10	Rural	35.576156	−5.356418	27.90	Coastal	~ 11,690	53.36(27; 72)
Oued Lou	Souk Central	S11	Urban	35.448037	−5.09197	7.77	Coastal		55.43(34; 70)
Tanger	Souk Dradeb	S12	Urban	35.78377	−5.834678	21.27	Coastal	~ 1,525,700	50.75(26; 65)
Tetouan	Souk Saniat-Rmel	S13	Urban	35.576156	−5.356418	27.90	Coastal	600,238	51.30(28; 75)

* : Markets serve as proxies for plant collection zones, with all species sourced from traditional Jbala harvesting areas. Plant origins reflect local ecological habitats. Market locations thus represent nodes of biocultural knowledge exchange rather than precise collection sites

Table 2.

Socio-demographic characteristics of women vendor informants

Characteristics	Number	Percentage %
Age
20–40	175	24.0
41–60	474	65.1
> 60	79	10.9
Marital status
Married	553	76
Unmarried	66	9
Widowed	80	11
Divorced	29	4
Education level
Unschooled	582	80
Primary education	146	20
Ethnicity
Jbala	728	100

Semi-structured interviews were conducted for data collection. Two types of data were gathered: socio-economic information from the informants and data concerning their traditional knowledge and consumption of wild edible plants. Questions posed to the informants regarding each plant primarily focused on its common local name, methods of consumption and preparation, parts of the plant utilized, collection locations and habitats, timing of collection by date/season, selling price, and demand. Meanwhile, socio-economic data collected from the informants included information on age, family status, and educational background. Interviews were carried out with female vendors referred to as “Jebliates” (meaning women of mountains) (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2.

Jbala women selling wild edible plants at local markets in the Tingitan Peninsula. (a) Women vendors wearing traditional Jbala attire. (b) Interview with women selling local products, including wild edible plants such as the apical buds of Chamaerops humilis L., locally known as ‘Jommar’

These women originate from neighboring villages locally named ‘douars or dchars’, traveling to the markets of the nearest cities to sell their locally produced goods. They offer various products that vary with the seasons, including primary vegetables, milk, butter, bread, and others. Additionally, they often bring wild edible plants. “Jebliates” women are easily identifiable in the market by their traditional attire (Fig. 2a). To encompass the diverse array of wild edible plants sold seasonally, interviews were conducted from December 2022 to November 2023, ensuring representation for each season.

Plant specimens were collected from vendors and identified taxonomically in the laboratory by experienced botanists of the Faculty of Sciences (Abdelmalek Essaadi University) using relevant catalogs and floras covering the study region [48–51]. Voucher specimens were deposited in the Laboratory Herbarium (HUAE/U09FS). The plant nomenclature was followed by the World Flora Online (WFO) Plant List for the scientific names of the plants. Each species was categorized based on (i) its family, (ii) its life form, (iii) its habitat, and (iv) its floristic status.

Based on their intended use, WEPs were classified into four categories as outlined by [52]: (1) Vegetables: species that are cooked and consumed as food; (2) Fruits: species whose fresh or dried fruits are eaten without cooking; (3) Flavoring food: species used for seasoning and infusing aroma; (4) Raw food: species with fresh plant parts, excluding fruits, eaten raw, such as in salads.

For the collection habitats of the wild edible plants (WEPs), we categorized the information provided by the informants into five distinct categories [53]: (i) Cultivated and Ruderal areas: this includes species collected from cultivated fields, recently abandoned fields, fallow land, disturbed or trampled habitats, nearby homes, and roadsides; (ii) Forest: which encompasses species collected from the main forests of the region, such as oak, pine, cedar, and fir forests; (iii) Scrublands: which includes species collected from shrub and scrub formations, such as matorrals and maquis; (iv) Aquatic Environments: this covers species collected from wetlands, including riparian forests, marshes, and swamps; (v) Rocky places: which includes natural or semi-natural habitats with sparse vegetation, such as rocky areas, scree, gravel, clay slopes, sandy areas, and cliffs.

Market-based sampling is a widely used method in ethnobotanical studies to document commercially traded plant species. However, this approach has limitations, as it may overlook wild or less economically valued plants. The study [54] highlight that such studies often neglect species that are not commercially significant but are important in local contexts.

To address this gap, our study focused on Jbala women vendors, who possess extensive knowledge of wild-harvested food plants due to their traditional foraging roles. Their expertise provided critical insights into non-commercial species often missing from standard market surveys, thereby enriching our ethnobotanical data. This approach aligns with this work [55], who developed cultural importance indices to assess the significance of wild plants in local communities. Despite these efforts, challenges such as seasonal availability and individual specialization among vendors, as noted in studies on household-based trading patterns of non-timber forest products [56], necessitated supplementary interviews in rural communities to ensure comprehensive coverage of local plant use.

Data analyses

To assess the significance of each species in the markets, we used three ethnobotanical quantitative indices: Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC), Use Report (UR), and the Combination Use Diversity Index (CUDI). These indices (RFC, UR, CUDI) complement one another: RFC indicates cultural prominence, UR measures use diversity, and CUDI shows the variety of knowledge combinations. For the first time, they were used together to offer a solid quantitative framework for analyzing ethnobotanical data in markets [57–59].

• The relative frequency of citation (RFC) was selected to measure each species’ prominence among informants. This index indicates how widely known or culturally significant a species is. The RFC value ranges from 0 to 1, with 0 meaning no informant mentioned the species, and 1 meaning all informants referenced it, providing a standardized metric for comparing species [55]. It is calculated by dividing the number of informants who mention the plant by the total number of informants surveyed [55].

  

  FCs is the citation frequency for each species s, and N is the total number of informants interviewed in the survey.

• Use reports (URs) represent the total number of uses of a species (s) cited by all informants within each use category [60].

  FCs is the citation frequency for each species s, and NU is the number of use categories.

• Combination Use Diversity Index (CUDI) represents the proportion of possible ‘’species × use’’ combinations that are actually reported within a group. It is calculated by dividing the total number of unique ‘’species × use’’ combinations (∑ su) by the product of the total number of species (Nsp) and the total number of use categories (Nu) recorded for that group [59].

  

  Where Nsu is the number of unique ‘’species × use’’ combinations, Nsp is the total number of species represented, and Nu is the number of unique use categories identified for that group. Values range from 0 (no diversity) to 1 (maximum diversity, where all possible combinations are reported). Intermediate values represent the proportion of the potential knowledge space filled by the group.

Results

Economic contribution of WEPs for women vendors

Based on the surveys conducted, we found that the main reason for selling WEPs is the economic gain to meet other daily needs. Among the 728 women vendors interviewed, half of the women vendors sold only wild edible plants (WEPs), while the other half sold WEPs and other local products such as organic vegetables, dairy foods (milk, kefir, butter, cheese, table olive), and eggs. The sale of plants can result in daily profits ranging from 50 to 250 dh for women. Among these women, the majority (55.1%) earn between 151 and 200 dh, followed by 32.8% who earn between 101 and 150 dh. Furthermore, 9.9% make between 50 and 100 dh, while 2.2% earn between 201 and 250 dh (Table 3).

Table 3.

Economic details of the daily profit for women vendors

Characteristics	Number	Percentage %
50–100	72	9.9
101–150	239	32.8
151–200	401	55.1
201–250	16	2.2

Diversity of WEPs in the study area

Based on 728 interviews conducted with women vendors on behalf of this survey, a total of 55 WEP species are gathered and sold for consumption in the 13 markets within the study area (Table 4). These identified species belong to 43 genera and 23 botanical families. Regarding the number of species, the most important families are the Asteraceae with 11 species, followed by Apiaceae and Lamiaceae with 5 species each, and Malvaceae with 4 species. Amaranthaceae, Asparagaceae, and Polygonaceae each have 3 species. Five families have 2 species each, while the remaining 11 families have only 1 specie each (Fig. 3). At the genus level, the most common genera were Asparagus L., Malva L., and Rumex L., each containing 3 species, followed by Beta L., Carduus L., Glebionis Cass., Mentha L., Scolymus L., and Urtica L. with 2 species each (Table 4).

Table 4.

List of the wild edible plants used and marketed in the study area of the Tingitan peninsula

Family	Botanical name	Voucher number	Local name	GF	Used parts	Use categories	Harvesting/Sales Season	Habitat	RFC	UR
Amaranthaceae	Beta macrocarpa Guss.	BSH-01	Selk	H	Lv	Veg - Rf	Au - Wi	CR	0.776	232.83
Amaranthaceae	Beta vulgaris L.	BSH-02	Selk	H	Lv	Veg - Rf	Sp	RP
Amaranthaceae	Patellifolia procumbens (C.Sm. ex Hornem.) A.J.Scott, Ford-Lloyd & J.T.Williams	BSH-03	Selk	H	Lv	Veg - Rf	Wi - Sp	CR
Anacardiaceae	Pistacia lentiscus L.	BSH-04	Drou	T	Lv, Fr	Fr - Ff	Wi - Sp	SC	0.030	6.04
Apiaceae	Ammi majus L.	BSH-05	Traylan	H	St - Lv	Veg	Sp	CR	0.062	6.18
Apiaceae	Apium nodiflorum (L.) Lag.	BSH-06	Krwinech	H	St - Lv	Veg	Su	AE	0.051	5.08
Apiaceae	Foeniculum vulgare Mill.	BSH-07	Lbesbas Beldi, Nafea	H	St - Sd	Veg - Rf – Ff	Su	CR	0.005	1.09
Apiaceae	Ridolfia segetum Moris	BSH-08	L’aaslouj, Slilli, Tebch, Chebt	H	St	Fr	Wi - Sp	CR	0.005	0.54
Apiaceae	Scandix pecten-veneris L.	BSH-09	Mchita	H	St - Lv	Veg	Wi - Sp	CR	0.250	25.00
Arecaceae	Chamaerops humilis L.	BSH-10	Jomar, Zaazof	T	Ab – Lv	Rf - Fr	Sp - Su	FO	0.151	30.22
Asparagaceae	Asparagus acutifolius L.	BSH-11	Segoum	S	St - Fb	Veg	As	SC	0.004	0.41
Asparagaceae	Asparagus altissimus Munby	BSH-12	Segoum	S	St - Fb	Veg	As	SC
Asparagaceae	Asparagus pastorianus Webb & Berthel.	BSH-13	Segoum	S	St - Fb	Veg	Au - Wi	SC
Asteraceae	Carduus pycnocephalus L.	BSH-14	Asra	H	St - Lv	Veg	Sp	CR	0.040	3.98
Asteraceae	Carduus nutans sub sp. macrocephalus (Desf.) Nyman.	BSH-15	Asra	H	St - Lv	Veg	Sp	FO	0.040	3.98
Asteraceae	Galactites tomentosa Moench	BSH-16	Asra	H	St - Lv	Veg	Su	CR	0.040	3.98
Asteraceae	Glebionis segetum Fourr.	BSH-17	Kraa Djaja	H	St - Fl	Veg	Su	CR	0.137	13.73
Asteraceae	Glebionis coronaria (L.) Cass. Ex Spach	BSH-18	Bouchiẖ	H	St – Fl	Veg	Su - Au	CR	0.229	22.94
Asteraceae	Hyoseris radiate L.	BSH-19	Ḥaliwa	H	St - Lv	Veg	Wi - Sp	RP	0.019	1.92
Asteraceae	Scolymus hispanicus L.	BSH-20	Gournin	H	St - Lv	Veg	Wi - Sp	CR	0.810	162.08
Asteraceae	Scolymus maculatus L.	BSH-21	Gournin	H	St - Lv	Veg	Wi - Sp	CR
Asteraceae	Scorzoneroides salzmannii (Sch.Bip.) Greuter & Talavera	BSH-22	Ḥaliwa	H	St - Lv	Veg	Wi - Sp	RP	0.021	2.06
Asteraceae	Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn	BSH-23	Asra	H	St - Lv	Veg	Wi - Sp	CR	0.040	3.98
Asteraceae	Tolpis barbata (L.) Gaertn.	BSH-24	Ṯloudi	H	St - Lv	Veg	Wi - Sp	RP	0.007	0.68
Boraginaceae	Anchuza azurea Mill.	BSH-25	Lsan Laard	H	Lv	Veg	Wi	CR	0.051	5.08
Boraginaceae	Echium plantagineum L.	BSH-26	Lsan Laard	H	Lv	Veg	Su	CR	0.049	4.94
Brassicaceae	Diplotaxis sp. DC.	BSH-27	Afjel	H	St - Lv	Veg	Sp - Su	CR	0.010	0.96
Brassicaceae	Sinapis arvensis L.	BSH-28	Afjel- Bouhamou	H	St - Lv	Veg	Wi - Sp	CR	0.010	0.96
Caprifoliaceae	Lonicera periclymenum L.	BSH-29	Ablaṯou	L	St - Lv	Veg	Wi - Sp	FO	0.004	0.41
Caryophyllaceae	Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke.	BSH-30	Tighijijt	H	St - Lv	Veg	Wi - Sp	CR	0.019	1.92
Ericaceae	Arbutus unedo L.	BSH-31	Boukhanno	T	Fr	Fr	Au	FO	0.433	43.26
Fabaceae	Ceratonia siliqua L.	BSH-32	Kḫarroube	T	Fr	Fr	Sp - Su	FO	0.229	22.94
Fagaceae	Castanea sativa Mill.	BSH-33	Quosṭal	T	Fr	Fr	Sp - Su	FO	0.349	34.89
Fagaceae	Quercus suber L.	BSH-34	Bellout	T	Fr	Fr	Wi - Sp	FO	0.100	10.02
Geraniaceae	Erodium moschatum (Burm.f.) L’Hér.	BSH-35	Rgiyil lfellous-Haydour	H	St - Lv	Veg	Su	CR	0.250	25.00
Lamiaceae	Mentha pulegium L.	BSH-36	Fliyyo	H	Lv	Ff	Wi - Sp	AE	0.350	70.05
Lamiaceae	Mentha suaveolens Ehrh.	BSH-37	Mchichṭro	H	Lv	Ff	Wi - Sp	AE	0.082	16.48
Lamiaceae	Origanum compactum Benth.	BSH-38	Zaatar	H	Lv	Ff - Rf	Wi - Sp	FO	0.549	109.89
Lamiaceae	Rosmarinus officinalis L.	BSH-39	Azir	S	Lv	Ff	Wi - Sp	FO	0.220	43.95
Lamiaceae	Thymus vulgaris L.	BSH-40	Zaaitra	S	Lv	Ff	Wi - Sp	FO	0.159	15.93
Lauraceae	Laurus nobilis L.	BSH-41	Er-Rand	T	Lv	Ff	Wi - Sp	FO	0.291	29.12
Malvaceae	Lavatera trimestris L.	BSH-42	Amzkir-Lbqoullḥor	H	St - Lv	Veg	Wi - Sp	FO	1.000	100.00
Malvaceae	Malva neglecta Wallr.	BSH-43	Amzkir-Lbqoullḥor	H	St - Lv	Veg	Wi - Sp	CR
Malvaceae	Malva parviflora L.	BSH-44	Amzkir-Lbqoullḥor	H	St - Lv	Veg	Wi - Sp	CR
Malvaceae	Malva sylvestris L.	BSH-45	Amzkir-Lbqoullḥor	H	St - Lv	Veg	Wi - Sp	CR
Myrtaceae	Myrtus communis L.	BSH-46	Amgu D-Rayḥan	T	Fr	Fr	Wi - Sp	FO	0.007	0.68
Papaveraceae	Papaver rhoeas L.	BSH-47	Ḥḅayper	H	St - Lv	Veg	Wi - Sp	CR	0.070	7.00
Polygonaceae	Rumex acetosa L.	BSH-48	Ḥomayṭa	H	St - Lv	Veg	Wi - Sp	AE	0.549	54.94
Polygonaceae	Rumex pulcher L.	BSH-49	Ḥomayṭa	H	St - Lv	Veg	Wi - Sp	CR
Polygonaceae	Rumex vesicarius L.	BSH-50	Ḥomayṭa	H	St - Lv	Veg	Wi - Sp	RP
Portulacaceae	Portulaca oleracea L.	BSH-51	Rogla	H	St - Lv	Veg	Wi - Sp	CR	0.510	44.91
Rosaceae	Crataegus monogyna Jacq.	BSH-52	Admam, Zaarur	S	Fr	Fr	Sp - Su	FO	0.007	0.68
Rosaceae	Rubus ulmifolius Schott	BSH-53	Tout-Tayzelt	L	Fr	Fr	Wi - Sp	FO	0.014	1.37
Urticaceae	Urtica dioica L.	BSH-54	Ḥoriqa	H	St - Lv	Veg	Wi - Sp	CR	0.008	1.64
Urticaceae	Urtica urens L.	BSH-55	Ḥoriqa	H	St - Lv	Veg	Wi - Sp	CR	0.027	5.49

Growth form (GF) are: herb (H); shrub (S); liana (L); tree (T). Used parts are: apical buds (Ab); flowers (Fl); fruits (Fr); leaves (Lv); seeds (Sd); stem (St). Seasons are: autumn (Au); all season (As); summer (Su); spring (Sp); winter (Wi). Collecting habitats are: aquatic environments (AE); cultivated and ruderal areas (CR); forests (FO); Rocky places (RP); scrublands (SC). Use categories are: flavoring food (Ff); fruits (Fr); Raw food (Rf); vegetables (Veg). Relative frequency of citation (RFC). Use report (UR)

“All listed plants were commercially traded with edibility confirmed by vendors; herbarium samples originate from purchased market specimens”

Fig. 3.

Distribution of wild edible plant genera and species across botanical families in the study area

In our study of specific richness, we found that women vendors often group multiple species under a single vernacular name. These names include “Beqoula”, “Homayṭa”, “ʾGournin”, “Segoum”, and “Selk”. Upon identifying the specimens, we determined that “Beqoula” refers to 4 distinct species (Lavatera trimestris L., Malva neglecta Wallr., Malva sylvestris L., and Malva parviflora L.), “Homayṭa” to 3 species (Rumex acetosa L., Rumex pulcher L., and Rumex vesicarius L.), “ʾGournin” to 2 species (Scolymus hispanicus L., Scolymus maculatus L.), “Segoum” to 3 species (Asparagus acutifolius L., Asparagus latissimus Munby;, and Asparagus pastorianus Webb et Berth.), and “ʾSelk” to 3 species (Beta macrocarpa Guss., Beta vulgaris L., and Patellifolia procumbens (C.Sm. ex Hornem.) A. J. Scott, Ford-Lloyd & J. T. Williams). To avoid redundancy and due to the lack of specific citation numbers for each species, we have chosen to use the collective names Malva sp., Rumex sp., Scolymus sp., Asparagus sp., and Beta sp., respectively, to represent the 4 or 3 species within each vernacular name when calculating the ethnobotany index.

Regarding the growth form, we found that the WEPs presented and sold by women vendors belong to different growth forms, with herbs plants dominating, accounting for 71% of the recorded species, followed by shrubs (14%), trees (11%), and lianas (4%) (Fig. 4.a). This finding reflects the diversity of the plants exploited.

Fig. 4.

(a) Contribution of different growth forms to the diversity of wild edible plants in the study area (number of species); (b) Parts of the plant utilized by local communities; (c) Habitats where wild edible plants are collected for sale; (d) Seasons during which wild edible plants are collected in the study area

Concerning the parts of the cited WEPs used, we found that many parts of the gathered and sold plants were consumed, such as the leaves, stems, flowers, fruits, seeds, and buds, with many species being used for more than one part. The leaves were the most used part, with 41 species representing 45%. Plants consumed for their stems came second, with a percentage of 39%. Third were plants used for their fruits, with 9%, followed by plants used for their flowers at 5%, and finally, plants used for their seeds and apical buds, each representing 1% (Fig. 4.b).

The highest percentage of WEPs were collected from cultivated and ruderal areas, making up 39% of the recorded species. Additionally, 23% were gathered from scrublands, 21% from forests, 10% from rocky places, and 7% from aquatic environments (Fig. 4.c). The collection time for WEPs varied by season, with 44% of the species collected in spring, followed by 37% in winter, 13% in summer, 4% in autumn, and 2% in all seasons (Fig. 4.d).

Use and consumption of WEP species

Our results on the relative frequency of citation revealed that six taxa accounted for over 50% of the total citations and were cited by more than half of the informants. Specifically, Malva sp. was cited by all informants (RFC = 1), Scolymus sp. (RFC = 0.81), Beta sp. (RFC = 0.78), Origanum compactum Benth. (RFC = 0.55), Rumex sp. (RFC = 0.55), and Portulaca oleracea L. (RFC = 0.51).

Regarding the species with the highest use reports (UR) in the markets of the Tingitan Peninsula (Table 4), the ten most commonly known and utilized taxa are: Beta sp. (UR = 232.83), Scolymus sp. (UR = 162.09), Origanum compactum (UR = 109.89), Malva sp. (UR = 100), Mentha pulegium L. (UR = 70.05), Rumex sp. (UR = 54.95), Portuaca oleracea (UR = 44.92), Rosmarinus officinalis L. (UR = 43.96), and Arbutus unedo L. (UR = 43.27).

The gathered and sold wild edible plants in the study area are consumed in various ways and prepared using different recipes based on local traditions. Some are eaten raw, others are cooked, and some can be used both raw and cooked. The edible plants sold in markets are typically consumed cooked (75.58%), while only 25.42% are consumed raw. According to the consumption patterns reported by the women vendors, the gathered WEPs were divided into four different food groups. Of all the WEPs mentioned, 60% are consumed as wild vegetables, 15.4% as fruits, 12.3% for seasoning and flavoring food, and 12.3% are consumed raw (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5.

Chord diagram, representing the distribution of the identified 55 WEPs according to the use categories considered

Wild vegetables

More than half (60%) of all the species were consumed as wild vegetables, belonging to 14 families. Asteraceae was the most represented botanical family with 11 species, followed by Apiaceae and Malvaceae with 4 species each, Amaranthaceae, Asparagaceae, and Polygonaceae with 3 species each, and the remaining 8 families having 2 or 1 species each. The main edible parts were the tender stems and leaves. Wild vegetables are commonly used in a traditional dish called “Beqoul”. This dish involves chopping and steaming a mix of young and tender wild plants and then cooking them with olive oil, garlic, parsley, lemon, salt, and spices (Fig. 6). The recipe includes a bundle composed of several wild species, which can vary depending on their seasonal availability. It is prepared with essential plants such as Malva sp., Rumex sp., Beta sp., and Scolymus sp., as well as other occasional plants like Erodium moschatum (Burm.f.) L’Hér., Glebionis coronaria L., Glebionis segetum Fourr., Anchusa azurea Mill., Galactites tomentosa Moench, Urtica urens L., and others, depending on their availability. Portulaca oleracea is also considered a primary wild vegetable, gathered mainly from irrigated fields in spring and summer. Commonly, it’s sold in individual bunches and cooked by boiling or steaming after washing. It is then marinated with garlic, parsley, olive oil, chili, lemon, and spices in a recipe known locally as ‘Rojla’, a variation of ‘Beqoul’.

Fig. 6.

Traditional preparation process of foraged wild edible greens « Beqoul »

In some plants, such as Scolymus maculatus L. and Scolymus hispanicus L., young shoots and leaves are utilized as ingredients in fish or meat tajines. The young shoots and leaves are cut, peeled to remove the thorny hairs, thoroughly washed, and cooked in tajine recipes. Beta macrocarpa and Beta vulgaris, known by the vernacular name “Selk”, are primarily seasonal vegetables harvested in rural and cultivated areas during the winter and spring. The basal leaves are collected, cleaned, and commonly used in bean and tomato recipes. They are also recommended for inclusion in lentil soups.

Fruits

Fruits were the second most utilized category of WEPs, 10 species of wild fruits were still gathered and sold in the markets of the study area, representing 15.4% of the total species. These fruits belong to 8 botanical families, each represented by 1 specie (Apiaceae, Fagaceae, Anacardiaceae, Arecaceae, Ericaceae, Fabaceae, and Geraniaceae), except Rosaceae, which is represented by 2 species. The main edible parts are fruits, primarily collected from tree and shrub species in forests and scrublands. The majority of these plants are sold and consumed fresh, but they can also be cooked to make homemade preserves such as jams or syrups.

Some of the most frequently mentioned species, with higher use reports, were Arbutus unedo (RFC = 0.43; UR = 43.27), Castanea sativa Mill. (RFC = 0.35; UR = 34.89), Ceratonia siliqua L. (RFC = 0.23; UR = 22.94), Chamaerops humilis (RFC = 0.15; UR = 30.22), and Quercus suber (RFC = 0.10; UR = 10.03). The fruit of Arbutus unedo is very popular in the region, collected in autumn and winter, and often consumed fresh. It is also used to prepare jam and syrup. Informants mentioned that consuming too many Arbutus unedo fruits could cause dizziness and drunkenness. The fruits of Castanea sativa and Quercus suber are eaten fresh, but they are more commonly roasted or boiled before consumption. Also, carob (Ceratonia siliqua) is eaten raw or cooked as syrup with other ingredients such as dates and raisins.

Flavoring food

This food category includes 8 species belonging to 4 botanical families: Lamiaceae with 5 species, followed by Anacardiaceae, Apiaceae, and Lauraceae with 1 specie each. Most of these species are shrubs collected mainly from winter to spring in forests and aquatic environments. The primary parts of these plants used were found to be the leaves. These plants are not only used for seasoning and enhancing the flavor of recipes but also for making herbal teas and infusions due to their preservative and medicinal properties. Among the plants used for flavoring food, the three most popular, with high RFC and UR values, are Origanum compactum (RFC = 0.55; UR = 109.89), Mentha pulegium (RFC = 0.35; UR = 70.03), and Laurus nobilis (RFC = 0.29; UR = 29.12).

Oregano and pennyroyal are essential ingredients in the Jbala’s kitchen for home-made products, widely used in the region for seasoning snail’s broth, olives, salads, soups, fish dishes, and pizza. It can also be used to make infusions or as an ingredient in the famous Moroccan tea alongside mint. Other Lamiaceae species, such as Rosmarinus officinalis, Thymus vulgaris, and Mentha suaveolens, are also commonly used for seasoning. These plants are particularly favoured for making herbal infusions due to their medicinal properties. Another interesting aromatic plant is laurel (Laurus nobilis L.), commonly used in all recipes with meat, chicken, fish, and vegetables. Also used to preserve vegetables and olives. Local people also use certain species from the Apiaceae family. We documented fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill), which serves as an excellent seasoning. Additionally, its tender leaves are used in salads. Finally, it is worth mentioning Pistacia lentiscus, its leaves are used to make herbal infusions, and its fruits are used to extract oils for cosmetics.

Raw food

This group includes species whose plant parts are fresh, excluding fruit which is eaten raw. 8 species are included in this category, belonging to 5 botanical families: Amaranthaceae with 3 species, Asteraceae with 2 species, and Lamiaceae, Apiaceae, and Araceae with 1 specie each. The leaves, especially when young, are the most commonly used parts for salads or sandwiches. Among the species used in vegetarian salads are Beta macrocarpa, Beta vulgaris, Patellifolia procumbens, Glebionis segetum, and Glebionis coronaria. Additionally, the leaves of Beta sp. and Patellifolia procumbens are also used for making homemade sandwiches.

The apical buds or hearts of Chamaerops humilis are highly sought-after as a raw food source due to their sweet taste. These buds are mainly collected from forests and scrublands during spring and summer and are widely available in local markets during their season (Fig. 2.b).

Cultural importance diversity index (CUDI) across markets

CUDI values for the surveyed markets ranged from 0.266 (S11) to 0.291 (S13), indicating moderate diversity of plant-use knowledge across markets (Table 5). The relatively narrow range suggests that all markets shared similar levels of knowledge complexity, with no single market achieving maximal diversity (CUDI = 1). The highest CUDI values were observed in S13, followed by S1 (0.290), and S12 (0.288), while the lowest was recorded in S11 (0.266). While species richness reflects the breadth of taxa known and traded, and consensus values capture the degree of agreement among informants, CUDI reveals the complexity and diversity of the ‘’species × use’’ knowledge space, offering a more nuanced understanding of how traditional knowledge is organized and maintained across markets.

Table 5.

Combination use diversity index (CUDI) for each surveyed market

Market number	Nsp	Nu	∑Nsu	CUDI
S1	25	4	29	0.290
S2	39	4	43	0.276
S3	25	4	28	0.280
S4	24	4	27	0.281
S5	28	4	32	0.286
S6	27	4	31	0.287
S7	27	4	31	0.287
S8	24	4	27	0.281
S9	30	4	34	0.283
S10	34	4	37	0.272
S11	31	4	33	0.266
S12	26	4	30	0.288
S13	49	4	57	0.291

Discussion

Importance of women vendors and local markets in the WEPs traditional knowledge

This study is the first ethnobotanical survey conducted on WEPs in northwest Morocco, to our knowledge. This study is the first in Morocco to concentrate specifically on women vendors instead of local residents. Particularly, in Jbala culture, women are traditionally responsible for collecting and selling products on the market, whether these are domesticated or wild-gathered products. on the other hand, we are primarily focused on hunting and farming. In most Mediterranean countries, women are widely recognized as the primary gatherers of WEPs [9, 61]. In the Tingitan Peninsula, their role extends beyond collection to dominate the commercialization of these plants. Men often view the WEPs trade as a low-income activity, with their involvement typically increasing only when the trade becomes more profitable, as seen with sweet chestnuts (Castanea sativa), where men now dominate the market [62].

In the present study, all WEPs sellers in the local markets were women. We focused on these women specifically because they have in-depth knowledge of WEPs, an understanding that is often lacking in others. They are well-versed in the uses of these plants, preparation methods, and their health benefits, which enables them to effectively persuade customers to purchase them. During multiple interviews, we observed that the women vendors frequently explained how to use WEPs, answered questions about preparation methods, and advised on which species to combine for optimal taste and texture, including the appropriate ratios. As a result, these sellers play a crucial role in the transmission and dissemination of WEPs traditional knowledge. This finding aligns with multiple studies that have reported women possessing more traditional knowledge about WEPs, including plants identification, use, and modes of preparation [7, 32, 63, 64].

We also emphasize the transmission of knowledge about WEPs through generations of female sellers. Numerous studies have found a strong positive connection between older informants and their knowledge of WEPs. This correlation is often discussed concerning lifestyle, the growth of agriculture and the food industry, and the impact of formal education. Our research reveals that a significant proportion of female sellers (65.1%) fall within the age range of 40 to 60 years, while younger women (24%) are also well-represented. This trend suggests that the local knowledge of these plants is being successfully transmitted from older to younger generations, which is both promising and reassuring.

Meanwhile, traditional public markets also play a significant role in the transmission and conservation of cultural knowledge related to WEPs. These markets function as open and dynamic systems, fostering both biological and cultural exchanges [65, 66]. Numerous studies have highlighted the importance of markets as economic hubs and platforms for the exchange of cultural knowledge, particularly in terms of horizontal cultural transmission for different types of products [67–70]. This type of knowledge transfer is closely tied to rapid changes in knowledge and knowledge systems [32, 71–74]. Additionally, the study [32] suggest that maintaining traditional market systems in Morocco is crucial for preserving the complex traditional knowledge of food and the cultural heritage related to wild edible plants (WEPs). Consistent with their findings, this study highlights the critical role of traditional market structures in safeguarding indigenous knowledge of WEPs in the Tingitan Peninsula. The erosion of these traditional systems, compounded by pressures such as habitat loss, agricultural intensification, and climate change, poses a significant threat to both biodiversity and local food systems. The nutritional and medicinal value of WEPs, as demonstrated by the practices of Jbala women vendors, emphasizes their importance as cultural heritage and as key assets for enhancing food security, promoting public health, and supporting sustainable livelihoods. Failing to recognize and protect these biocultural resources risks deepening vulnerabilities to malnutrition, environmental degradation, and socio-economic marginalization. Therefore, preserving both the market systems and the WEPs knowledge associated with them must be considered essential to fostering resilience, health equity, and sustainable rural development in the region.

Economic aspects of WEPs

Our results showed that 80% of the women sellers have never attended school, while the remaining vendors have only a primary education. Historically, school enrollment for girls in rural Morocco has been a significant challenge. In 2000, the enrollment rate for girls was just 6.1%, compared to 14.7% for boys, and it took 20 years for this figure to rise to 39.2% [42]. This slow progress can be attributed to various socio-economic factors that hinder girls’ access to education in rural areas, including patriarchal norms, early marriage, long distances to schools, unfavorable school environments, financial limitations, and safety concerns [75]. These barriers often prevent parents from sending their daughters to school. As a result, the low educational level of these women limits their employment opportunities, making the trade of WEPs and local products a crucial source of income. The study also revealed that daily revenue from WEPs sales by women sellers ranges from 50 to 250 dirhams (5 to 25 euros), with an average income of 167 dirhams per seller (16 euros). This income, however, is subject to fluctuations based on factors like seasonality, availability of WEPs, and shifts in supply and demand. Significantly, this income far exceeds the national average per capita income in Morocco, which is only 59.8 dirhams per day (5,98 euros) (21,515 dirhams annually (2151,5 euros)), and 43.2 dirhams per day (4,32 euros) in rural areas [76]. Thus, the trade of WEPs represents a vital source of livelihood for Jbala women and their families, highlighting the economic importance of these plants.

Although still practiced, gathering is increasingly marginalized both economically and symbolically, particularly among younger generations who are less connected to the land and less involved in intergenerational knowledge transmission.

However, to fully understand the current status and potential future of these practices, it is essential to situate them within a broader comparative and regional framework. Fieldwork conducted in various local markets in the study area revealed the continued commercialization of 55 wild edible plant species, underscoring the ongoing relevance of these resources despite growing pressures. Similar dynamics have been observed in other parts of North Africa, such as in Chlef province (Algeria) and southern Tunisia, where socio-environmental shifts and land-use changes affect the persistence of wild foraging traditions [77–79]. Yet notable contrasts exist: while some Algerian communities have succeeded in reintegrating wild edible plants into local economies through cooperatives and cultural tourism, Moroccan policies have largely overlooked the potential of these species in rural development strategies [80]. A comparative approach thus enables us to go beyond simple documentation of species and practices, shedding light on how environmental governance, cultural continuity, and local economies differentially shape the status of wild edible plants across North Africa.

Diversity of WEPs

The current study specifically examines wild plants that are gathered and sold by indigenous women in the Tingitan Peninsula for food purposes. Our findings documented 55 WEPs that are both sold and consumed in the area, accounting for 22.4% of Morocco’s estimated 246 species of WEPs [7]. The total number of WEP species found in our study area is similar to or higher than those reported in other regions of Morocco. For example [81], identified 56 wild species used as food in the Casablanca-Settat region; the study [32] documented 30 wild leafy vegetable species consumed across three regions, with 29 species in Taounate, 7 species in Azilal, and 12 species in El Haouz [82]. recorded 56 species in the Sidi Bennour region (Central Morocco), and [83] registered 53 species in the Khenifra region. It is important to note that our focus was solely on WEPs that are sold, which are valuable species with significant income potential. In contrast, these other studies focused on WEPs mentioned by the local population, allowing for the inclusion of any WEPs that could be used for food consumption. This emphasizes the richness and economic significance of the WEPs found in the Tingitan Peninsula. On the other hand, our study showed low diversity in comparison with the study [9] which reported significant variability in the number of wild food plants across seven circum-Mediterranean regions, having with Greece (184 species), Cyprus (148 species), Spain (135 species), Italy (131 species), Morocco (38 species), Egypt (37 species), and Albania (14 species). The key difference is that their study includes semi-domesticated plants, whereas our study focuses exclusively on wild food plants.

Additionally, several species recorded in our study have already been reported in previous research conducted at the national level across Morocco, including species Portulaca oleracea, Scolymus hispanicus, and Ridolfia segetum Moris [7, 9, 32, 82, 84–91]. Our findings confirm the presence of these species specifically in the northwestern region of the country, where their occurrence had not yet been well-documented. In addition, our field worked to the identification of Tolpis barbata (L.) Gaertn., Hyoseris radiate L., and Galactites tomentosa, which are recorded here for the first time in the Tingitan Peninsula. These new regional records contribute to refining the known distribution ranges of these taxa and highlight the ecological significance of the Northwest of Morocco as a potentially underexplored area in terms of biodiversity.

The prevalence of families such as Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, and Apiaceae aligns with the WEPs of Morocco [7]. The superiority of these families was also found in a study of seven circum-Mediterranean countries, including Morocco, where they were the most commonly consumed wild and semi-domesticated food plants [9]. This dominance was further supported by a similar study conducted in Izmir (Turkey) by [92]. These findings highlight the significance of these botanical families in terms of WEPs in the Mediterranean region. Ethnobotanists often argue that a high rate of useful species within a family directly indicates its importance as a major plant family [93].

The dominance of herbaceous plants (71%) aligns with findings from other Moroccan regions, such as Sidi Bennour [82] and El Jadida [34], where herbaceous species were also the most frequently used. This trend is consistent across several Mediterranean countries, including Tunisia [94] and Lebanon [95], where similar plant life forms are preferred due to their accessibility and short life cycles adapted to semi-arid climates.

Furthermore, most of the species identified in this study have also been reported in other research conducted in Morocco and Mediterranean countries [7, 85]. However, some exceptions were noted, including Anchusa azurea, Lavatera trimestris, Galactites tomentosa, Beta vulgaris, Tolpis barbata, Lonicera periclymenum, and Hyoseris radiata, which may be linked to specific environmental conditions and regional availability. They are primarily consumed as vegetables and used as ingredients in the traditional Beqoul dish, where variations in preparation of this dish allow for the inclusion of different WEP species, depending on taste and availability [7]. A study conducted in Benin by [96] showed that geography plays a stronger role in determining the use of WEPs than other factors, such as socio-linguistic group. This observation was also made in Morocco by [32].

It is worth noting the low FRC of Foeniculum vulgare as indicated by our results. This plant is considered the most commonly used WEPs in Morocco and the broader Mediterranean region, as supported by various studies [7, 9, 97, 98]. The low popularity of this plant in our study region could be due to regional preferences and limited cultural knowledge about this species.

WEPs consumption

WEPs have been consumed in various ways and prepared using different traditional methods in diverse recipes. Contrary to the common perception that Mediterranean diets predominantly involve eating raw vegetables, the majority of the WEPs registered in our study region are consumed cooked. This is a widespread practice in Morocco [7, 32, 86], as well as throughout the Mediterranean region [9]. The preference for cooked WEPs can be attributed to their predominant use as vegetables, as well as to changes in the socio-economic context of rural areas around the Mediterranean. With fewer people spending time in natural environments, there is less opportunity to consume raw vegetables directly from the source [9].

Regarding the parts consumed, leaves were the most frequently harvested (45%), followed by stems (39%), fruits (9%), flowers (5%), and a minor proportion of seeds and apical buds (1%). This mirrors patterns observed in the Messiwa region [86], and reinforces findings across the Mediterranean basin [95], where leafy vegetables are favored for their nutritional value, palatability, and cultural familiarity. Our findings confirm that the majority of WEPs in Morocco are eaten as vegetables. In our specific area, the percentage of species used as vegetables (60%) is higher than the average number of species used in any other WEP category. This follows a common trend in the Mediterranean region [9], but differs from research conducted in tropical regions where WEPs are primarily consumed as fruits [64, 99]. This pattern highlights the important role of the environment in determining the selection of wild food plants.

Moreover, it has been observed that certain wild vegetables consistently show very high UR values, while other categories have a comparatively minor impact. The success of wild vegetables, compared to the limited role of wild fruits, flavoring food, and raw food, can be attributed to their availability and the effort needed for gathering. Harvesting wild fruits and aromatic plants, which usually grow in natural habitats like forests and scrublands, generally requires much more time and effort than collecting wild vegetables, which are typically found closer to home or in nearby cultivated areas. The study has suggested that the popularity and widespread use of wild vegetables are not driven by their nutritional value but are instead influenced by non-nutritional factors such as availability, multi-functionality, and the medicinal or ritual significance attributed to specific plants by local communities [100]. Similarly, the high consumption of WEPs as vegetables can be linked to the versatile preparation method of the Beqoul dish. This dish allows for different combinations of gathered WEPs to be used, depending on local preferences and availability. In our study region, 32 species were cited as ingredients in Beqoul, with Malva sp., Rumex sp., and Scolymus sp. being the most commonly used WEPs, which can be considered as staples in this dish. Notably, the ingredients of Beqoul may vary depending on the specific region in Morocco.

WEPs consumed as fruits hold significant importance in the region. Among these, Castanea sativa stands out for its high FRC and UR. This typical wild edible fruit, commonly known as the sweet chestnut, is native to the Tingitan Peninsula and is especially abundant in this area [101, 102]. The collection and sale of sweet chestnuts are widespread practices, particularly among local women vendors, during the winter months.

The fruit is highly valued by residents for its sweet taste. As autumn and winter begin, barbecue carts selling roasted chestnuts become a familiar sight in markets and city centers, especially in Tetouan and surrounding areas, reflecting the natural habitat of the chestnut tree in this region. It is notable, however, that while women play a prominent role in the trade of many other WEPs, men largely dominate the chestnut trade due to its high economic value, which attracts a significant number of male traders involved in the roasting and selling of chestnut.

Wild edible plants (WEPs) in our study are harvested from a variety of habitats, reflecting both ecological diversity and the foraging strategies of local communities. Indeed, 23% of species were collected in scrublands, 21% in forests, 10% in rocky outcrops, and 7% in aquatic environments. A distribution that corresponds closely with findings from the High Atlas and Khenifra, where heterogeneous landscapes support a broad spectrum of WEP habitats [7, 83, 86].

Notably, the majority of informants emphasized the importance of cultivated and ruderal zones, including agricultural fields, garden borders, and roadsides. These areas serve as reliable sources of arable weeds and ruderal WEPs, which are often gathered during routine weeding activities. This dual-purpose practice—combining crop maintenance and WEP collection—has also been documented in Mediterranean contexts such as the Rif mountains, where farmers harvest wild greens like Sonchus sp. and Cichorium sp. while tending their fields.

Seasonal timing plays a key role; 44% of WEPs are harvested in spring, with another 37% in winter. These seasons coincide with the phenological peak of many wild species, when abundance and quality are highest. For instance, research in El Jadida shows an intense period of WEPs gathering beginning in late winter and extending through spring, driven by both availability and tradition. Similar patterns are found in regions like Chtouka Aït Baha and Tiznit [103], where men and women alike engage in seasonal foraging.

Overall, the convergence of habitat types “especially fields and ruderal zones’’ with seasonal peaks demonstrates how local ecological knowledge and farming practices create a complementary system for WEP management. This system aligns with broader Mediterranean traditions, highlighting both the ecological rationale and socio-economic logic behind WEP harvesting.

Market dynamics and cultural knowledge: insights from CUDI variation

When considered alongside species richness, frequency of citation, and informant consensus values, the CUDI results provide a complementary perspective on the structure of ethnobotanical knowledge in the study area. While species richness reflects the breadth of taxa known and traded, and consensus values capture the degree of agreement among informants, CUDI reveals the complexity and diversity of the ‘’species × use’’ knowledge space, offering a more nuanced understanding of how traditional knowledge is organized and maintained across markets.

The CUDI values obtained in this study (0.266–0.291) indicate a moderate level of complexity in the ethnobotanical knowledge associated with wild edible plants in the surveyed markets. The narrow range of variation suggests that, despite differences in the number of species traded, the diversity of ‘’species × use’’ combinations remains relatively homogeneous across sites. Markets S1, S13, and S12 showed the highest CUDI scores (> 0.288), reflecting slightly broader and more diversified knowledge repertoires. This could be linked to greater market size, higher turnover of vendors, or the influence of mixed rural–urban consumer demand [22, 104]. Conversely, the lowest value, recorded in S11 (0.266), may indicate a more specialized trade structure, potentially dominated by a smaller number of widely known and used species, which reduces the number of unique use combinations [105].

Comparisons with other ethnobotanical studies show that CUDI values in our data are lower than those reported for communities with highly diversified subsistence strategies, such as in mixed agro-pastoral systems where a wide range of plant uses is maintained [59, 106]. This might reflect the primarily commercial nature of the surveyed markets, where economic profitability and consumer demand can favor certain well-known species over less common ones, thereby limiting the diversity of use combinations. Nevertheless, the relatively consistent values across markets suggest a shared regional knowledge base, likely reinforced by the geographic proximity of the markets and the cultural homogeneity of the population [28].

From a conservation and food security perspective, moderate but stable CUDI scores highlight both the persistence of traditional knowledge and its potential vulnerability. While the continued presence of multiple ‘’species × use’’ combinations indicates resilience, the lack of higher diversity values could signal an erosion of less common knowledge over time, particularly if market-driven homogenization persists. Integrating targeted conservation programs and promoting underutilized species could help maintain or enhance the diversity of plant-use knowledge in these communities.

Comparative regional patterns of wild edible plant use

Our findings from northwestern Morocco, where 55 market-traded WEPs were documented (dominated by Asteraceae, Apiaceae, Lamiaceae, and Malvaceae), show both convergence and divergence with other ethnobotanical surveys conducted in Morocco and neighboring regions. While Asteraceae emerged as the dominant family in our study, the survey conducted among the Messiwa people [86] reported Lamiaceae as the most represented family, followed by Asteraceae. In contrast, in the Sidi Bennour region [82], also found Asteraceae to be the leading family. This variation underlines the central role of both Asteraceae and Lamiaceae in Moroccan dietary practices, while also suggesting that ecological conditions and cultural traditions shape family-level dominance across regions. Furthermore, the predominance of leaves and stems as consumed parts in our study aligns with the findings of [82] and [86].

Comparisons with North Africa further reinforce these patterns. In Algeria, the study [77] documented 51 WEP species, with Lamiaceae and Asteraceae as the leading families, partially paralleling our results, where Asteraceae clearly emerged as the dominant family. Key culturally significant taxa such as Malva sylvestris and Scolymus hispanicus are shared between Algerian and Moroccan markets, highlighting the deep-rooted Maghrebi reliance on wild greens as seasonal vegetables. the phylogenetic approach [107] highlights the evolutionary, ecological, and cultural importance of Lamiaceae, Fabaceae, and Rosaceae in traditional Mediterranean and North African diets, particularly their adaptability to semi-arid environments. These families are also represented in our study; however, our findings reveal a different dominance pattern, with Asteraceae being the most prevalent, followed by Apiaceae, Lamiaceae, Malvaceae. This contrast reflects local ecological availability and cultural preferences, and underscores the diversity of regional trajectories in the use of wild food plants.

Beyond the Maghreb, similar dynamics are observed in West Africa. Ethnobotanical studies from Burkina Faso and Mali demonstrate that wild leafy vegetables and fruits play a critical role in household nutrition, particularly during food shortages [108–110]. These resources are not only consumed as emergency foods but also valued for their cultural and nutritional importance, echoing the role of Moroccan WEPs in sustaining local diets and resilience. where women vendors safeguard traditional knowledge and ensure seasonal supply. In Ethiopia, studies documented comparable reliance on WEPs, though with distinct patterns [111–114]: fruits and aerial parts dominated consumption, and Solanaceae emerged as the leading family in some areas (e.g., Goba District). These overlaps, especially in genera such as Urtica, Rumex, and Amaranthus L., point to the recurrent importance of these taxa across African agro-ecological zones despite ecological contrasts.

These cross-regional comparisons highlight that Moroccan WEPs are not isolated phenomena but part of broader biocultural patterns observed across North, West, and East Africa. Local markets, where women act as key custodians of ecological knowledge, are central hubs for sustaining food sovereignty and biodiversity, echoing similar roles observed in Algeria, Ethiopia, and West Africa. Thus, our findings not only contribute to national ethnobotanical documentation but also situate Moroccan WEPs within a wider regional framework of resilience, cultural identity, and adaptation to socio-environmental change.

Conservation concerns

The sustainability of wild edible plants in northwest Morocco is increasingly challenged by habitat degradation, overharvesting, and climate change. Herbaceous species, such as Portulaca oleracea, Malva sp. as well as long-lived taxa like Castanea sativa, face growing pressure due to land-use change and intensive exploitation. Promoting in situ conservation through the protection of collection habitats, combined with ex situ strategies such as seed banks and community nurseries, could mitigate these threats. Equally important is the integration of traditional ecological knowledge into management plans, ensuring that local practices continue to support both biodiversity and food security [21, 115, 116].

Conclusion

This study presents the first comprehensive inventory of WEPs traditionally consumed and marketed in the Tingitan Peninsula, northwest Morocco, alongside an analysis of their consumption patterns. Our findings highlight the region’s rich phytodiversity and underscore the significant socio-economic reliance on WEPs. The diverse uses of these plants reveal a holistic approach within the local community, where WEPs are deeply integrated into dietary habits and food traditions, underscoring their nutritional importance. While many of these species are highly valued, widely consumed, and in high demand in local markets, others are more regionally specific and less frequently utilized. Furthermore, the WEPs trade constitutes a vital economic activity for indigenous rural women, playing a crucial role in supporting rural livelihoods. Our research underscores that the gathering, processing, consumption, and marketing of WEPs continue to be significant practices in the Tingitan Peninsula. Importantly, traditional knowledge of these plants remains actively practiced and is even being expanded within the local community.

The study emphasises the vital role of local markets as dynamic hubs of biocultural knowledge transmission, as well as economic exchange centres. Within these spaces, traditional culinary practices such as preparing and using foraged wild greens are actively preserved, adapted, and shared across different generations. In addition, this study also highlights the pivotal role of women sellers in preserving and transmitting cultural knowledge related to WEPs. This ongoing exchange strengthens community identity and contributes to the in situ conservation of plant diversity and ethnobotanical heritage. However, to ensure the continuation of this valuable tradition, it is essential to promote and support the activities of these women sellers, thereby safeguarding both the biodiversity and cultural heritage of the region. Moreover, about the Mediterranean diet and human well-being, it is vital to revisit traditional recipes and promote them as local products for development.

Abbreviations

Ab

Apical buds

AE

Aquatic environments

As

All season

Au

Autumn

CR

Cultivated and ruderal areas

dh

Dirhams (Monetary unit of Morocco)

FCs

Citation frequency for each species s

Ff

Flavoring food

Fl

Flowers

FO

Forests

Fr

Fruits

GF

Growth form

H

Herb

HUAE/U09FS

Herbarium University of Abdelmalek Essaâdi / Unity 09, Faculty of Sciences

L

Liana

Lv

Leaves

RF

Raw food

RFC

Relative Frequency of Citation

RP

Rocky places

S

Shrub

SC

Scrublands

Sd

Seeds

Sp

Spring

St

Stem

Su

Summer

T

Tree

UR

Use Report

Veg

Vegetables

WEPs

Wild edible plants

WFO

World Flora Online

Wi

Winter

Author contributions

All authors contributed to the study’s conception and design. Hasnae Ben Sbih, Mohammed Ater, Soufian Chakkour, Salama El Fatehi, and Younes Hmimsa performed material preparation, data collection, and analysis. Research conducted and directed by Mohammed Ater, Younes Hmimsa, and Salama El Fatehi. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Funding

No funds.

Data availability

The data has been deposited and will be made available on request.

Declarations

Human ethics and consent to participate 

Not applicable.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.