Beyond household meals: a game-based approach to unveiling the role of insects in Malagasy children’s diets

Abstract

Background

Insects have long been an integral part of Malagasy cuisine; however, their role in children’s lives outside traditional household contexts remains overlooked. This study examined the non-familial collection and consumption of edible insects among Malagasy children aged 6 to 15 years in rural communities of the Analamanga region in central Madagascar.

Methods

Using two different assessment methods, direct questioning with adults and a game-based approach with children, we investigated children’s activities with edible insects during play. The findings revealed important differences between the two methods. Ethical compliance was confirmed by the institutional committee, which reviewed and approved the study design prior to data collection.

Results

Adults identified eight insect species consumed by children while playing, whereas children themselves reported consuming eleven species, suggesting that direct questioning may overlook certain aspects of children’s diets. The game-based approach proved to be a more effective tool in revealing hidden consumption patterns, as it allowed children to naturally show their interactions with insects. Overall, 35% of children’s games involved insects, with 71% of these games leading to consumption. On average, children consumed insects while playing three times a week, in addition to any insect intake during household meals, indicating a separate pathway of entomophagy. The most commonly consumed species include beetles such as Voangory (Scarabaeidae: Melolonthinae) and Voanosy (Curculionidae: Polycleis Marshall, 1916), which are often collected during the rainy season, a period of food scarcity.

Conclusions

The findings highlight the importance of alternative, child-centered methods for studying food consumption practices. Game-based observation can reveal informal eating practices that are invisible to adult-reported surveys. These results confirm the nutritional and cultural significance of edible insects in Madagascar, highlight the surprisingly frequent consumption of insects outside formal meal contexts by children, and reveal overlooked pathways relevant to food security.

Introduction

In Madagascar, biodiversity provides resources for rural communities, including medicinal plants used for healthcare [1–3], materials for household needs, and food [4, 5]. Insects, in particular, hold important cultural and practical significance in Malagasy culture [6]. The importance of insects in Malagasy beliefs and traditions is exemplified by the moth Erebus walkeri Butler, 1875, commonly known as “Lolo-paty,” meaning “spirit of the dead.” This species evokes both fear and reverence among local populations [7]. Malagasy also took lessons from insects to teach wisdom, as reflected in their proverbs—105 of which specifically reference insects [8]. In traditional medicine, insects play a therapeutic role. For instance, butterflies and honey are used to treat nocturnal enuresis in children [9], and beetles are a remedy for coughs [10]. Additionally, insects have long been a traditional ingredient of the Malagasy diet, with over 100 different insect species consumed across the island [6, 11, 12]. However, our understanding of the extent of entomophagy among the Malagasy population remains limited, particularly regarding its consumption by children outside of the household context.

During the seventeenth century, European explorers documented that insects were consumed alongside rice [6, 13]. Some visitors even noted their own appreciation for insects, influenced by the Malagasy people’s enjoyment of them [14]. Insects are consumed throughout the year; however, consumption levels vary depending on the species and the season [15]. Consumption is particularly high during the lean period, which aligns with the rainy season [16].

In rural areas of Madagascar, insects are primarily harvested from the wild, and represent an important component of family meals and local diets [17]. Insect collectors primarily consume their harvest during family meals, while some insects are sold in local markets to buyers that also prepare and consume these insects at home [15, 16]. In addition to routine collection, insects are also collected by the community during plague locust invasions, involving all household members [16].

Recent research suggests that children are among the most active insect gatherers [12, 15]. Research on edible insects in Madagascar can be divided into three categories: descriptive studies that catalogue the different edible insect species [11, 12]; explanatory studies of interventions that foster conceptual change using edible insects as a solution to malnutrition and their economic benefit [17–20]; and education to adopt edible insects as a new alternative food habit [21, 22]. However, accurately assessing the quantity of insects consumed by individuals remains a significant research challenge. This difficulty arises from potential reluctance to disclose true consumption details during rapid survey interviews, as well as the perception that insect consumption may not always be considered “eating” in the conventional Malagasy sense. These issues have to be addressed to get an accurate picture of insect consumption in Madagascar.

This study aimed at addressing this gap in knowledge about the role of edible and other insects in the daily lives of Malagasy children, especially outside household settings. In Madagascar, children often play with insects. For example, they play with grasshoppers called “Valala” (in this case Gastrimargus Saussure, 1884) by removing their hind leg so the grasshopper cannot fly and herding them like cattle [21]. Children also organized cricket fights (Gryllus Linnaeus, 1758) [13], and collect and consume insects during planting season [12, 15]. Therefore, consumption of insects by children may differ significantly from those of adults if this consumption takes place during games. Moreover, eating insects during games may be perceived as part of the game rather than actual food consumption, a nuance that previous research may have overlooked. Examining this practice may shed light on how edible insects could contribute, even modestly, to the diets of Malagasy children.

To this end, we used an indirect approach to investigate the hidden consumption of insects by children in a non-family meal context. Rather than directly inquiring about insect consumption, which could influence responses or be overlooked by children who may not consider “eating during play” as actual eating, we conducted a survey focusing on games played by children. This approach allowed us to better understand children’s interactions with insects and their consumption outside traditional family meals. Specifically, the objectives of this study were to (i) assess children’s knowledge of edible insects and their interactions with insects during play, and (ii) explore the informal consumption of edible insects as food or snacks outside of family meals.

By focusing on children’s knowledge and interactions with insects during play, this research provided valuable insights into how insects may enter their diets and support well-being, and highlighted the potential of edible insects as a sustainable and nutritious food source in Madagascar’s future.

Materials and methods

Ethics and consent to participate

This study received ethical approval from The Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Economics, Management, and Sociology at the University of Antananarivo before conducting the fieldwork (approval from July 1st, 2024). The study was authorized by the mayors of the three communes and the heads of each fokontany (village). Informed oral consent to participate was obtained from all adult participants by the interviewer in the presence of a research assistant. For participants who were minors, informed oral consent to participate was obtained from their parents or legal guardians under the same conditions.

Study site

This study was conducted between 1 August and 30 September 2024, in three rural communes of the Ambohidratrimo District in the Analamanga region, located in the central highlands of Madagascar. These sites were selected for two main reasons: first, edible insects are already part of the local community’s diet [9, 15, 21]; and second, the rural zone of the central highlands has a significant rate (31%) of child malnutrition [16].

The first site, Ambatolampy Tsimahafotsy (−18.7594°, 47.5017°), is located 18 km north of Antananarivo, the capital city of Madagascar. The second site, Ivato Aéroport (− 18.8083°, 47.4817°), is 15 km northwest of Antananarivo. The third site, Merimandroso (−18.7858°, 47.5131°), is located 32 km northwest of Antananarivo. The region has two distinct seasons: a hot, humid season from October to April, and a cool, dry season from May to September [23]. The population in these areas is predominantly Merina (85%), along with smaller groups of Betsileo and Sihanaka [6].

Assessment of diets in the study sites and the games

Our objective was to study and quantify the consumption of insects by children in a recreational context.

To understand the role of insects in the study sites, including the dietary context in which this practice occurs, we assessed both the dietary and insect consumption habits as perceived by adults. Additionally, adults were asked to describe the games children play that involve insects. We conducted a survey with 120 randomly selected adult informants at the market during market days at each study site, assuming that those purchasing food were responsible for preparing household meals. The survey collected information on the primary food items and accompanying dishes (“loaka”) consumed. To minimize informant frustration, a semi-structured questionnaire, which took a maximum of 10 min to complete, was used. Additionally, the survey included questions on the frequency of consumption to ensure the inclusion of edible insects in the dietary assessment across the three study sites. The questionnaire was conducted orally by two people: one interviewer who asked the questions and another person who took notes and ensured that all questions were asked.

Assessment of children's play activities and insect consumption

To understand where children play, the types of games they engage in, and to get an idea of the insects involved in their games, interviews were first conducted with young adult individuals (aged 16–25) or parents (if young adults were unavailable). It was assumed that these young adults were most familiar with children’s recreational habits. These interviews also helped to identify which insects were considered edible by young adults, as they may have passed this knowledge to children.

Children were interviewed regarding the games they played regularly in a way preventing bias toward plays involving insects. Semi-structured questionnaires were used during the interviews, with two interviewers assigned distinct roles. One interviewer focused on building trust with the children, asking questions, while the other acted as a recorder, taking detailed notes on all responses and ensuring that no questions were missed. This approach helped minimize distractions and maintain the children’s attention and trust throughout the process.

Survey sample methods

This research targeted children aged 6 to 15 years in rural Madagascar through games, with the goal of identifying insect collection and consumption practices outside of their households. The research project was approved by the head of the mayor of the three communes and each fokontany. The investigators conducted an intensive two-week training program focused on the techniques for interviewing children. The training covered methods from previous work that is similar to the study, incorporating techniques such as contextual reconstruction, comprehensive reporting, varied recall orders, and multiple perspectives to enhance the completeness and accuracy of children’s recall [23, 24]. Additionally, practice sessions were organized in areas outside the study site to familiarize the team with these strategies.

Data collection

This investigation was conducted in two stages. The first stage was the survey with young adults (aged 16–25), assessing the game knowledge, their understanding of edible insects consumed outside the household and the places where children play. This allowed us to locate children easily. We used a door-to-door interview approach, following a zigzag pattern, to cover the villages, based on a method from a previous study [25]. In total, 98 households were interviewed across the three study sites, with one individual from each household participating. These households were selected such that we chose one house randomly and then, starting from that house, we counted three houses and then interviewed the third house using a semi-structured survey. The survey typically began early in the morning, before family members left the house for school or the field [11]. The second stage used a different survey to collect information from groups of children (aged 6 to 15), comprising 117 groups and 726 individuals, with an average of six participants per group (Table 1). To conduct the investigation, we followed the following steps: (i) Identification of Play Areas: based on information from the first stage, we identified locations where children commonly gather to play; (ii) Explaining the study to the children: upon arrival, we explained the purpose of the study to the children (study of games), followed by a representative from each respective site to ensure that children’s well-being was respected; (iii) Age categorization: to minimize the influence of older children on younger children’s responses, we divided the children into three age groups: 6–9, 10–12, and 13–15 years old.

Table 1.

Distribution of the number of focus groups (FG) and participants (Pt) sample size across the three study sites

Site	Ambatolampy		Ivato		Merimandroso		Total
Target age-sex group	FG	Pt	FG	Pt	FG	Pt	FG	Pt
Male 6–9 years	9	54	2	11	4	26	15	91
Female 6–9 years	7	42	1	6	6	30	14	78
Mixed 6–9 years	2	12	1	7	2	12	5	31
Male 10–12 years	12	72	1	9	9	62	22	143
Female 10–12 years	11	66	3	13	9	54	23	133
Mixed 10–12 years	3	18	2	12	6	36	11	66
Male 13–15 years	8	48	1	7	6	55	15	110
Female 13–15 years	5	35	1	5	2	12	8	52
Mixed 13–15 years	2	12	1	5	1	5	4	22
Total							117	726

FG = focus groups; Pt = participants

We asked children to form small groups of approximately six individuals, so that all members would have the opportunity to speak. The groups were formed naturally, with the assumption that children would gather with friends with whom they were used to play.

Once the group was formed, the interviewer asked each child to list the games they used to play, while the recorder took careful notes of that list. After a child finished listing their games, the interviewer asked about the components or main focus of each game, following the same order. This was done to determine whether insects were involved in the game in an unbiased manner. Every insect-related game was written on a small piece of paper that was used at the next step.

After all group members had taken turns, all small pieces of paper with the names of the games were placed into a box or hat to enable random selection. This randomization was intended to prevent any bias or suspicion regarding the study’s primary focus (insect consumption during recreational activities). The same group of children was then asked to designate a representative, who was invited to draw a paper from the hat. Upon reading aloud the selected game, the interviewer asked the group to reenact it. Depending on whether the chosen game was individual or team-based, the protocol was subsequently adapted to reflect the appropriate gameplay dynamics.

Individual games

If the selected game was designed for one individual, the interviewer asked one volunteer from the group to demonstrate it, provided the necessary materials were available. If not, participants were encouraged to mimic the game. The rest of the group acted as observers, offering assistance or comments if any steps were missed or performed incorrectly.

For instance, during the game “Famadihana” (a game that imitates the traditional practice called “Famadihana”, the exhumation), children engaged in imaginative play using large insects such as grasshoppers (Nomadacris Serville, 1838), locusts (Locusta Linnaeus, 1758)—both known as “Valala”—praying mantises (mostly of the genus Polyspilota Burmeister, 1838) called “Famakiloha”, and crickets (mostly of the genera Gryllus Linnaeus, 1758 and Teleogryllus Chopard, 1961) known as “Angelinkary”. They replicate real-life rituals by wrapping dead insects in leaves or small pieces of fabric and burying them as if they were performing a funeral.

Team games

If the game required teamwork, the interviewer asked the group to divide into teams as needed. While the children demonstrated or mimicked the game, one interviewer asked questions to gather general information about the activity. Simultaneously, the second interviewer took notes to ensure all relevant details were captured. Two scenarios were considered during the interviews. For example, during “Fanihifana” (a game where children mimic fishing using a tablecloth), children reproduced the game by mimicking it.

Spontaneous mention of insect consumption during team games

If insect consumption occurred spontaneously during the game, the interviewer asked follow-up questions about the quantity and frequency of consumption.

Non-spontaneous mention of insect consumption during team games

If mention of games involving insect consumption did not occur spontaneously, the interviewer introduced the topic with questions like, “Do you ever do anything besides playing with insects?” or “Is there anything else you do with insects besides playing?” If insect consumption was taking place during the game, the interviewer asked about the quantity and frequency of consumption. If no insect consumption was associated with the game, follow-up questions were asked to explore why insects were not consumed.

Results

Dietary habits in the study sites

The dietary habits of the three communes rely on rain-fed agriculture, such as cassava, maize, rice, sweet potato and taro (Fig. 1). Rice is the main consumed staple food, accompanied by legumes, vegetables and a small quantity of animal protein. During planting season from November to February, food scarcity occurs, and the frequency of rice consumption diminishes considerably. When this occurs, rice is replaced more frequently by cassava, maize, sweet potato and taro.

Fig. 1.

Proportion of main food consumption reported by informants in markets across three study communes. Bars represent mean consumption proportions, with error bars indicating standard error of the mean (SEM)

During the study period, food scarcity was not severe. Therefore, rice was consumed most frequently, with an average of 5.1 times per week. Cassava followed with an average consumption of 3.2 times per week, while maize was consumed 2.4 times per week. Taro and sweet potato were consumed at similar rates, with averages of 2.2 and 2.1 times per week, respectively. The number of informants who cited the frequency of these main foods is shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2.

The frequency of weekly consumption of primary food (rice, cassava, maize, taro, and sweet potato) as reported by informants in the three rural communes

In Malagasy cuisine, the main foods, such as rice and cassava, are accompanied by other food items known as “loaka”. The results from the informants in the markets of the three study sites revealed that proteins from vegetable and animal sources were rarely consumed, with averages of 1.2 and 2.4 times per week, respectively. The number of informants who cited the frequency of these main food accompaniments is shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3.

Weekly intake of "loaka" (accompaniments) among individuals in the three rural communes, categorized by different food items

Insect consumption in the study sites: insights from adult informants in local markets

Informants in the study sites mentioned various preferred edible insects (Table 2). However, it was sometimes difficult to determine the exact species mentioned by the informants. One challenge was that different insects can have the same Malagasy name. For instance, the vernacular term Valala is used broadly to refer to various species of grasshoppers and locusts, including Paracinema tricolor (Thunberg, 1815) and Locusta (Linnaeus, 1758). Another issue is that one species of insect can have different names. For instance, an adult cricket (Gryllus Linnaeus, 1758) is called “Angelinkary” or “Akitra,” while a larva of a dragonfly is generally called “Ondrin-drano”, but sometimes also “Tsikona”.

Table 2.

Insects involved in children’s play and consumption: comparison of adult perceptions and observed child practices across study sites

Insects (and spiders) used in the game			Vernacular game name	Games cited by young adults (Y) or children (C)	Consumption by children
Malagasy	English name and genus	Order, Family			According to adults	Actual consumption during the game
Bibikely lava-lava	Large insects in general, e.g.: Locusts, Grasshoppers (Locusta Linnaeus, 1758, Nomadacris Serville, 1838); Crickets (Gryllus Linnaeus, 1758); Praying mantids (Polyspilota Burmeister, 1838)	Orthoptera, Mantoptera, etc	Famadihana	Y/C	–	No
Bibikely rehetra	Insects in general (larva of dragonfly, of beetles, grasshoppers, locusts, diving beetles	Odonatoptera, Coleoptera, Orthoptera, etc	Tsikonina	Y/C	–	Yes
Tsidadaka	Giant water bugs (Lethocerus Mayr, 1853)	Hemiptera, Belostomatidae	Maka tsidadaka	Y	–	–
Jorery	Cicada (Yanga Distant, 1904 and other genera)	Hemiptera, Cicadidae	Milalao jorery	Y/C	Yes	Yes
Votry	Termite (Odontotermes Holmgren, 1912 and related genera)	Blattodea, Termitidae	Maka votry	Y/C	–	No
Famakiloa	Praying mantis (Polyspilota Burmeister, 1838 and other genera)	Mantoptera, Mantidae	Mampiady famakiloa	Y/C	No	Yes
Angelinkary	Cricket (Gryllus Linnaeus, 1758 and related genera)	Orthoptera, Gryllidae	Maka angely	Y/C	No	Yes
Valala	Locusts, grasshoppers (Locusta Linnaeus, 1758,Nomadacris Serville, 1838, and other genera)	Orthoptera, Acrididae, Cyrtacanthacrididae	Milalao valala	Y/C	Yes	Yes
Valala	Locusts, grasshoppers (Nomadacris Serville, 1838)	Orthoptera, Cyrtacanthacrididae	Zioga	Y/C	–	No
Ondrindrano	Dragonfly larvae	Odonatoptera, Libellulidae	Misaka Ondrindrano (manihika)	Y/C	Yes	Yes
Angidina	Dragonfly (Hemistigma Kirby, 1889, Orthetrum Newman, 1833 and other genera)	Odonatoptera, Libellulidae	Elikôptera	Y/C	No	Yes
Vitsika	Ant (Camponotus Mayr 1861, and other genera)	Hymenoptera, Formicidae	Mampiady vitsikabe	Y	–	–
Soavalivy	Beetle (Phlocteis Kerremans, 1893)	Coleoptera, Buprestidae	Mampiady Soavalivy	Y	–	–
Voangaly	Beetle (Polybothris Spinola, 1837)	Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae	Milalao voangaly	Y	–	–
Voangory	Beetle (Melolonthinae)	Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae	Milalao voangory	Y/C	Yes	Yes
Voangory fotsy vody	Beetle (Hoplochelus Blanchard, 1851)	Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae	Milalao voangory fotsy vody	Y/C	Yes	Yes
Voanosy	Beetle (Polycleis Marshall, 1916)	Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae	Milalao voanosy	Y/C	Yes	Yes
Sakivy	Beetle larvae	Coleoptera	Manjono sakivy	Y/C	Yes	Yes
Fandiorano	Whirligig beetles (Dineutus Laporte, 1835 and other genera)	Coleoptera, Gyrinidae	Milalao fandiorano	Y	–	–
Tsikovoka	Diving beetle (Madaglymbus Shaverdo & Balke, 2008 and other genera)	Coleoptera, Dytiscidae	Misaka Tsikovoka	Y/C	Yes	Yes
Polisin-dalitra	Jumping spider (Evarcha Simon, 1902 and/or related genera)	Araneae, Salticidae	Mamahana Polisin-dalitra	Y	–	–
Ganify	Green spider (Peucetia Thorell, 1869)	Araneae, Oxyopidae	Mampiady ganify	Y	–	–
Foniala	Spider (Nephila Leach, 1815)	Araneae, Araneidae	Maka foniala	Y	–	–

Y: games cited by young adults; C: games cited by children; Yes: consumption (mentioned by adults; actual consumption by children); No: no consumption (explicitly mentioned by adults; no observation of consumption by children during this work); -: no mention by adults, no observation involving children during this work

The most common insects consumed in the study sites, according to adult informants, consist of different beetles found in the wild, eaten both as larvae (“Sakivy”) and as adults (“Voangory” [Melolonthinae] and “Voanosy” [Polycleis Marshall, 1916]). “Valala” (Locusta Linnaeus, 1758) are also caught in the wild, especially during invasions. Other insects are known and consumed irregularly, such as crickets (“Akitra” or “Angelinkary” [Gryllus Linnaeus, 1758]), which are mostly given to children with speech difficulties, as they are believed to help children speak; cicadas (Yanga Distant, 1904 and other genera), referred to as “Jorery”; and diving beetles (Madaglymbus Shaverdo & Balke, 2008), known as “Tsikovoka”. These insects are mostly harvested in the wild. In the region, some farms produce domesticated silkworms “Zana-dandy” (Borocera Boisduval, 1833), and farmers sometimes sell them.

Most informants in the markets of the three study sites reported that insects appear in successive short periods throughout the year, and their collection follows this availability. For example, “Valala” (grasshoppers) are present year-round but are collected in small quantities, except during invasions. Additionally, “Angelinkary” (cricket) are rarely consumed by adults, as they are believed to help children overcome speech difficulties. As a result, adults encourage children to eat them as snacks. Moreover, informants mentioned that praying mantis eggs, which are laid on the leaves of “bozaka”, are traditionally used to prevent children from wetting the bed at night. Insect availability peaks during the hot and rainy season, a period when harvesting intensifies and often becomes a collective activity involving the entire family. However, adult men and women may be less involved as they are occupied with their main work, leaving young adults and children to do most of the collection. In this season, insects are more commonly used as accompaniments (“loaka”) to staple foods (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4.

Insect consumption reported by adult informants in the market (n = 120). Consumers: Percentage of informants reporting the consumption of at least one insect species. Subsequent Bars: Percentage of informants reporting the consumption of each specific insect species

According to adult informants, the most widely consumed insects are adult beetles: 32% of respondents reported eating Voangory, 26% Voanosy, and 17% Voangory fotsy vody (Fig. 4). These beetles accounted for the highest weekly consumption frequencies among all taxa (Fig. 5). Other edible insects mentioned included beetle larvae (Sakivy, 7%), locusts and grasshoppers (Valala, 8%), cicadas (Jorery, 6%), dragonfly larvae (Ondrindrano, 9%), diving beetles (Tsikovoka, 3%), and silkworms (Zana-dandy, 11%). Only a small minority of respondents (4 out of 120) declared not consuming any insects at all. In the case of the silkworm, it is sold in the market two to three times a week. It is reared by a limited number of farmers; however, it is rarely encountered in the wild locally due to the scarcity of its host plant species (Uapaca bojeri).

Fig. 5.

Frequency of insect consumption per week as reported by adult informants. The bars represent the number of adult informants reporting weekly consumption of a specific insect species during the insect season, with color indicating the frequency of consumption

Discrepancies between adult perceptions and children's actual insect consumption during play

We used two distinct methods to assess children’s consumption of edible insects outside the context of family meals, depending on whether the data were collected from adults or directly from children. Our findings revealed notable differences between the two groups. Adults identified eight (8) insect species that children consume while playing, whereas children themselves reported eating eleven (11) (Table 2). These results suggest that children consume insects beyond those commonly recognized as edible by their parents. While playing outside, children ate a wider variety of insects than those typically consumed at home.

Perception of young adults regarding children’s games and involvement of insects in the games

The young adult informants interviewed across the study sites mentioned a total of five kinds of recreational places were mentioned: Tani-mbary (near rice fields), Tani-mboly (close to cultivated land), Tanety (wide open areas with long grass and a few trees), Amoron-drano (by lakesides and riversides), and Antanàna (around houses). These places provide various materials that children can transform into fun games and allow catching different types of animals to play with. Consequently, in every location where children played, insects were readily available, providing ample opportunity for them to include insects in their games. Young adults listed a total of 64 games, involving a variety of components such as artifacts, body movements, animals (birds, fish, crustaceans, mammals, reptiles, insects), and plants. Among the 64 games listed by young adults, 36% had insects as a main component (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6.

Distribution of games by primary component involved based on reports and observations

Among these insect-related games, 21% involved insect consumption. Young adult informants reported that children played with insects and consumed insects outside the context of fixed daily meal times. Some of the insects mentioned as components of games are also part of the local diet in the three villages investigated. These include larvae and adult beetles (Melolonthinae and Polycleis Marshall, 1916), grasshoppers (Gastrimargus Saussure, 1884), locusts (Locusta Linnaeus, 1758), crickets (Gryllus Linnaeus, 1758), cicadas (Cicada Linnaeus, 1758), and diving beetles (Madaglymbus Shaverdo & Balke, 2008 and other genera). However, one insect, the dragonfly (Orthetrum Newman, 1833 or related genera), and one spider, the “Foniala” (Nephila Leach, 1815), were mentioned by young adults as edible but were not mentioned by adult informants in the market surveys. Dragonflies and golden spiders were considered by young adults to be consumed by children while playing. In contrast, the remaining insects were considered by the young adults to be unsafe for consumption.

Children assessment

This section presents the results from interviews with children, focusing on their participation in games involving insects. These data were collected through direct discussions about the games children played as well as demonstrations of these games, providing firsthand insight into the types of insects they consumed during play. In the three study sites, the majority of children (98%) collected insects while playing outdoors. However, some (56%) reported collecting insects primarily to bring them home for meals, playing with only a few during playtime. The number of insects collected varied by species, with adult beetles being the most commonly collected in terms of quantity. Some insect species were not consumed at all while playing.

Games with insects

In the three communes we visited, children identified 41 games with different primary components, including artifacts, balls, body movements, crustaceans, fish, insects, mammals, reptiles, and technology. Among these games, 35% involved insects (Fig. 6). This indicates that insects remain an important component of Malagasy traditional games.

Utilization and collection of insects in the games

The majority (98%) of interviewed children used insects while they were playing outside their household. Both boys and girls used insects in games. However, some insect-related games were considered boys’ games: “Mampiady famakiloha” (fights between praying mantises), “Maka votry” (collecting termites by digging into the mound) and “Zioga” (grasshoppers used to mimic zebus pulling a cart), and others were viewed as girls’ games “Manihika” (collecting aquatic organisms using a fine-mesh fishing net) and “Tsikonina” (engaging in miniature versions of household cooking). This does not mean these games were strictly limited to one gender.

Adult beetles and beetle larvae

Adult beetles were the most consumed insects, occurring from mid-October to late December. Children played with adult beetles mostly five days a week during this period. Children caught beetles at dusk, when the insects emerged and stood on trees and bushes. Children organized team-based contests, where the team that caught the most beetles won. On average, every child collected 12 beetles per month during this period while playing. During the dry season, children mainly collected “Sakivy” (larvae of beetles) while accompanying their parents in fields for off-season cropping. However, in “Tanety” (open grasslands), children inserted a thin stick into the burrow of the larvae, mimicking the fishing process. They waited for the “Sakivy” to bite the stick and then pulled it out. On average, every child collected 5 “Sakivy” per month during the season while they were playing.

Cicada

Children mentioned two games related to “Jorery” (Cicada Linnaeus, 1758). The first game is “Jorery akira”. This game involves multiple children, who press on cicadas to make them sing, triggering a chorus response from other cicadas nearby. The second game is “Mampiady Jorery”. This game involves two players who compete by squeezing cicadas to make them sing; the cicada that stops singing first determines the loser. On average, children collected five cicadas per month during the season while playing. The cicada season extends from November to March, when these insects appear in large numbers.

Cricket

In general, children did not collect crickets as a primary activity, but if they did it was for fun. Crickets were often collected by children under 12 because it is culturally seen as a children’s activity. In Malagasy culture crickets are traditionally believed to help children with speech development. Children collected an average of 4 crickets per month during the season while playing. Crickets are present throughout the year; children did not specify which period of year crickets are present.

Diving beetles and dragonfly larvae

“Tsikovoka” or “Tsingala” (diving beetles) and “Ondrindrano” (dragonfly larvae) are typically found in freshwater and are often collected during a local game called “Fanihifana” or “Fisakana Pirina”, which involves catching small fish known as “Pirina” (Bedotia Regan, 1903). These insects are not intentionally sought but are by-products of the game, which is usually played by girls in teams of three to four. Children said that it was believed that during the dry and cool seasons, consuming Tsikovoka helps combat flu and coughs. On average, children caught six dragonfly larvae at a time, and they collected these six dragonfly larvae four times per month.

Grasshopper

In the game “Zioga”, mostly played by boys, children mimicked zebus pulling a cart. Children made a small cart with sticks and had two grasshoppers (Gastrimargus Saussure, 1884) pulling it (Fig. 7). Girls rarely played this game and rarely played with grasshoppers. In contrast, when they did, they often participated alongside boys in a game called “Valakely,” which involved herding grasshoppers like cattle. Sometimes, grasshoppers were also collected for a game called “Famadihana”, which replicated a Malagasy traditional ritual. In this game, children wrapped dead insects in leaves or small pieces of torn cloth or put the dead insects in a small box and buried them as if performing a funeral. During focus group discussions, children mentioned grilling grasshoppers on sticks, similar to skewers. This game imitated the Malagasy street food commonly called “Tsaky”. On average, they collected six grasshoppers per month during the season while playing. Grasshoppers were present all year but in November to February grasshoppers were available in larger quantities.

Fig. 7.

Seasonal variation in insect collection by children. This figure illustrates that insect collection is markedly higher during the rainy season compared to the dry season. It also demonstrates that children engage in insect collection throughout the year. Note that this figure represents insect collection activity only and does not necessarily imply subsequent consumption

Praying mantis and termite

Children played with praying mantis (Polyspilota Burmeister, 1838) for fun, often organizing fights between them, making both the capture and combat part of the game. Conversely, termite (Odontotermes Holmgren, 1912 and related genera) were not usually played with by children but were instead fed to chickens and ducks. Children affirmed that giving insects to poultry promoted faster growth and weight gain (“Matavy ny akoho mihinana Votry”). Children collected on average three praying mantises and one full hand (around 50 g) of termites.

The number of insects collected varied by species and season. On average, insect collection occurred four times a week during the rainy season, particularly in November and December. The collection patterns differed between boys and girls depending on the insect species. While children collected insects throughout the year, both quantity and type of insects collected during the rainy season were significantly higher than in the dry season (Fig. 7).

Insect consumption in children's games: types of games, insect utilization, species involved and frequency of consumption

In the three study sites, the majority of children (78%) consumed insects while playing outdoors. However, a smaller proportion (28%) reported not consuming insects during recreational times. The number of insects consumed varied by species, by season, by gender, and some insects were not consumed at all while playing (Table 3).

Table 3.

The average quantity of insect consumption related to the game by season (6 months) by children

Game	English name and genus	Consumption	Quantity (insect number)
			Rainy season	Dry Season
Famadihana	Locust (Locusta Linnaeus, 1758, Nomadacris Serville, 1838)	No	–	–
	Cricket (Gryllus Linnaeus, 1758 and related genera)	No	–	–
	Praying mantid (Polyspilota Burmeister, 1838)	No	–	–
Maka angely	Cricket (Gryllus Linnaeus, 1758 and related genera)	Yes	6	6
Maka votry	Termite (Capritermes Wasmann, 1897 and related genera)	No	–	–
Mampiady famakiloha	Praying mantis (Polyspilota Burmeister, 1838 and other genera)	Yes	4	2
Manjono sakivy	Beetle larvae	Yes	–	9
Milalao jorery	Cicada (Yanga Distant, 1904 and other genera)	Yes	4	–
Milalao valala	Locusts (Locusta Linnaeus, 1758, Nomadacris Serville, 1838)	Yes	9	5
Milalao voangory	Beetle (Melolonthinae)	Yes	6	–
Milalao voangory fotsy vody	Beetle (Hoplochelus Blanchard, 1851)	Yes	12	–
Milalao voanosy	Beetle (Polycleis Marshall, 1916)	Yes	12	–
Misaka	Dragonfly (dragonfly larvae)	Yes	–	7
	Diving beetle (Madaglymbus Shaverdo & Balke, 2008)	Yes	4	8
Tsikonina	Dragonfly (dragonfly larvae)	Yes	–	8
	Beetle (beetle larvae)	Yes	–	4
	Diving beetle (Madaglymbus Shaverdo & Balke, 2008 and other genera)	Yes	–	3
	Locusts, grasshoppers (Locusta Linnaeus, 1758, Gastrimargus Saussure, 1884, Nomadacris Serville, 1838)	Yes	6	3
	Beetle (Melolonthinae)	Yes	5	–
	Dragonfly (Hemistigma Kirby, 1889, Orthetrum Newman, 1833 and other genera)	Yes	3	2
	Beetle (Polycleis Marshall, 1916)	Yes	12	–
Zioga	Locusts, grasshoppers (Gastrimargus Saussure, 1884, Nomadacris Serville, 1838)	No	–	–

Rows correspond to game–insect combinations; repeated taxa reflect different games or collection contexts. Quantities represent approximate numbers consumed per child per month, based on reported play frequency

Of the 35% of games involving insects, 26% included insect consumption during play. Most of the insects featured in these games were familiar to children, as they were already part of the local diet in the three communes. These included larvae and adult forms of beetles (Melolonthinae; Polycleis Marshall, 1916), grasshoppers (Gastrimargus Saussure, 1884), crickets (Gryllus Linnaeus, 1758), cicadas (Yanga Distant, 1904 and other genera), and diving beetles (Madaglymbus Shaverdo & Balke, 2008). However, only four games involving insects did not involve insect consumption (Table 3). There are two primary reasons for this. First, the objective of these games did not include consumption. For example, in the game “Famadihana”, large insects such as grasshoppers, crickets, and praying mantises were captured, wrapped in leaves or other materials, and then buried. Second, some insects were considered inedible; for example, termites were collected and fed to ducks or chickens rather than being consumed by children.

Adult beetles and beetle larvae

Adult beetles were the most consumed insects, available from mid-October to late December. On average, children reported consuming approximately 6 beetles per month during play-based activities. During the dry season from June to September, children mainly collected “Sakivy” (larvae of beetles) while accompanying their parents preparing the fields for off-season cropping. However, during the rainy season children took them on their own. On average, children reported consuming approximately 6 beetles per month during the season while playing.

Cicada

Children had difficulty catching cicadas (Yanga Distant, 1904 and other genera) as they were perched high on peach and jacaranda trees, making them challenging to capture. Children typically consumed cicadas out of curiosity, with most choosing to grill them. On average, they consumed three cicadas per month during the cicada abundance period from November to March.

Cricket

Children were generally reluctant to eat crickets (Gryllus Linnaeus, 1758), but they often played with them and were encouraged by their parents to consume them, as it was believed to help improve speech and articulation. On average, children consumed two crickets per month during the season while playing. This practice was most commonly observed among children under the age of 12, as it was seen as part of their developmental activities.

Grasshopper

Another commonly consumed insect was the grasshopper (Gastrimargus africanus Saussure, 1888), along with locusts (Locusta migratoria Linnaeus, 1758). Children consumed grasshoppers year-round, averaging two per month. However, from November to February, consumption increased, with children eating three to four grasshoppers per month.

Diving beetles and dragonfly larvae

Diving beetles (Madaglymbus Shaverdo & Balke, 2008 and other genera) and dragonfly larvae were by-products of the game “Fanihifana”, in which two teams competed to catch small fish, typically played three times a week. As these insects were not intentionally caught but rather a result of the game, children captured them in small quantities. Diving beetles were typically grilled after children removed the hard forewings. They placed the beetles on the fire and waited until they were cooked. On average, a child consumed about six diving beetles per month during the rice harvest season. Dragonfly larvae were collected in larger quantities and were separated from small fishes that were collected together. Children usually fried or boiled the larvae and shared them with their game partners. On average, children ate three to five dragonfly larvae depending on how many they caught.

Insect consumption by children varied between the dry and rainy seasons, as some insect species appeared periodically. The majority of insects were more abundant during the rainy season, with most consumption occurring in November and December. Additionally, not all games played by children involved consumption, even though the insects featured in these games were edible (Table 2). On average, children consumed insects while playing three times a week during the rainy season, particularly in November and December. During this period, insect collection often served as both a chore and a form of play, with children perceiving insects as both snacks and food. Collection patterns also differed between boys and girls, depending on the species of insects. While insect consumption occurred year-round, both the quantity and diversity of insects collected during the rainy season were significantly higher than during the dry season (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8.

Seasonal variation in insect consumption by children. This figure presents the diversity of insect species consumed by children throughout the year. Insect consumption is significantly higher during the rainy season, which coincides with peak abundance and availability of edible insect species

Discussion

This study offered new insights into the role of insects in the lives of Malagasy children, demonstrating their dual function as both an occasional food source and a central element of play and cultural expression. By employing an innovative methodological approach—observing children’s games rather than relying only on conventional interviews—we uncovered patterns of insect consumption that might remain underreported in adult recall-based surveys [14, 22]. We did not quantify insect biomass, portion sizes, or nutrient intake, and therefore cannot estimate the absolute dietary contribution of insects consumed during play.

In Madagascar, where entomophagy has long been a component of traditional diets [6, 11, 15], children’s involvement with edible insects extended beyond periods of food insecurity. While adults often described insect consumption as a seasonal or supplementary practice, our findings indicated that children incorporated insects into their diets spontaneously and regularly through play. Among the 41 games identified, 35% involved insects, and 71% of these led to consumption. This suggests that insect consumption was not solely a response to scarcity but an established, culturally embedded behavior passed down through generations.

The practical implications of these findings are significant. Children’s direct participation in insect collection—whether for personal consumption or for their households (reported by 28% of participants)—reinforced the role of entomophagy in food security. Moreover, seasonal peaks in insect availability coincided with critical periods of nutritional vulnerability [16]. Insects such as beetles, grasshoppers, and cicadas, which were frequently consumed during play, are known from previous studies to be rich in high-quality protein and micronutrients such as vitamin B12, zinc, iron, and calcium—nutrients that are often deficient in Malagasy children’s diets [20, 26]. Given that UNICEF highlights deficiencies in these micronutrients as major contributors to childhood malnutrition in Madagascar, even small, frequent intakes of insects through play may provide meaningful dietary supplementation [1, 27–30]. Although the quantities consumed during play are small compared with household meals, insects such as adult beetles and grasshoppers are relatively nutrient-dense, providing protein and certain micronutrients. Their occasional but repeated consumption during the rainy season—when alternative protein sources may be limited—could therefore constitute a modest dietary supplement rather than a primary food source, and merits further consideration. This form of opportunistic, play-based consumption differs fundamentally from organized household insect harvesting, both in scale and in intent.

From a methodological perspective, this study challenged conventional approaches to dietary assessment, which often fail to capture informal or unstructured consumption behaviors. By incorporating observations of children’s play, we provided a more nuanced understanding of entomophagy that extended beyond adult perceptions and self-reported data. This approach has broader implications for food security research, particularly in regions where traditional diets include edible insects but their consumption is underreported due to social or recall biases [31].

These findings suggested promising avenues for future interventions. Given children’s familiarity with edible insects, integrating them into school meal programs or educational initiatives could build on existing cultural acceptance, fostering greater dietary diversification and resilience. Furthermore, small-scale insect farming could help mitigate the seasonal fluctuations in availability that affect both consumption and food security [18].

By recognizing children as active agents in food systems, this study underscores the need for more inclusive and adaptive research approaches. Hidden forms of insect consumption, particularly through play, may play a larger role in childhood nutrition than previously assumed. A deeper exploration of this phenomenon could inform policies aimed at leveraging traditional entomophagy to address nutritional gaps in places facing food insecurity, like Madagascar.

Author contributions

**Conceptualization:** Sylvain Hugel, Brian L. Fisher. **Data curation:** Tojo Andrianome. **Formal analysis:** Tojo Andrianome. **Investigation:** Tojo Andrianome. **Supervision:** Danielle Rakoto, Sylvain Hugel, Brian L. Fisher. **Validation:** Sylvain Hugel, Brian L. Fisher. **Writing – original draft:** Tojo Andrianome **Writing – review & editing:** Sylvain Hugel, Brian L. Fisher.

Funding

No financial support was provided for this specific project.

Data Availability

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Declarations

Ethics approval

This study received ethical approval from the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Economics, Management, and Sociology at the University of Antananarivo before conducting the fieldwork (approval from July 1st, 2024).

Consent to participate

Authorization for conducting the research was also granted by the respective mayors of the three participating communes and the heads of each fokontany (village). Informed oral consent to participate was obtained from all adult participants by the interviewer in the presence of a research assistant. For participants who were minors, informed oral consent to participate was obtained from their parents or legal guardians under the same conditions.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.