AI and AR based digital reconstruction of Liangshan Yi lacquerware

Abstract

The lacquering technique of Yi lacquerware, a national intangible cultural heritage object (ICHO) of China, is distinguished by its unique forms, patterns, and colors, embodying profound religious beliefs and aesthetic connotations. Currently, this technique faces challenges including disrupted heritage transmission, insufficient scientific analysis of lacquer color composition, and limited methods of digital representation, underscoring the urgent need for preservation and promotion within the broader context of sustainable cultural development. This study, based on a field investigation of Liangshan Yi Lacquerware (LYL), presents a comprehensive analysis of its visual elements and employs instrumental techniques to identify the pigments used in its coloration. Representative lacquerware pieces were selected to produce two-dimensional (2D) images, which were then used for intelligent modeling on an artificial intelligence (AI) platform and integrated into an augmented reality (AR) platform to enable a mobile interactive experience. This approach serves as an initial validation of the workflow’s adaptability and potential for broader application in digital reconstruction techniques, providing both theoretical support and a practical model for transforming traditional visual language into immersive visualization, while contributing to the long-term sustainable preservation of intangible cultural heritage.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-026-35772-3.

Introduction

As per the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH), over 400 intangible cultural heritage objects (ICHOs) are intertwined with traditional Chinese art, showcasing China’s rich historical heritage and distinctive creative allure¹. The Yi-ethnic group, one of China’s major ethnic minorities, has a long and rich cultural history, characterized by a distinctive language, beliefs, traditional attire, and craftsmanship. Its national-level ICHO lacquering technique perfectly blends practical functionality with religious symbolism, embodying distinct ethnic characteristics and rich cultural connotations.

Sichuan Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture is the largest single region for the Yi people, being home to the largest population of the geographically most widely distributed branch of Yi in all of China, where ethnic culture is well preserved (specific geographic location is shown in Fig. 1)². The lacquering technique of lacquerware has been passed down for over a thousand years and continues to exist in living transmission forms within the Liangshan region³. As a vital carrier of the group’s historical memory and cultural identity, it holds significant historical and cultural value. Characterized by natural forms, totemic patterns, and a three-color system, this technique forms a unique visual language that reflects a high level of craftsmanship and artistic value. Liangshan Yi Lacquerware (LYL) has historically served daily life, with its origin tracing back to the decoration and use of the objects by the ancestors of the Yi people in major ceremonies such as sacrifices and marriages⁴. Due to their handcrafted nature, unique visual elements, and rarity, these lacquerware pieces also possess considerable value for collection and cultural development.

Fig. 1.

Location of (a) Sichuan Province in China, and (b) Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture in Sichuan Province. (c) Map of Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture.

Current situation

As China’s first batch of ICHO, lacquer art boasts a brilliant history, but many people are not familiar with it today. Moreover, in the process of modernization, lacquer art transmission is declining day by day, and it is facing unprecedented major crises³. In recent years, research on LYL has primarily focused on three key areas: the transmission of traditional craftsmanship, the analysis of visual and artistic characteristics, and its transformation within the background of modern design. These efforts have gradually contributed to the formation of a more systematic research framework.

In the realm of craftsmanship transmission and ICH preservation, Zhang et al. analyzed the traditional manufacturing processes, including body-making and lacquering craft processes as well as the coming crisis⁵. Chen et al. further examined the current state of LYL and the challenges it faces, offering targeted strategies for its preservation⁶.

With regard to visual elements, existing studies have concentrated on the cultural significance embedded in the forms, patterns, and colors of LYL. Ye et al. traced the cultural origins of its color schemes and decorative motifs to enhance the understanding of its symbolic meanings and to support its revitalization and innovation⁷.

In the area of modern adaptation, Wang et al. investigated the stylistic reinvention of the Yi sun motif in contemporary design practices⁸. Zhao et al. also delved into the cultural background and artistic elements of Yi lacquerware, exploring their integration with modern art design concepts to underscore the imperative of preserving Yi lacquerware in today’s society⁴.

Overall, while existing research has made significant progress in the preservation of traditional craftsmanship and the interpretation of cultural meanings, it remains limited in its application of modern technological tools and methodologies.

Artificial intelligence (AI) and augmented reality (AR)

AI is defined first as “the automation of cognition” and second as “social and cognitive phenomena that enable a machine to socially integrate with a society to perform competitive tasks requiring cognitive processes and communicate with other entities in society by exchanging messages with high information content and shorter representations”.^9,10 Li et al. applied various AI techniques to process data from the Terracotta Warriors and then analyzed the significance and distribution of each attribute, uncovering the relationships between them¹¹. Jiang et al. explored the use of explainable AI techniques to analyze the design principles and methods embedded in ancient architecture and lacquerware art¹².

AR is an emerging form of experience in which the Real World (RW) is enhanced by computer-generated content tied to specific locations and/or activities. AR enhances real-world experiences rather than replacing them entirely, as in fully virtual environments^13,14. Sun et al. applied AR technology in the restoration of murals, establishing an effective process for protecting intangible heritage embedded in tomb murals and stimulating further research, design, and development¹⁵. Oihab Allal-Chérif further demonstrated that immersive technologies such as virtual reality (VR) and AI can be used not only for the preservation and restoration of monuments but also to offer the public a different and intense cultural, historical, and religious experience¹⁶.

Instrumental analytical techniques

While AI and AR are advancing the digital reconstruction of traditional craftsmanship, the accurate restoration of such crafts also depends on the scientific identification of material composition. In recent years, various instrumental techniques have been employed for the analysis of materials used in cultural relics. For example, Wei et al. applied Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and related techniques to study the paint and adhesive materials used in the polychrome terracotta army of the Han dynasty¹⁷. Zhu et al. utilized a combination of FTIR, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (SEM-EDS) to conduct a detailed examination of the lacquer screen excavated from Sima Jinlong’s Tomb¹⁸.

Research aim

This work aims to develop and validate an integrated digital reconstruction workflow for Liangshan Yi lacquerware that connects visual, material, and digital perspectives. Specifically, the study documents and analyzes the characteristic visual elements-form, pattern, and color-as a theoretical basis for digital representation, and verifies material and pigment composition through instrumental analysis to provide scientific evidence supporting visual interpretation and color accuracy. Building on these results, the study integrates the findings into a lightweight AI- and AR-based digital reconstruction workflow and examines its adaptability in terms of authenticity, interactivity, and reproducibility. Although this proof-of-concept work is limited to five representative artifacts, it provides a methodological foundation for future large-scale applications that combine ethnographic context, material evidence, and digital visualization.

Materials and methods

Acquisition and classification of visual elements

This work focuses on the Yi lacquerware. Yi lacquerware represents a culturally significant yet comparatively under-documented lacquer tradition, making it a suitable case study for integrating material characterization with ethnographic documentation. Through field visits to inheritors, private collectors, and ethnographic museums, both photographic images and oral accounts were collected. Figure 2 illustrates the complete process of lacquerware production, from body making and lacquering to drying and artifact presentation, documented during field investigation. (For more details, please refer to the video in the Supplementary Materials) Adobe Photoshop (PS) was used to remove distracting backgrounds, while Procreate was employed to redraw the forms and patterns^19,20. The collected visual elements were then classified into three dimensions: form, pattern, and color.

Fig. 2.

Field investigation of lacquerware production process: (a) lacquerware body; (b) lacquered objects; (c) drying phase; (d) artifacts present.

Scientific analysis of lacquerware material

To investigate the material composition of the tri-color system-black, red, and yellow-of LYL, this work selected a representative lacquerware piece, the “wooden bowl” (Fig. 3), which comes from the private collection of the ICH inheritor. Yi lacquerware, though diverse in form and function, is chatraditionally produced using largely consistent raw lacquer and pigment recipes. The wooden bowl, with its standardized form and well-preserved surfaces, thus serves as a valid representative sample. At the same time, we acknowledge potential subtle variations due to craft practices, and we propose that future studies expand the sample set and employ non-destructive spectroscopic methods to enhance generalizability. Based on this, FTIR, XRD, and SEM-EDS techniques were employed to analyze the lacquer samples from different color regions (refer to the characterization section in the supporting information for detailed procedures), identifying the organic and inorganic components present in each color and providing a scientific basis for interpreting the color system.

Fig. 3.

Appearance of the wooden bowl: (a) Top view, and (b) Bottom view.

Digital reconstruction process

Based on the classification and material composition analysis, this work proposes a workflow that integrates AI-based modeling with AR-based presentation. Unlike conventional photogrammetry or structured-light scanning that require specialized equipment, our approach prioritizes low-cost, lightweight, and accessible tools. This makes the workflow particularly suited for ICH contexts where community participation and education are central.

The digital reconstruction process consisted of three stages. First, five representative Yi lacquerware forms (eagle’s claw bowl, pigeon-shaped liquor vessel, ox horn cup, saddle, and powder horn) were drawn in 2D using Procreate. Each rendering combined line sketches, extracted decorative motifs, and the characteristic tri-color palette (black: RGB 34,30,35; red: RGB 240,55,29; yellow: RGB 254,208,39) into complete visual compositions. These 2D images were then imported into the Tripo3D.ai platform, which automatically generated 3D models through geometry generation, segmentation, retopology, and texture mapping. In this step, the lacquerware’s characteristic motifs and tri-color system were mapped onto the surfaces using PBR rendering, with material parameters (e.g., roughness 0.25–0.35 for black lacquer) adjusted to simulate the authentic glossy yet warm texture of lacquered wood. The models were reviewed and corrected against the original 2D references to ensure fidelity, then exported in GLB format. Tripo3D.ai was chosen for its ability to rapidly create 3D models from 2D renderings without specialized equipment, thus reducing technical barriers for local practitioners. While photogrammetry and structured-light scanning provide higher precision, Tripo3D.ai offers a balanced solution between accessibility and authenticity, making it well-suited for intangible cultural heritage contexts. Finally, the 3D models were imported into the web-based AR platform MyWebAR, enabling basic interactive operations such as rotation and scaling on mobile devices (smartphone, iPad, etc.) accessible via QR code or direct link for mobile interaction. In future iterations, the AR environment will be enriched with cultural annotations, audio-visual explanations, and interactive learning modules to enhance both engagement and educational value.

Evaluation and feedback

To evaluate the effectiveness of the LYL digital reconstruction workflow in terms of form, pattern, and color accuracy, this study employed a fuzzy comprehensive evaluation (FCE) method to obtain a more systematic and structured assessment²¹. A total of 80 participants were involved, including undergraduate students, graduate students, and faculty members in the field of art and design, ensuring a broad and academically grounded sample. All participants conducted guided interactive operations on mobile devices prior to evaluation. In this study, we adopt a restoration-and-presentation-oriented evaluation strategy. Equal weights are assigned to the three core visual criteria-form reconstruction, pattern rendering, and color representation. This weighting scheme ensures that the evaluation provides an objective and balanced reflection of the digital reconstruction workflow across its principal dimensions²². Based on these criteria, a fuzzy evaluation matrix was constructed and the corresponding membership functions were defined to translate subjective judgments into quantifiable indicators. This method enhances the reliability of the assessment by reducing individual bias and enabling robust aggregation of multi-level perceptions. The results offer a rigorous basis for validating the workflow, while future studies may further expand sample diversity and refine index weighting to improve generalizability.

Ethics statement

This study was reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of Pukyong National University, Republic of Korea (Approval Number: PKNU-DI-20250001). All procedures involving human participants were conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the Pukyong National University IRB, the Declaration of Helsinki, and applicable Korean national regulations. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their voluntary participation, including explicit consent for the publication of identifying information/images in an online open-access publication. All collected data were anonymised, securely stored, and used solely for the purposes of this study in compliance with institutional and national data protection regulations.

Results and discussion

Visual element analysis

Form

The forms of LYL embody practicality, aesthetic appeal, and cultural symbolism, reflecting the multidimensional, multifaceted cultural, functional, and artistic values of traditional Yi craftsmanship.

On the functional level, the forms of Yi lacquerware are closely aligned with daily practical needs⁴. Based on their uses, they can be categorized into food vessels, liquor containers, equestrian gear, weaponry, and ritual implements (Table S1). For example, rice and meat plates often adopt a rim foot structure to enhance stability and insulation (Fig. 4a), flat round liquor vessels feature a compact, tightly sealed design, typically equipped with a straw-like spout and bottom flow control structure (Fig. 4b), and wooden spoons incorporate long handles to improve ease of use (Fig. 4c). These design choices meet the Yi people’s nomadic lifestyle demands for portability in lacquerware, reflecting a high degree of technical ingenuity and offering long-term practical value and development potential. Material selection also reflects a functional orientation: birch wood is used for large vessels, rhododendron wood for small vessels, and wild poplar for handles, demonstrating a deep alignment between material properties and form design²³.

Fig. 4.

Schematic structure of typical Liangshan Yi Lacquerware: (a) food vessel, (b) flat round wine pot, (c) wooden spoon, and (d) wine cup.

On the aesthetic level, the forms of Yi lacquerware often draw inspiration from natural shapes, which are exaggerated, abstracted, or simplified to create a dynamic visual language of form⁴. For example, the eagle claw wine cup retains a bent hook structure to emphasize its sacred symbolism, while the pig’s trotter wine cup uses the curve of a beast’s foot to enhance the rhythm and symbolic meaning of the form (Fig. 4d). These design choices reflect the stable stylistic conventions and strong visual identity of Yi lacquerware craftsmanship, forming a distinctive aesthetic paradigm with notable collectible value.

On the cultural level, the forms of Yi lacquerware embody totemic imagery and ethnic spirit²⁴. The ox horn cup symbolizes solemnity, the eagle claw wine cup signifies divine presence, and the pig’s trotter wine cup is associated with abundance and ritual practices. These anthropomorphic forms transcend mere functionality to serve as visual mediators of cultural values and identity, bearing witness to the historical evolution of the Yi people’s social structure and spiritual world.

Pattern

The patterns of LYL are characterized by diverse themes, compositional techniques, aesthetic styles, and symbolic meanings, making them its most distinctive visual feature.

These patterns are inspired by stylized interpretations of nature and historical experiences, with themes primarily derived from the observation and synthesis of flora and fauna in daily life. Through regularization, abstraction, and artistic stylization, these patterns are applied to the lacquerware body, creating visual designs rich in ethnic characteristics. These patterns not only feature prominent visual elements but also embody the Yi people’s worldview and aesthetic values, serving a dual function of cultural memory and visual communication. Based on subject matter and cultural connotations, they can be categorized into five groups: plants, animals, natural phenomena, social life, and geometric patterns (Table S2).

In terms of composition, patterns are often arranged in flexible layouts that correspond to the form and function of the lacquerware, resulting in compositions that balance structural order with visual variety. The main compositional types can be broadly classified into four categories, each derived from distinct traditional motifs and exhibiting unique visual characteristics. The central symmetrical composition, derived from the “ox-eye motif,” creates dual-spiral patterns through mirrored symmetry, thereby creating a stable and balanced visual focal point (Fig. 5a). The linear arrangement evolves from the “water ripple motif” and is characterized by horizontally repeated units that produce a strong rhythmic flow, making it particularly suitable for use in border decorations (Fig. 5b). The radiating layout, inspired by motifs such as the “sun” and “star,” forms concentric circular patterns that extend outward from a central point, effectively reinforcing a sense of ceremony and enhancing visual focus (Fig. 5c). Lastly, the modular combination derives from motifs including the “rapeseed,” “petal,” and “golden chain”, and forms intricate, multi-layered ring patterns through repeated, rotated, and symmetrical arrangements of graphic units, thereby increasing both the structural intricacy and the depth of the overall composition (Fig. 5d).

Fig. 5.

Composition of Liangshan Yi Lacquerware patterns: (a) center symmetrical, (b) linear arrangement, (c) radiating layout, and (d) modular combination.

The diversity of compositional approaches serves the decorative function of the patterns. Motifs such as waves, snakes, and stars reflect a reverence for natural life, while elements like braids, ropes, and golden chains convey a sense of flow and rhythm. Even when the overall structure tends toward symmetry, the details often retain room for expressive freedom. Patterns frequently preserve asymmetrical and spontaneous forms, honoring the traces of the handmade process and reflecting the warmth and uniqueness of human interaction with lacquerware.

In addition, the patterns exhibit a high degree of symbolic diversity²⁵. Their meanings often vary depending on form, background, and function. For example, a dot may symbolize either a rapeseed motif or a star motif. Such an element is frequently used in modular compositions to create strong rhythmic repetition, reflecting the cultural shift and semantic evolution of patterns from representational to abstract forms.

Color

LYL primarily features three core colors—black, red, and yellow—which collectively reflect a unique ethnic aesthetic and ecological wisdom in their combination, symbolic meaning, and material origin (Table 1).

Table 1.

The primary colors of Liangshan Yi Lacquerware.

Color	Sample	Parametera
Black		RGB: 34/30/35 CMYK: 83/82/74/60
Red		RGB: 240/55/29 CMYK: 4/90/91/0
Yellow		RGB: 254/208/39 CMYK: 5/23/84/0

^a RGB and CMYK are approximations, the actual colors are determined by the real²⁹.

On the compositional level, black is often used as the base color of the lacquerware, while yellow and red are used to draw patterns, enhancing visual contrast and hierarchical structure to create a distinctive ethnic style. ^26,27 The black background accentuates the red and yellow patterns, giving the overall design clear boundaries and decorative tension. This color arrangement has established a stable aesthetic convention within the ethnic group, reinforcing the cultural identity and recognizability of LYL.

Symbolically, each of the three colors carries distinct cultural meanings. Black symbolizes the nobility of class and lineage in the Yi nationality. Red is the symbol of the sun and flame, symbolizing courage and enthusiasm. Yellow usually symbolizes fertility and hope, and is associated with light and harvest. These colors reflect the belief system of Yi society, endowing the lacquerware with spiritual significance that transcends its utilitarian function²⁷.

On the material level, the Liangshan region is rich in natural resources, with abundant lacquer trees and mineral pigments that provide a sustainable local foundation for the black, red, and yellow color system. In traditional coloring techniques, the lacquerware body is typically primed with “gray lacquer”-a mixture of soot, pig’s blood, and soybean powder-for a smooth surface. The black color derives from the oxidized hue of natural raw lacquer, red is formulated with Yinzhu, and yellow is achieved by mixing Shihuang with raw lacquer. These natural mineral pigments not only offer stable, long-lasting color but also embody the integration of ecological wisdom and material adaptability²⁸.

These findings establish a systematic visual taxonomy of Yi lacquerware that provides the conceptual and aesthetic foundation for the subsequent digital modeling.

Material composition analysis

To further verify the material composition of the colors, this work collected raw lacquer samples in three colors, labeled as R-Black, R-Red, and R-Yellow. Corresponding colored regions were also selected from the “wooden bowl”, from which lacquer layer sample powders were scraped and labeled as S-Black, S-Red, and S-Yellow. In addition, two inorganic additives-Yinzhu (YZ) and Shihuang (SH)-were also included for analysis.

As shown in Fig. 6a, the FTIR spectra of the raw lacquer samples R-Black, R-Red, and R-Yellow exhibit a series of common characteristic absorption peaks. These include: 3600–3200 cm^{− 1} (-OH, stretching vibration), indicating the presence of hydroxyl groups. This broad peak is typical in natural lacquer and suggests the formation of a hydrogen-bonding network. 2920 cm^{− 1} and 2845 cm^{− 1} (-CH₃ and = CH₂, stretching vibrations), originating from saturated hydrocarbon chains on the side chains of urushiol, particularly from the alkyl tail of the molecule. These peaks serve as characteristic markers of organic aliphatic chains present in natural lacquer matrices. 1741 cm^{− 1} (C = C stretching coupled with other vibrations), corresponding to the aromatic core structure of urushiol compounds. 1458 cm^{− 1} (methylene bending vibration), derived from the methylene groups in the aliphatic chains, typically appearing in conjunction with the 2845 and 2920 cm^{− 1} bands. 991 cm^{− 1} (conjugated triene), representing the “skeletal feature” of crosslinked urushiol networks. Although not intense, this peak is consistently present. 721 cm^{− 1} (1,3-disubstituted benzene ring), indicative of the structural characteristics of urushiol polymers based on 1,2,3-trisubstituted benzene. These spectral features collectively indicate that all three raw lacquer samples are based on natural urushiol compounds, and the addition of inorganic pigments during the coloring process does not alter the main organic structural framework³⁰. Additionally, in the lower wavenumber region (500–600 cm^{− 1}), new characteristic peaks were observed in R-Red and R-Yellow that are absent in R-Black. These peaks are attributed to the presence of the added inorganic pigments YZ and SH, respectively.

Fig. 6.

The FTIR spectra of (a) raw lacquers, and (b) sample powders.

Figure 6b verifies the application of raw lacquer in actual lacquerware. In the samples taken from the “wooden bowl”, the characteristic absorption peaks of YZ and SH exhibit left shifts of approximately 6 cm^{− 1} and 22 cm^{− 1}, respectively. These shifts are closely related to pigment lattice distortion and interfacial interactions with the organic lacquer matrix under long-term environmental exposure. Notably, several infrared absorption peaks in S-Black-such as those associated with C = C, C-O, and CH₂ vibrations-show slight deviations compared to R-Black, with some peaks shifting by 2–5 cm^{− 1} and showing slightly reduced intensity. These variations are likely caused by the oxidation and increased cross-linking of the lacquer film during long-term use, reflecting the regular natural aging^31,32. Despite these minor shifts, the observed absorption peaks remain reliable spectral indicators for identifying pigment types.

As shown in Fig. 7, the XRD analysis results indicate that the R-Red and R-Yellow retain the characteristic crystalline diffraction peaks of YZ and SH, respectively. The peak positions closely match those of the YZ and SH, and sharp peaks are observed in the 2θ ≈ 26.5° and 15–30°, indicating that both inorganic pigments exist in the lacquer with high crystallinity and structural stability. This finding further confirms the high purity of the pigments used in the lacquerware and demonstrates that no significant structural degradation or phase transition occurred within the urushiol-based organic material, showing typical diffraction characteristics of organic-inorganic composite materials.

Fig. 7.

The XRD spectra of (a) Red samples, and (b) Yellow samples.

In contrast, the S-Red and S-Yellow lacquer layers from the wooden bowl exhibit significantly weakened diffraction peaks. In particular, the high-intensity peaks appear more diffuse or broadened, although their positions still align with the standard diffraction peaks of the corresponding pigments. This change may be attributed to several factors affecting the pigments during lacquerware production and long-term use, including cross-linking of the raw lacquer, oxidative aging, or the incorporation of trace impurities, all of which can lead to decreased crystallinity or partial disorder³². Additionally, the natural lacquer itself is amorphous, which may further obscure or attenuate the diffraction signals of the pigments³³.

As shown in Table 2, the EDS elemental analysis results further confirm the composition of inorganic pigments in the samples. The R-Black sample shows a high proportion of carbon (C) and oxygen (O), indicating that it is a pure raw lacquer sample. In contrast, mercury (Hg) and arsenic (As) were detected in R-Red and R-Yellow, respectively, confirming the successful incorporation of YZ and SH as coloring pigments. Compared to the pure YZ and SH pigment powders, the R-series lacquer contains lower concentrations of inorganic pigments, suggesting that the pigments are dispersed in the raw lacquer as fillers. This result aligns with the structural characteristics observed in the FTIR and XRD analyses, collectively confirming the successful integration and structural retention of mineral pigments in the lacquerware. Additionally, the presence of platinum (Pt) is due to the residual conductive coating applied during sample preparation for SEM-EDS, while aluminum (Al) and silicon (Si) originate from impurities in natural mineral sources, such as alumina (Al₂O₃) and quartz (SiO₂)³⁴.

Table 2.

The results of SEM-EDS analysis.

Sample	Element content (%)
	C	O	Hg	As	S	Al	Pt	Si	Sb
R-Black	71.40	27.44				0.11	1.05
YZ	11.17	5.16	45.03		34.13	0.35		4.16
R-Red	63.85	25.31	5.14		2.97	0.17	0.95	1.61
SH	10.89	6.99		49.18	28.28	0.36		3.78	0.52
R-Yellow	69.54	22.61		3.40	1.88	0.23	0.87	1.28	0.19

Building on the earlier analysis of visual elements, this work incorporates instrumental techniques to verify the use of natural lacquer and mineral pigments in the traditional color system. The findings provide scientific support for visual fidelity in color restoration and material representation in subsequent digital reconstruction. We acknowledge that this pilot relies on approximate RGB values and not metrological color measurements; future studies will employ portable spectrophotometry for more accurate and reproducible assessment.

The instrumental results confirm the pigment composition and support the authenticity and material basis required for accurate visual reconstruction.

Presentation of the digital reconstruction process

This work completed the digital reconstruction of five representative types of LYL, covering forms such as food vessels, liquor containers, equestrian gear, and weaponry. The resulting 3D models feature complete structures, clear patterns, and consistent color schemes, effectively restoring the visual characteristics of the lacquerware (Fig. 8). Once integrated into the AR platform, the models allow users to perform rotation, scaling, and other interactive operations on mobile devices, offering an intuitive perception of form details, pattern elements, and color layering. Future development will incorporate cultural annotations, audio/text explanations, and animated demonstrations of lacquerware making to enrich interactivity and educational value. The overall presentation runs smoothly and demonstrates strong interactivity and adaptability (3D presentation effects as shown in Fig. 9).

Fig. 8.

Illustration of the process from 2D image drawing to 3D modeling of Liangshan Yi lacquerware: (a) lacquerware forms drawn by Procreate software, (b) main patterns corresponding to lacquerware drawn by Procreate software, (c) black, red, and yellow colors commonly used in lacquerware, (d) 2D image integrating the forms, patterns, and colors drawn by Procreate software, (e) 3D model generated by Tripo3D. a.i. platform to generate 3D models.

Fig. 9.

3D AR models of (a) eagle’s claw bowl, (b) pigeon-shaped liquor vessel, (c) ox horn cup, (d) saddle, and (e) powder horn.

Li et al. provide a comprehensive review showing that digital heritage research is moving from exploratory applications to more integrated frameworks³⁵. However, challenges remain in sustainability, interoperability, and the balance between innovation and authenticity. In this study, the AR deployment is intended as a lightweight, web-based visualization for mobile interaction and basic placement. It does not yet include environment-aware relighting or photometrically validated shading; these enhancements will be implemented in future work to improve realism under defined illumination conditions. Our workflow is technically simple but was designed as a low-threshold and adaptable model. It enables community participation and aligns with broader efforts toward accessibility and standardization.

The AR presentation demonstrates the technical feasibility and user adaptability of the proposed workflow, serving as an experimental validation of the integrated digital-twin approach.

Analysis of questionnaire results

Based on the fuzzy comprehensive evaluation results (as shown in Table 3), participants showed consistently positive attitudes toward the three visual dimensions of the Liangshan Yi Lacquerware AR Presentation System. The highest affiliation degrees indicate that Form Reconstruction (A1) was evaluated as “Perfect” (55.625%), Pattern Rendering (A2) as “Very good” (42.917%), and Color Representation (A3) as “Perfect” (46.875%). These results indicate that the AR system effectively supports accurate geometrical reconstruction and color fidelity, while minor variability in pattern rendering suggests the need for improved handling of fine decorative details within the digitization and AR mapping processes. The overall evaluation of the AR Presentation System (A), which converges primarily on “Perfect” (47.083%) and “Very good” (40.556%), demonstrating that the system provides a high-quality and reliable visual presentation of Yi lacquerware.

Table 3.

The results of fuzzy comprehensive evaluation.

	Perfect	Very good	Good	Satisfactory	Unsatisfactory
Form Reconstruction (A1)	55.625%	36.25%	8.125%	0	0
Pattern Rendering (A2)	38.75%	42.917%	17.917%	0.416%	0
Color Representation (A3)	46.875%	42.5%	10.625%	0	0
LYL AR Presentation System (A)	47.083%	40.556%	12.222%	0.139%	0

These results indicate that future refinements may focus on enhancing the preservation of micro-pattern details and improving image-to-AR texture translation accuracy. Strengthening these aspects will not only elevate the visual fidelity of AR presentations but also contribute to the sustainable preservation and transmission of ICH. By improving the precision of digital reconstructions, the workflow can more effectively support long-term cultural documentation, educational dissemination, and cross-cultural engagement, thus offering a scalable model for the sustainable digital safeguarding of traditional craftsmanship.

Conclusion

In summary, this study presents a digital reconstruction workflow based on the visual elements of traditional lacquerware, combining visual classification, material analysis, and structured modeling. Anchored in the interplay of form, pattern, and color, the workflow-developed in the context of Liangshan Yi lacquerware-provides a reproducible method for translating traditional visual language into digital form, while preserving its cultural and material authenticity. At the same time, we acknowledge limitations in sample size and user evaluation, framing this as a validation study whose findings must be expanded and tested in broader contexts.

Although not intended as a universal solution, the approach offers a practical reference for the recording and representation of intangible craftsmanship. Beyond technical contributions, this study also recognizes that digital reconstruction interacts with ritual contexts, the reception of AR models by inheritors, and the potential risk of cultural decontextualization, highlighting the need for anthropological and community-based perspectives. It applies not only to traditional practices with similar visual systems but also to broader areas such as the restoration of incomplete artifacts, the development of educational resources, engagement in cultural tourism, creative reinterpretation in design, and the digital archiving of visual heritage. These extensions highlight the method’s capacity to adapt across different contexts of cultural preservation and communication, though its effectiveness remains to be validated through future empirical studies.

By grounding visual reconstruction in field observation and material evidence, this workflow contributes to the protection of endangered craft traditions and supports their continued relevance in contemporary cultural life. At the same time, we recognize that broader challenges remain in the field of digital heritage, including sustainability, interdisciplinary interoperability, and the balance between technological innovation and cultural authenticity.

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Author contributions

X.T: Conceptualization, Validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data curation, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing. C.B.Z: Validation, Methodology. C.J.T: Conceptualization, Validation, Characterization. S.P.K: Resources, Supervision, Writing - review & editing. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Funding

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

The datasets generated during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.