An umbrella review of school-based interventions to promote motivation for sport and physical activity among children and adolescents

Abstract

School-based interventions are crucial for enhancing physical activity (PA) and sport participation among children and adolescents. While numerous studies have examined these interventions, their efficacy in fostering motivation requires synthesis. This umbrella review evaluated systematic reviews and meta-analyses on school-based interventions targeting students' motivation for PA and sport. Comprehensive literature searches were conducted in Web of Science, ERIC, Scopus, PubMed, and SPORTDiscus for reviews published between 2010 and 2024. Twenty reviews met the inclusion criteria. The primary outcomes were motivational constructs (e.g., intrinsic motivation, basic psychological needs), and secondary outcomes were PA levels and sport participation. Findings revealed that interventions grounded in Self-Determination Theory (SDT), particularly the Sport Education Model (SEM), were most effective in fostering intrinsic motivation, autonomy, and competence. Teacher training in autonomy-supportive strategies was a critical component for success. However, evidence on the long-term impact of these interventions on sustained PA behavior remains limited. This synthesis provides robust evidence for educators and policymakers, highlighting the importance of theory-driven, student-centered approaches in school-based PA and sport programs.

Background

Regular physical activity (PA) is vital for the physical and mental health of children and adolescents, helping to prevent chronic diseases and promote well-being [1, 2]. Insufficient PA is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular illnesses [3] and poorer mental health, including depressive symptoms and reduced quality of life [4]. Conversely, PA and sport participation are linked to improved cardiovascular health, cognitive functioning, academic performance, and the development of social skills such as teamwork and resilience [5, 6]. Sport, as a distinct and structured form of PA, provides unique psycho-social benefits, contributing to a model of health through sport that emphasizes personal and social development [7]. Despite these benefits, a significant challenge is sustaining students' motivation to participate in PA and sport, with engagement often declining through adolescence. Self-efficacy plays a central role in sustaining motivation and long-term engagement in physical activity, as individuals who believe in their capabilities are more likely to initiate and persist in challenging behaviors [8]. Motivation is a key determinant of the initiation, intensity, and maintenance of PA [9]. According to Self-Determination Theory (SDT), high-quality motivation is fostered in environments that support individuals' basic psychological needs for autonomy (feeling of volition), competence (feeling effective), and relatedness (feeling connected to others) [10, 11]. Intrinsic motivation, driven by inherent enjoyment and interest, is the most sustainable form and is cultivated when these needs are met. In school settings, the motivational climate created by teachers and peers is critical [12]. It is also important to distinguish between the contexts of mandatory physical education (PE) and voluntary school sport, as they may engage different motivational processes. With this, the review assessed the effectiveness of school-based interventions in promoting motivation and sports or physical exercise participation. This review would provide insights to policymakers, educators, and health professionals, which would enable the design of evidence-based programs [13].

The main focus of this research is motivation, which is crucial for the initiation and sustained participation of sports. Motivation is likewise directly connected to the level of participation and persistence in physical activities [9, 10, 14]. Past research demonstrated the importance of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and pointed out that intrinsic motivation characterised by enjoyment, interest, and personal satisfaction is the most sustainable form of motivation [15–17]. Motivation can be categorized as intrinsic and extrinsic [18].

Intrinsic motivation refers to the inherent enjoyment, interest, and personal fulfillment it derives from participation. In contrast, extrinsic motivation is shaped by external influences such as tangible rewards, social approval, or peer pressure [9]. According to Self-Determination Theory (SDT), extrinsic motivation can be further differentiated into varying regulatory styles. For example, external regulation is driven by the desire to obtain rewards or avoid punishment, while introjected regulation is motivated by internal pressures such as guilt or a sense of obligation [10, 11]. Understanding these nuanced forms of motivation is essential for designing interventions that effectively promote sustained participation in physical exercise [19]. Furthermore, researchers emphasize the importance of contextual and social factors that influence students' motivation to engage in sports and physical activity. The attitudes and behaviors of significant others such as teachers, parents, and peers have a critical role in shaping motivational climate and behavioral outcomes in physical education settings [12, 20]. A supportive, challenging, and autonomy-promoting environment has been shown to foster more adaptive responses, improving students’ sense of vitality, intrinsic interest, and purposeful engagement [21, 22]. Sedentary behaviour and physical inactivity among children and adolescents remain a growing public health concern. Previous studies have demonstrated that prolonged sedentary behaviour is associated with adverse physical and psychological health outcomes, including reduced physical fitness and increased health risks [23, 24]. These findings further highlight the importance of motivationally informed school-based interventions aimed at increasing physical activity participation.

School-based interventions designed to promote PA and sport often draw on motivational theories such as SDT, Achievement Goal Theory (AGT), and the Trans-Contextual Model (TCM) [25]. Empirical evidence confirms that interventions based on these frameworks, particularly SDT, can positively influence motivational regulation and PA levels [26]. For instance, meta-analyses have shown that need-supportive teaching in PE can increase students' intrinsic motivation and identified regulation. Achievement goal theory postulated mastery-focused goals, and proposed that cultivating a task-involving climate can promote persistence and positive affect towards physical activity [27, 28]. So, interventions characterized by mastery rather than performance orientations have shown large overall effect on task-goal orientation [26]. The Transcontextual Model integrates principles from Self-Determination Theory and the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), which highlight how autonomy-supportive teaching practices in physical education can effectively promote students’ motivation to participate in physical activity during their leisure time [25]. This model emphasizes the importance of teacher behavior in transferring motivation from school to out-of-school contexts. Motivational strategies are inherent in effective school-based programs, which foster autonomy support, positive reinforcement, goal-setting, peer support, and interest [29–31]. So, interventions with these characteristics demonstrated sustained engagement and persistence among youth. Nonetheless, it is necessary to consider implementation quality, contextual factors, and cultural relevance influence the effectiveness of these interventions. In conclusion, school-based interventions that are theory-driven and based on empirical evidence demonstrate positive effects on students’ motivation for physical activity. Future research should focus on improving intervention efficacy, investigating long-term effects, and adapting interventions to various cultural and institutional contexts to bolster effectiveness. This umbrella systematic review aims to meet the evidence gap by providing a comprehensive overview that covers recent studies on the effectiveness of school-based motivation interventions to promote physical activity and sports among students (Table 1).

Table 1.

Summary of included systematic reviews examining school-based interventions to promote motivation for physical activity and sport among children and adolescents (PICO framework)

No	Study	Population (P)	Intervention (I)	Comparison (C)	Outcome (O)
1	Dudley et al. [32]	School-aged children	PE and sport interventions	No intervention	Physical activity, movement skills, enjoyment
2	Kriemler et al. [33]	Children and adolescents	School-based PA and fitness interventions	No intervention	Physical activity and fitness improvements
3	Teixeira et al. [19]	Children, adolescents, adults	Exercise interventions using SDT	No or other theoretical models	Motivation, adherence, PA behavior
4	Chu & Zhang [34]	High school students	Sport Education programs	Traditional PE	Motivational processes
5	Demetriou et al. [35]	Children and adolescents	School-based interventions	No intervention	Motivation towards physical activity
6	Raabe et al. [36]	PE teachers, youth coaches	Autonomy support training	No or standard training	Autonomy support effectiveness
7	Vaquero-Solís et al. [37]	Children and adolescents	School-based PA interventions	No intervention	Physical activity engagement
8	Kelso et al. [38]	Children and adolescents	School-based PA interventions	No intervention	Motivation towards physical activity
9	Fernández-Espínola et al. [39]	PE students	Cooperative learning interventions	Traditional PE	Intrinsic motivation
10	Borghouts et al. [40]	PE teachers and secondary students	Lesson study intervention	No lesson study	Teacher behavior, student motivation
11	Barkoukis et al. [41]	School students	School-based motivation intervention	No intervention	Motivation for out-of-school PA
12	Manninen & Campbell [42]	School students	Sport Education Model (SEM)	Traditional PE	Intrinsic motivation, basic needs, prosocial attitudes
13	Sevil-Serrano et al. [43]	School students	School-based motivation intervention	Standard PE	Motivation in PE and PA
14	Schiff & Supriady [44]	PE students	Sport Education Model (SEM)	Conventional PE	Motivation and physical activity
15	Sousa Junior et al. [45]	Children with cerebral palsy	Sports-based PA interventions	No or standard care	PA participation
16	Tapia‐Serrano et al. [46]	Children and adolescents	Out-of-school SDT-based PA interventions	No or generic intervention	Motivation and PA participation
17	Jeong et al. [47]	Athletes and students	Goal-setting interventions	No or other methods	Motivation and goal achievement
18	Dai et al. [48]	Adolescent students	Sport Education Model (SEM)	Traditional PE or other models	Basic needs satisfaction, intrinsic motivation
19	Song et al. [49]	PE students	Content-focused PE interventions	Traditional/generic PE	Motivation in PE
20	Owen et al. [50]	Youth	School-based PA programs	Less active programs	School engagement and PA levels

Method

This umbrella review was conducted following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 statement [51]. A PICO framework was adopted to address the research aim by addressing population (P), intervention (I), comparison (C), and outcomes (O). This framework provided a structured approach to the research that would guide the development of inclusion and exclusion criteria. Specifically, the research targeted systematic reviews that synthesized primary studies evaluating the effectiveness of school-based intervention programs. From there, it would guide the screening and selection of the appropriate peer-reviewed articles for this review.

Eligibility criteria

We included peer-reviewed systematic reviews and meta-analyses published in English between 2010 and 2025. The study selection was guided by the PICO framework: (1) Population: Children and adolescents (aged 5–18 years) in a school setting. Reviews focusing solely on university students were excluded. (2) Intervention: School-based interventions aimed at enhancing motivation for physical activity (PA), sport, or physical education (PE). (3) Comparison: Usual practice, no intervention, or an alternative intervention. (4) Outcomes: Primary outcomes were motivational constructs (e.g., intrinsic motivation, basic psychological needs, self-efficacy); secondary outcomes were levels of PA or sport participation. We shortlisted review studies that focused on school-based interventions for students from primary through secondary school. Only English-language, peer-reviewed journal articles were selected. Grey literature was excluded to maintain a focus on high-quality, peer-reviewed evidence. We also excluded reviews that focused primarily on goal-setting interventions, as these often target individualized behavioral goals rather than the broader motivational climate that is the focus of this review.

Search strategy

Comprehensive literature searches were conducted by the first and second authors in five electronic databases: Web of Science, ERIC, Scopus, PubMed, and SPORTDiscus. The search strategy combined keywords and Boolean operators related to: (1) population (e.g., "child", "adolescent", "student"), (2) setting ("school"), (3) intervention (e.g., "physical activity", "sport", "physical education"), and (4) study design ("systematic review", "meta-analysis"). These databases were preferred due to their comprehensive coverage of systematic reviews and meta-analyses in the fields of education, health, and social sciences.

Study selection and data extraction

The initial search yielded 254 titles. After excluding duplicate records, 128 articles remained. After removing duplicates, the first and second authors independently screened titles and abstracts against the eligibility criteria. The full texts of potentially relevant reviews were then assessed independently. Any disagreements were resolved through discussion or by consulting a third author. Titles or abstracts were reviewed and excluded if it did not meet the predefined inclusion criteria. The next steps encompassed full-text screening and selecting studies based on eligibility criteria, focusing on systematic reviews or meta-analyses related to school-based motivational strategies in physical activity were included [51]. This step eliminated a number and narrowed the selection to 40 related articles. Data from the included reviews were extracted using a standardized form. Extracted information included: author(s), publication year, number and type of primary studies included, participant characteristics, intervention characteristics (e.g., theoretical framework, duration), key findings related to motivation and PA outcomes, and authors' conclusions. This would capture key information like sample, intervention characteristics, and outcomes. Finally, the review shortlisted 20 studies for this research, which aligned with the research criteria.

Quality assessment

The methodological quality of the included systematic reviews was assessed independently by two authors using the AMSTAR 2 (A MeaSurement Tool to Assess systematic Reviews 2) checklist [52]. Discrepancies in quality ratings were resolved through consensus. The results of the quality assessment were used to interpret the findings but not to exclude reviews. Due to the heterogeneity of the included reviews in terms of interventions, outcomes, and populations, a narrative synthesis was conducted.

The findings were organized and summarized thematically based on the type of intervention and the key outcomes reported. Data synthesis would summarize patterns, themes, and gaps in findings across reviews, with a focus on the strength of evidence and impact of interventions [53]. It is important to note that the current review focused on school-based interventions which would be more general, multi-faceted, and less structured approach but it would not cover goal-setting interventions which are more rigorous and individualized.

Results

This umbrella review synthesized evidence from 20 systematic reviews to evaluate the effectiveness of school-based interventions for promoting motivation for PA and sport. A strong and consistent finding across reviews was the effectiveness of interventions grounded in Self-Determination Theory (SDT). Meta-analyses, such as the one by Vasconcellos et al. [26], reported significant, positive effects of SDT-based interventions on students' intrinsic motivation, autonomous motivation, and satisfaction of the basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. These interventions, which often involved autonomy-supportive teaching styles, choice, and positive feedback, were more successful in fostering high-quality motivation compared to traditional, teacher-centered approaches.

A review of trends across the included studies showed clear advancements in how interventions are designed and evaluated. More recent studies tend to adopt mixed methods and theory-driven approaches to assess outcomes, implementation fidelity, and instructors’ perceptions. There is also an increase in the number of meta-analyses, which enables greater precision in assessing the effectiveness of interventions and identifying moderators. Another observable trend is the application of technology and digital platforms to physical activity programs. Recent interventions are more likely to be student-centered, culturally responsive, and tailored to local contexts, a shift that improves their relevance and impact.

Another observation is a shift in focus over time. Earlier studies (2011–2016), such as those by Dudley et al. [32] and Owen et al. [50], mainly examined general physical activity interventions and their effects on fitness and school engagement. More recent studies (2018–2024) increasingly emphasize motivational theories, mainly SDT and SEM, and the role of teacher training in developing student outcomes. The latest research (2021–2024) extended to new areas, including out-of-school physical activities promotion [41] and interventions for special populations, such as children with cerebral palsy [45].

This analysis of review studies revealed several consistent findings regarding physical activity interventions and motivational strategies in school settings. A strong body of evidence supported the effectiveness of school-based PA programs in increasing physical activity levels and improving fitness among children and adolescents. Studies such as those by Dudley et al. [32], Kriemler et al. [33], and Vaquero-Solís et al. [37] suggested that structured PE and sport interventions led to measurable improvements in movement skills, enjoyment, and overall engagement. In addition, interventions based on Self-Determination Theory (SDT), including those by Teixeira et al. [19] and Tapia-Serrano et al. [46], consistently bolstered intrinsic motivation and long-term adherence to physical activity. The Sport Education Model (SEM) was identified as one of the most effective pedagogical models for enhancing motivation. Multiple reviews (e.g., [34, 42]) found that SEM consistently fostered greater intrinsic motivation, perceived competence, and enjoyment in PE compared to traditional instruction. The model's defining features such as seasons instead of units, student roles (e.g., coach, referee), and culminating events were credited for creating a more authentic and engaging sport experience that supported psychological needs. It is recognized as an effective approach across multiple studies [34, 42, 44]. It was found to outperform traditional physical education in fostering intrinsic motivation, basic psychological needs satisfaction, and prosocial attitudes. Teacher-focused interventions, such as autonomy-supportive training [36] and lesson study methods [40], also had a significant role in improving student motivation and engagement. Cooperative learning strategies incrementally contribute to higher intrinsic motivation as compared to traditional physical education methods [39].

A key question was whether in-school motivational gains translated to increased PA outside of school. The evidence here was promising but mixed. Some reviews (e.g., [41]) reported that need-supportive PE environments could promote a transfer of motivation to leisure-time PA, as explained by the Trans-Contextual Model. However, other reviews noted that while motivation increased within PE, corresponding significant increases in objectively measured free-time PA were less consistently demonstrated another important finding is the role of teachers, and their understanding of motivation theories and capacity to implement strategies such as goal setting, structured feedback, and autonomy support significantly influence outcomes.

Teacher behavior was a crucial mediator of intervention success. Reviews focusing on teacher-focused interventions (e.g., [36, 40]) demonstrated that training teachers to use autonomy-supportive strategies (e.g., providing choice, offering rationales, acknowledging feelings) led to significant improvements in student motivation. The effectiveness of models like SEM and theory-based approaches was heavily dependent on teachers' capacity to implement them with fidelity. Teacher training and instructional methods have a key role in developing motivation. Studies on autonomy-supportive teaching [36] and lesson study interventions [40] showed how educators can significantly improve student motivation. Similarly, cooperative learning approaches have been noted to foster intrinsic motivation more effectively than traditional, teacher-centered PE classes [39].

The reviewed evidence predominantly focused on typically developing children and adolescents in Western, high-income countries. A significant gap was identified regarding marginalized populations. Only one review [45] specifically addressed interventions for children with disabilities, highlighting a lack of evidence for neurodiverse populations (e.g., those with autism spectrum disorder). It also demonstrated that adapted sport interventions can be successfully implemented among children with disabilities, highlighting the potential of motivational frameworks for inclusive education.

Discussion

This umbrella review synthesized findings from 20 systematic reviews and meta-analyses with focus on school-based interventions to develop student motivation for physical activity (PA) and sports participation. These included reviews were published after 2010, with mostly grounded in Self-Determination Theory (SDT). The interventions examined were different in terms of scope, duration, delivery methods, and target populations. Across the studies, SDT was observed to be the most commonly used theoretical framework, and consistently demonstrated positive effects on motivational outcomes such as intrinsic motivation, basic psychological needs (BPN) satisfaction, and engagement in PA. Other interventions which promoted autonomy support, competence development, and social relatedness (i.e., key principles of SDT) were particularly effective. It also found that teacher behavior was identified as a crucial mediator of success, with autonomy-supportive teaching strategies significantly improving student motivation. Conversely, traditional physical education (PE) approaches like drill-based instruction were less effective in developing motivation, outlining the value of theory-informed pedagogy. These findings are consistent with earlier theoretical work in physical education, which emphasizes the role of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in fostering high-quality motivation and sustained engagement in PA [18]. The findings strongly support the application of SDT in the school PA context. However, the mixed evidence regarding the transfer to out-of-school PA indicates that motivation, while necessary, may not be sufficient for sustained behavioral change. Future research should explore hybrid models that integrate SDT with other behavioral change techniques. Furthermore, there is a critical need for longitudinal studies that track both motivational and behavioral outcomes over periods of one year or more to assess long-term efficacy.

The findings have significant implications for educators and policymakers. The superiority of SDT-based approaches and SEM suggests a need to move beyond traditional, directive PE pedagogies. For practice, this implies that professional development for teachers should prioritize training in autonomy-supportive strategies and student-centered models. School curricula should be redesigned to incorporate elements that foster belongingness, mastery, and student ownership, such as those inherent in SEM. Policymakers can support this shift by allocating resources for teacher training and endorsing curricula that emphasize motivational quality alongside physical fitness. Furthermore, there is a vital need to develop inclusive and culturally contextualized interventions that address the needs of diverse student populations, such as those with disabilities or from underrepresented communities. These implications are aligned with meta-analytical evidence, such as the work of Vasconcellos et al. [26], which reported moderate to strong effect sizes for SDT-based interventions. the significance of these findings is substantial for clinical and educational application. The fostering of student motivation for physical activity is associated with improved health outcomes and better mental well-being, school engagement, and lifelong activity habits. Motivation-supportive interventions may also serve as early preventive measures against sedentary lifestyles and physical inactivity, which have been linked to adverse physical and psychological health outcomes among children and adolescents, including reduced physical fitness and increased health risks [23, 24]. Interventions such as SEM, when embedded into standard curricula and delivered by trained educators, can provide scalable, theory-informed solutions to declining youth physical activity levels globally. Furthermore, motivation-supportive interventions could serve as early preventative measures against sedentary lifestyles, obesity, and associated non-communicable diseases. The evidence base strongly suggests that PE programs should be restructured to include autonomy-supportive pedagogies and long-term, student-centred approaches, especially in contexts where traditional PE is failing to engage youth. Among these intervention models reviewed, the Sport Education Model (SEM) was identified as the most robust and consistent effects on student motivation. SEM’s characteristics (i.e., student roles, season-long participation, and team-based learning) contributed to lasting improvements in intrinsic motivation, perceived competence, and relatedness. These findings were reflected across multiple reviews, including those by Dai et al. [48] and Manninen and Campbell [42]. SEM was also more effective than short-term or less organized programs in sustaining motivation over time. Cooperative learning strategies and goal-setting interventions showed moderate motivational gains but lacked the consistency and scalability demonstrated by SDT-aligned models. Reviews by Fernández-Espínola et al. [39] and Jeong et al. [47] revealed the benefits of these approaches, though evidence may be variable. A key finding was the consistently strong performance of the Sport Education Model (SEM) in promoting sustained motivation and engagement. SEM’s emphasis on team roles, season-long gameplay, and student-led activities appears to foster deeper psychological involvement and identity formation in sport participation. In comparison to more generic or short-term interventions, like isolated goal-setting activities or unstructured cooperative learning, SEM demonstrated more robust and lasting motivational outcomes. This contrasts with earlier reviews, such as Kriemler et al. [33], which found limited long-term benefits from traditional or non-theory-based PE interventions. While some reviews suggested that cooperative learning could enhance relatedness and enjoyment, the lack of sustained engagement or transfer to out-of-school physical activity raises questions about the scalability and depth of these methods. Despite these promising results, discrepancies emerged across reviews regarding the durability of motivational improvements. While SDT-based interventions effectively increased motivation in the short term, few studies tracked outcomes beyond six months, and even fewer examined actual behavioural change in PA levels over the long term. For instance, while several reviews reported increased motivation and enjoyment, they did not necessarily find corresponding increases in habitual PA participation. This is reflected in the findings of Owen et al. [50] which noted a weak correlation between short-term motivational gains and sustained PA behaviour. These discrepancies may reflect the multifaceted nature of behaviour change. It suggested that motivation alone may be insufficient and requires complement by supportive environmental or policy-level factors.

Notable gaps were identified in the literature. Only one review was focused on students with disabilities, highlighting a significant underrepresentation of marginalized groups, particularly those with neurodevelopmental issues like autism spectrum disorder, ADHD, or physical abnormalities. Most studies were conducted in Western or high-income settings. There was a lack of research in non-Western context with limited resources and attention directed to culturally diverse or low-resource environments. This lack of inclusivity limited the generalizability of findings and the need for more equitable research. In terms of motivational outcomes, intrinsic motivation, enjoyment, and BPN satisfaction were the most frequently researched indicators of effectiveness. Even though several reviews demonstrated that increased motivation could lead to higher levels of physical activity, Kriemler et al. [33] found limited evidence of long-term behavioral change resulting from these interventions. Additional factors such as policies and supportive environment would be necessary to sustain physical activity over time.

As included review studies varied in quality, some demonstrate high heterogeneity and risk of bias. The reliance on peer-reviewed, English-language publications may have introduced publication bias. Furthermore, outcome measures differed across studies, with tools such as the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) and Basic Psychological Needs Theory (BPNT) being used inconsistently, complicating direct comparisons. Most studies also assessed outcomes over short timeframes, with few examining effects beyond six months, limiting understanding of long-term efficacy. Therefore, the conclusions drawn from this review should be considered along with these methodological issues. This review has several limitations. The conclusions are constrained by the quality and scope of the underlying reviews, which exhibited significant heterogeneity in methods and outcomes. The exclusion of grey literature and non-English studies may have introduced publication and language bias. Furthermore, the narrative synthesis, while appropriate for the diverse evidence, precludes quantitative conclusions about the overall effect size of these interventions.

This umbrella review provides compelling evidence that school-based interventions grounded in Self-Determination Theory and implemented through pedagogical models like the Sport Education Model are highly effective in fostering motivation for physical activity and sport among children and adolescents. These models consistently promote positive psychological outcomes. The teacher's role in creating a need-supportive environment is crucial. Yet, their long-term impact on students’ persistence in sports and physical exercise remains inconclusive. To combat declining PA levels in youth, a systemic shift towards these theory-driven, student-centered approaches in schools is strongly recommended. This review also identifies clear priorities for future research. First, intervention studies must be more inclusive, actively involving students with disabilities and from diverse cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds. Second, comparative effectiveness research is needed to directly contrast different motivational approaches (e.g., SEM vs. Cooperative Learning) to identify the most potent and scalable strategies. Finally, the role of technology and digital platforms in delivering motivational interventions warrants further exploration. Thus, future interventions must focus on developing inclusive, long-term, and culturally adaptable interventions to ensure all students can benefit. Future research could prioritize longitudinal designs and address gaps related to cultural relevance, inclusivity, and sustainability, particularly for underrepresented segment. Policymakers could encourage educators to adopt scalable, theory-driven approaches in designing interventions which emphasize motivational quality over mere quantity of activity, which may be crucial in promoting students’ participation in sports and physical activities.

Abbreviations

AGT

Achievement Goal Theory

AMSTAR

A MeaSurement Tool to Assess systematic Reviews

BPN

Basic Psychological Needs

BPNT

Basic Psychological Needs Theory

PA

Physical Activity

PE

Physical Education

PICO

Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome

PRISMA

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses

SDT

Self-Determination Theory

SEM

Sport Education Model

TCM

Trans-Contextual Model

TPB

Theory of Planned Behavior

WHO

World Health Organization

Authors’ contributions

All authors contributed substantially to the conception, design, data collection, analysis, and writing of the study. All authors have reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript. Shuguang Shan: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Data Curation, Writing – Original Draft, Supervision, Project administration. Ke Peng: Investigation, Data Curation, Formal analysis, Writing – Review & Editing. Yuanyuan Feng: Validation, Writing – Review & Editing, Visualization.

Funding

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

The data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Due to the nature of this research (an umbrella review), the data consist of previously published systematic reviews, which are publicly available through their respective sources. The dataset of included reviews generated and analyzed during the current study is available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Not applicable. This study is an umbrella review of previously published systematic reviews and does not involve direct human or animal participation.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.