Prominent factors on job satisfaction of academic laboratory technical assistants at Mizan Tepi University, Southwest Ethiopia

Abstract

Background

Academic laboratory technical assistants (ALTAs) play a critical role in supporting teaching, research, and laboratory services in higher education institutions, yet their job satisfaction (JS) remains under-researched, particularly in low-resource settings. This study examined the factors influencing academic JS and their relationship with job performance (JP) among ALTAs at Mizan Tepi University (MTU), Southwest Ethiopia.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted from November 2023 to May 2024, involving all 125 ALTAs at MTU. Data were collected using a self-administered, English-language questionnaire assessing work environment (WE), compensation and benefits (CB), professional development, work-life balance (WLB), relationships with colleagues, job recognition and support (JRS), communication and leadership, and job security. The instrument underwent content and face validity checks through expert review and pilot testing. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation, and multiple regression analysis, while qualitative data were analyzed thematically.

Results

ALTAs reported moderate to low job satisfaction, with CB (mean = 3.06 ± 0.46), WE (3.04 ± 0.53), and professional development (PD) (2.88 ± 0.50) identified as the most influential factors. WLB (1.998 ± 0.74) and job recognition (2.77 ± 0.62) were additional areas of concern. Job security (3.29 ± 0.60) was less critical but contributed to overall satisfaction. Pearson correlation analysis showed significant positive associations between these factors and JP, particularly for WE (r = 0.499, p < 0.001), CB (r = 0.488, p < 0.001), and WLB (r = 0.616, p < 0.001). Multiple regression analysis indicated that WE, CB, professional development, WLB, and JRS were significant predictors of JP (all p < 0.05). Qualitative findings highlighted challenges related to insufficient resources, limited autonomy, and inequitable recognition, reinforcing quantitative results.

Conclusions

JS among ALTAs at MTU is influenced by multiple interrelated factors, including compensation, WE, professional development, recognition, and WLB. Improving these domains through supportive leadership, equitable remuneration, structured professional growth, recognition programs, and flexible work arrangements could enhance both satisfaction and JP. These findings provide novel insight into an under-researched occupational group in Ethiopian higher education and have implications for policy and management in similar low-resource university contexts. Future research should examine the longitudinal impact of these factors on retention and institutional effectiveness.

Introduction

Job satisfaction (JS) refers to the emotional responses and perceptions individuals hold toward their work and its various aspects [1, 2]. It encompasses both intrinsic and extrinsic needs, preferences, and expectations, and is shaped by employees’ experiences within their organizational context. The level of JS is largely determined by the alignment between organizational demands, employee expectations, and the rewards employees actually receive [1, 3]. Due to its subjective and multidimensional nature, JS is inherently complex to measure objectively. Nevertheless, it remains a central construct in organizational and occupational psychology, as employees’ positive or negative emotions toward their jobs have been shown to influence key labor-market outcomes, including JP, productivity, absenteeism, and turnover intentions [4–6].

Human capital plays a critical role in organizational growth and sustainability, encompassing the skills, knowledge, experience, and competencies necessary to achieve institutional goals [7, 8]. Employees’ ability to consistently meet performance expectations is therefore essential for organizational effectiveness [8–11]. Within this context, JS serves not only as an indicator of organizational health but also as a determinant of employee well-being and performance. In higher education institutions, ALTAs constitute a vital segment of the workforce [12, 13]. They support teaching, research, and community service activities by preparing laboratory materials, maintaining equipment, ensuring safety standards, and assisting academic staff. Despite their indispensable contribution to academic quality and research productivity, ALTAs are frequently categorized as non-academic staff and often receive limited recognition, fewer PD opportunities, and comparatively lower compensation. Such structural and institutional constraints may contribute to job dissatisfaction and increased turnover among this group.

Although JS has been extensively examined across diverse occupational settings, existing research has largely focused on academic staff, healthcare professionals, or employees in business and industrial organizations. Empirical evidence specifically addressing JS among ALTAs in higher education remains scarce, particularly in low-income and Sub-Saharan African contexts. In Ethiopia, previous studies have primarily examined JS among health professionals [9–11], across Sub-Saharan Africa [12, 14, 15], and among academic staff at various universities, including Dire Dawa University [13] and MTU [14]. Comparable studies conducted in Eritrea [15] and Indonesia [16] similarly emphasize academic employees. However, these studies either exclude ALTAs altogether or subsume them within broader non-academic staff categories, thereby overlooking their distinct roles, working conditions, and professional challenges.

This study addresses this critical gap in the literature by focusing explicitly on ALTAs as a distinct occupational group within a public university setting. Unlike previous research that examines JS in isolation, this study simultaneously investigates the relationship between multiple job satisfaction factors (JSF) and JP, providing a more integrated understanding of how workplace conditions translate into performance outcomes. Moreover, by situating the analysis within a public university in Southwest Ethiopia, the study offers context-specific evidence from an underrepresented geographical and institutional setting, thereby extending existing JS theories beyond commonly studied Western and academic-staff-dominated contexts.

MTU, located in southwestern Ethiopia, plays a significant role in delivering higher education and advancing research. ALTAs at MTU are central to the implementation of academic programs and the effective functioning of laboratory facilities. However, their JS levels often receive limited attention, which may negatively affect productivity, staff retention, and the overall quality of teaching and learning. Examining the determinants of JS among ALTAs is therefore essential for improving working conditions, enhancing motivation, and strengthening institutional effectiveness. The findings of this study are expected to inform university administrators and policymakers by providing empirical evidence to support targeted management strategies aimed at improving job satisfaction, performance, and retention among ALTAs.

Accordingly, the primary objective of this study is to investigate the factors influencing the academic JS of ALTAs at MTU and to examine the relationship between these factors and their JP. The study is guided by the following research questions: (i) what are the key factors influencing academic JS and JP among ALTAs at Mizan Tepi University? and (ii) What is the relationship between identified JSF and the JP of ALTAs? Based on these questions, the study tests the following hypotheses: Null Hypothesis (H₀): There is no significant relationship between JSFs and the JP of ALTAs; Alternative Hypothesis (H₁): There is a significant relationship between JSFs and the JP of ALTAs.

Methods and materials

Study design and sampling technique

The study was conducted between November 2023 and May 2024 using a mixed-methods research design that combined quantitative and qualitative approaches. This design was selected to obtain a comprehensive understanding of laboratory technical assistants’ JS by capturing both measurable trends and contextual insights related to their work experiences.

The study targeted all ALTAs employed at MTU across various departments involved in teaching, research, and community service activities. A census approach was employed, whereby data were collected from the entire population rather than a subset. Accordingly, all 125 ALTAs working at the university during the study period were included as participants, ensuring complete population coverage and eliminating sampling bias.

Methods of data collection and instrument validation

Primary data were collected using a structured, self-administered questionnaire distributed to ALTAs via Google Forms. The questionnaire was prepared in English and consisted of sections covering socio-demographic characteristics, JSFs, and self-reported JP. Key variables were measured using a five-point Likert scale ranging from “Strongly Agree” to “Strongly Disagree,” with a neutral midpoint option.

To ensure methodological rigor, the questionnaire underwent both content and face validity assessment prior to full-scale data collection. Content validity was established through an extensive review of relevant literature on JS and JP, ensuring that all items adequately reflected the constructs under investigation. In addition, the draft questionnaire was reviewed by subject-matter experts in organizational psychology and higher education management, who evaluated the relevance, clarity, and comprehensiveness of the items. Their feedback was used to refine item wording and improve alignment with the study objectives.

Face validity was further ensured through a pilot test conducted with a small group of ALTAs from departments not included in the final analysis. Participants were asked to comment on the clarity, readability, and appropriateness of the questionnaire items. Minor modifications were made based on their feedback to enhance clarity and ease of understanding.

Participation in the study was entirely voluntary, and respondents were informed of their right to withdraw at any stage without any consequences. No direct incentives were provided. Confidentiality was strictly maintained, and no personal identifiers such as names or addresses were collected. In addition to primary data, secondary data were obtained from relevant published sources, including journal articles, books, institutional reports, and official documents related to JS and higher education.

Data analysis

Quantitative data were analyzed using R software (version 4.3.2), applying both descriptive and inferential statistical techniques. The internal consistency and reliability of the questionnaire items were assessed using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, with all scales demonstrating acceptable reliability values above 0.82. Pearson correlation analysis was employed to examine relationships between JSFs and JP, while multiple regression analysis was conducted to determine the predictive influence of selected factors on laboratory technical assistants’ JP.

Qualitative data were analyzed thematically, allowing for the identification of recurring themes and patterns that complemented the quantitative findings and provided deeper insight into participants’ perceptions of job satisfaction.

Results and discussion

Socio-demographic characteristics of laboratory technical assistants

This study involved a total of 125 ALTAs employed at Mizan Tepi University, representing the entire population of ALTAs at the institution. The use of a census approach strengthens the credibility of the findings by eliminating sampling bias and ensuring that the results accurately reflect the experiences of this understudied occupational group.

The majority of participants were male (87.2%, n = 109), while female ALTAs constituted only 12.8% (n = 16) (Table 1). This pronounced gender imbalance mirrors findings from previous studies conducted in Ethiopian public institutions and other Sub-Saharan African countries, where technical and laboratory-based positions are predominantly occupied by men [17, 18]. Similar gender patterns have been reported among non-academic and laboratory personnel in Eritrea [19–21] and Sri Lanka [2, 22, 23], suggesting that structural and cultural barriers may continue to limit female participation in technical academic support roles. This imbalance has important implications for institutional diversity and workforce inclusion, which may indirectly influence JS and career progression.

Table 1.

Demographic information of laboratory technical assistants

Parameter	Category	N	%	Total
Gender	Male	109	87.2	125
	Female	16	12.8
Educational Qualification	Diploma	19	15.2	125
	Bachelor’s Degree	94	75.2
	Master’s Degree	12	9.6
Age groups	22–30	32	25.6	125
	31–35	86	68.8
	≥ 36	7	5.6
Marital status	Married	21	16.8	125
	Single	95	76
	Divorced	9	7.2
Academic rank	Technical assistant	8	6.4
	Senior Technical assistant	29	23.2
	Chief Technical assistant I	86	68.8
	Chief Technical assistant II	2	1.6
Years of Experience	≤ 5	27	21.6	125
	6–10	74	59.2
	≥ 11	24	19.2

In terms of educational qualifications, the majority of respondents held a bachelor’s degree (75.2%, n = 94), followed by diploma holders (15.2%, n = 19) and master’s degree holders (9.6%, n = 12). This finding is consistent with studies conducted among laboratory professionals in Ethiopia and other developing countries, which report relatively high educational attainment among technical staff despite their classification as non-academic employees [9, 12, 17, 24]. The presence of highly educated ALTAs performing roles with limited autonomy, recognition, and promotion opportunities reflects a condition of status inconsistency, which organizational psychology literature identifies as a potential source of job dissatisfaction. Recent international evidence further supports this argument, showing that misalignment between educational level and occupational status is associated with lower JS and reduced motivation [20, 25].

The age distribution of participants ranged from 22 to 39 years, with most ALTAs clustered in the 31–35 age group (68.8%, n = 86), followed by those aged 22–30 years (25.6%, n = 32). This indicates a predominantly early- to mid-career workforce. Similar age profiles have been reported among laboratory and technical staff in Ethiopian health institutions [9, 10] and universities in Indonesia [16, 26]. From a career-stage perspective, employees in this age group are typically motivated by opportunities for professional development, promotion, and long-term career stability. The limited advancement pathways reported elsewhere in the manuscript may therefore have a disproportionate effect on JS among this cohort.

Regarding academic rank, most respondents were chief technical assistant I (68.8%, n = 86), followed by senior technical assistants (23.2%, n = 29). Very few participants occupied the highest technical ranks, suggesting a bottleneck in career progression. This pattern aligns with findings from Ethiopian universities [13, 14, 27] and other public institutions, where promotion systems for non-academic staff are often rigid and poorly differentiated. Such structural constraints may weaken motivation and contribute to dissatisfaction, particularly among experienced staff who perceive limited returns for long-term service.

In terms of marital status, the majority of participants were single (76%, n = 95), while 16.8% (n = 21) were married. Although marital status was not a primary variable of interest, prior studies suggest that unmarried employees may experience different work–life balance expectations and career priorities compared to their married counterparts [5, 20, 28]. This demographic context is important for interpreting later findings related to WLB and job satisfaction.

Thus, these socio-demographic characteristics provide essential context for understanding the JS experiences of ALTAs at Mizan Tepi University. By focusing on a highly educated, predominantly male, early-career technical workforce operating within a constrained institutional structure, this study offers novel empirical insight into a group that has been largely overlooked in both Ethiopian and international JS research. This contextual specificity strengthens the study’s contribution to the broader literature on JS in higher education and supports the need for targeted institutional and policy interventions.

Rating of job satisfaction factors

The results indicate that CB were perceived as the most influential factor affecting academic JS among laboratory technical assistants, with nearly all respondents (96%, 120/125) identifying it as important (Fig. 1). This finding is consistent with studies conducted among health professionals and technical staff in Ethiopia [10, 12, 29] and aligns with evidence from other developing countries, where inadequate remuneration remains a primary source of dissatisfaction among non-academic employees [15, 16]. In resource-constrained public institutions such as Ethiopian universities, compensation is closely linked to basic living standards, which may explain why it outweighs other motivational factors. From a theoretical perspective, this supports Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory, which classifies pay and benefits as hygiene factors whose absence leads to dissatisfaction rather than motivation.

Fig. 1.

Most frequently listed JSFs

The WE were rated as the second most important factor (92%, 115/125). Similar findings have been reported among academic and non-academic staff in Ethiopian universities [13, 14] and among laboratory professionals in Sub-Saharan Africa [12, 30]. Safe, well-equipped, and adequately resourced laboratory environments are particularly critical for ALTAs due to the technical and potentially hazardous nature of their work. This result extends previous research by emphasizing that, for laboratory-based roles, the WE are not merely a comfort issue but a fundamental condition for effective JP and personal safety.

PD opportunities were ranked third (86.4%, 108/125), reflecting a strong desire among ALTAs for skill enhancement, training, and career progression. This finding is consistent with studies from Ethiopia and other low- and middle-income countries, which report that limited access to training and promotion opportunities contributes significantly to dissatisfaction among technical and support staff [2, 9, 17]. Recent international research similarly suggests that opportunities for growth and learning are increasingly important for job satisfaction, particularly among early- and mid-career employees [20, 31]. The prominence of this factor in the present study is notable, as it highlights the mismatch between the high educational attainment of ALTAs and the restricted professional advancement pathways available to them an issue that has received limited attention in prior higher education research.

JRS were identified as the fourth most important factor (81.6%, 102/125). This finding aligns with previous studies indicating that acknowledgment of employees’ contributions plays a critical role in shaping job attitudes and commitment [12, 17, 32, 33]. However, the relatively lower ranking of this factor compared to compensation and WE suggest that ALTAs may prioritize tangible improvements in working conditions over symbolic recognition, particularly in contexts where basic needs and safety concerns remain unmet.

WLB was rated as important by 73.6% (92/125) of respondents, placing it below compensation, WE, and professional development. This contrasts with findings from higher-income countries, where WLB often emerges as a dominant predictor of JS [20, 34, 35]. The difference may reflect contextual realities in Ethiopia, where economic security and stable employment take precedence over flexibility and leisure. Nonetheless, the substantial proportion of respondents emphasizing WLB indicates that it is an emerging concern that warrants greater institutional attention.

In contrast, relationships with colleagues, communication and leadership, and job security were perceived as relatively less important factors. While this finding is consistent with some Ethiopian studies [10, 12, 36], it diverges from research conducted in other settings where leadership quality and interpersonal relationships are strong predictors of JS [15, 20]. This divergence suggests that, within the MTU context, structural and material conditions may overshadow relational and managerial factors. This context-specific pattern represents a key contribution of the study, underscoring the importance of considering institutional and socio-economic environments when applying JS theories developed largely in Western contexts.

Hence, this pattern of findings highlights the distinctive priorities of ALTAs and contributes new empirical evidence by systematically ranking JSFs within an under-researched occupational group in Ethiopian higher education. The results suggest that improving compensation structures, laboratory working conditions, and PD opportunities may yield greater gains in JS and performance than interventions focused solely on interpersonal or leadership dynamics. These insights have important implications for university management, policymakers, and future research aimed at enhancing the effectiveness and sustainability of academic support systems.

Correlation between job satisfaction factors and job performance

This study examined the relationship between multiple JS dimensions and JP among ALTAs at MTU. Data were collected from all 125 ALTAs using a structured questionnaire that measured key JSFs, including WE, CB, professional development, work–life balance, relationships with colleagues, JRS, communication and leadership, and job security (Table 2).

Table 2.

Overall job satisfactions of laboratory technical assistants

Scale	Frequency	Percent
Strongly Agree	–	–
Agree	6	4.8%
Strongly Disagree	64	51.2%
Disagree	49	39.2%
Neutral	6	4.8%
Total	125	100.0%

To ensure methodological rigor, the questionnaire underwent both content and face validity assessments prior to data collection. Content validity was established through an extensive review of relevant literature and previously validated instruments used in similar studies among laboratory professionals and university staff [2, 9, 12, 17]. The draft questionnaire was then reviewed by three experts in organizational psychology and higher education management to evaluate the relevance, clarity, and completeness of the items. Face validity was further assessed through a pilot test involving a small group of ALTAs from a neighboring university, leading to minor wording revisions to enhance clarity and contextual appropriateness. These steps strengthened the validity of the instrument and ensured its suitability for the Ethiopian higher education context.

The findings indicate that ALTAs at MTU generally experience low levels of job satisfaction, with an overall mean dissatisfaction score of 3.2 on a five-point Likert scale (Table 3). CB emerged as the most influential factor, followed by WE, PD opportunities, and JRS. These results are consistent with studies conducted among laboratory professionals in Ethiopia [9], Sri Lanka [2], and Sub-Saharan Africa [12, 37, 38], where inadequate compensation and limited career advancement opportunities were identified as primary sources of dissatisfaction. Similar patterns have also been reported in Oman, where compensation, professional growth, and organizational support significantly influenced JS among medical laboratory technologists [17, 39, 40].

Table 3.

Correlation between JSFs and overall job performance of ALTAs

JSFs	Pearson Correlation	Mean	SD	Sig. (2-tailed)	N
Overall Job Satisfaction	1.000	3.2360	0.48703	–	125
Work Environment	0.499	3.0384	0.53201	0.000	125
Compensation and Benefits	0.488	3.0620	0.45753	0.000	125
Professional Development	0.185	2.8820	0.50159	0.039	125
Work-Life Balance	0.616	1.9980	0.74087	0.000	125
Relationships with Colleagues	-0.055	2.5973	0.64103	0.544	125
Job Recognition and Support	0.402	2.7680	0.61907	0.000	125
Communication and Leadership	-0.097	2.9020	0.51967	0.282	125
Job Security	-0.035	3.2853	0.59974	0.702	125

In contrast, work–life balance and job security received the lowest mean scores among MTU ALTAs. This finding partially diverges from evidence reported in some middle-income countries, where job security has been identified as a strong predictor of JS [5, 18, 41]. The relatively lower importance of job security in this study may reflect the public-sector employment structure in Ethiopian universities, where permanent positions are often assumed but may not be accompanied by adequate financial or professional incentives. This highlights a contextual difference that contributes novel insight to the literature by demonstrating how institutional and national labor conditions shape JS priorities.

The significant correlations observed between key JSFs particularly CB, professional development, and WE and JP support theoretical assumptions drawn from Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory and Social Exchange Theory. According to these frameworks, employees who perceive fair rewards, supportive environments, and opportunities for growth are more likely to reciprocate through higher levels of performance and commitment. The present study extends these theories by empirically validating their relevance among non-academic laboratory staff in a low-resource university setting, a group that has been largely overlooked in prior research.

From a practical perspective, the findings highlight the need for university administrators and policymakers to adopt targeted human resource strategies aimed at improving compensation structures, expanding PD opportunities, and strengthening recognition mechanisms for ALTAs. Addressing these factors could enhance job satisfaction, reduce turnover intentions, and ultimately improve laboratory service quality, teaching support, and research productivity. At the policy level, the results suggest the importance of revisiting national higher education staffing frameworks to better align job roles, qualifications, and reward systems for technical staff.

In terms of theoretical contribution, this study adds to the JS literature by providing evidence from an underserved geographical and occupational context, thereby enriching cross-cultural understanding of JS dynamics. Unlike many studies that focus on academic or healthcare professionals, this research highlights the unique experiences of university ALTAs and demonstrates that their satisfaction is shaped by both universal factors (e.g., compensation and recognition) and context-specific conditions (e.g., institutional resource constraints).

Finally, while the study offers valuable insights, its findings should be interpreted in light of certain limitations. The cross-sectional design limits causal inference, and the reliance on self-reported data may introduce response bias. Future research could employ longitudinal or mixed-method designs and include comparative analyses across multiple universities to further strengthen generalizability and theoretical integration.

Work environment

The findings of this study indicate that ALTAs at MTU reported a relatively high level of dissatisfaction with their WE, with a mean score of 3.04 ± 0.53 (Table 3). This suggests that the physical and organizational conditions under which ALTAs perform their duties are perceived as inadequate and may hinder effective JP. Similar concerns regarding unfavorable WEs have been documented among academic and technical staff in Ethiopian universities [13, 42–44] and among non-academic staff in Sri Lankan universities [18, 45, 46], suggesting that this challenge is not unique to MTU but reflects broader structural constraints in public higher education institutions in low- and middle-income countries.

More specifically, respondents expressed dissatisfaction with laboratory infrastructure, availability of essential equipment, and supervisory support. These findings are consistent with previous Ethiopian studies conducted among health professionals in the Amhara Region [9] and laboratory personnel in Sub-Saharan Africa [12, 47, 48], which reported that poor physical working conditions and limited managerial support were key contributors to job dissatisfaction. Compared to studies from higher-income contexts, where psychosocial factors often dominate JS discussions, the present findings highlight the continued importance of basic working conditions in resource-constrained settings. This contextual emphasis represents a key contribution of the study, as it demonstrates that foundational environmental factors remain central determinants of JS among university technical staff in Ethiopia.

The Pearson correlation analysis further revealed a statistically significant and moderate positive relationship between WE and overall JP (r = 0.499, p < 0.001). This indicates that improvements in the WE are likely to be associated with meaningful gains in JP among ALTAs. Similar associations have been reported among academic employees in Malaysian polytechnics [22, 42], reinforcing the robustness of this relationship across different institutional and national contexts. The present study extends this evidence by empirically validating the WE performance linkage among non-academic laboratory staff, a group that has received limited scholarly attention.

Qualitative insights from the survey responses further revealed that inadequate laboratory safety measures significantly contributed to dissatisfaction and perceived performance constraints. ALTAs reported insufficient ventilation, particularly in laboratories relying on manual instruments, and exposure to hazardous and expired chemicals during sample processing. These findings align with prior research from Oman, which identified exposure to volatile and toxic substances as a major source of dissatisfaction among medical laboratory technologists [17]. From a theoretical perspective, these safety-related concerns align with Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory, in which workplace safety and physical conditions function as hygiene factors. When such factors are absent or poorly managed, employees are more likely to experience dissatisfaction, regardless of the presence of motivating factors.

In addition, many ALTAs indicated a lack of access to basic institutional resources, including offices, desks, laptops, and adequate storage facilities. This lack of infrastructural support not only undermines job efficiency but may also signal organizational undervaluation of technical staff roles. Drawing on Social Exchange Theory, such perceptions can weaken reciprocal commitment between employees and the institution, ultimately affecting performance and retention. The findings therefore contribute theoretically by demonstrating how environmental inadequacies operate simultaneously as material constraints and symbolic signals of organizational support.

From a practical standpoint, the results highlight the urgent need for university administrators to prioritize improvements in laboratory infrastructure, occupational safety systems, and supervisory support mechanisms. Investments in safety training, enforcement of laboratory safety protocols, and provision of basic work facilities could substantially enhance both JSand performance. At the policy level, the findings highlight the importance of integrating laboratory safety and infrastructure standards into national higher education quality assurance frameworks.

Thus, this study contributes new empirical evidence by situating the WE–JP relationship within the under-researched context of Ethiopian university laboratory technical assistants. By combining quantitative correlations with contextualized interpretations, the findings enrich existing JS theories and offer actionable insights for improving working conditions in higher education institutions in similar resource-limited settings.

Compensation and benefits

ALTAs at MTU reported significant dissatisfaction with their CB, as indicated by a mean score of 3.06 ± 0.46 (Table 3). This suggests that many ALTAs perceive their remuneration as not proportional to their responsibilities, with limited access to comprehensive benefits packages. The dissatisfaction was particularly pronounced regarding base salaries, overload payments, housing allowances, risk allowances, health insurance, and retirement benefits.

To contextualize this issue, the study examined living costs. For instance, the cost of half a liter of milk 10 Ethiopian birr per day, totaling 300 birr per month contrasts sharply with the market price of 1500 birr per month, illustrating the economic constraints faced by ALTAs. Similarly, salary comparisons reveal substantial disparities: a BSc-holding LTA earns 5358 ETB/month, whereas a BSc graduate assistant receives 8017 ETB/month; an MSc practical instructor earns 9056 ETB/month, compared to 12,579 ETB for an MSc theoretical instructor. These discrepancies, despite equivalent academic qualifications and institutional affiliations, reflect structural inequities that contribute to dissatisfaction.

Workload compensation further exacerbates the issue. Practical classes lasting three to six hours are often compensated based on a two-hour rate, effectively undervaluing ALTAs’ labor. This situation aligns with reports from other low- and middle-income countries, including Indonesia and Sri Lanka, where technical or non-academic staff frequently perceive workload-related inequities as demotivating [16, 19, 49]. In Ethiopia, similar findings have been documented among health and laboratory personnel [2, 9, 50], highlighting a persistent systemic challenge.

Statistical analysis confirmed a moderate positive association between CB and overall JP. Pearson correlation revealed r = 0.488, p < 0.001, indicating that improved compensation is significantly associated with higher performance levels among ALTAs (Table 3). This finding aligns with previous research in Malaysian polytechnics [21] and more recent studies in South-East Asia [20, 51], demonstrating that fair and adequate remuneration enhances motivation and performance across diverse higher education contexts.

From a theoretical perspective, these findings reinforce Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory, where compensation functions as a hygiene factor: inadequate pay leads to dissatisfaction, which can adversely affect performance, even in the presence of motivating factors such as recognition or professional development. Similarly, Social Exchange Theory suggests that when ALTAs perceive inequitable compensation, the psychological contract between employee and institution is weakened, reducing discretionary effort and engagement.

Practically, these results highlight the urgent need for university administrators and policymakers to review and adjust compensation structures for laboratory technical staff. Aligning salaries with workload, market costs, and academic qualifications, as well as ensuring fair allowances for practical duties, can enhance satisfaction, improve performance, and support retention. At a broader policy level, the study highlights the importance of integrating non-academic technical staff into national human resource frameworks for higher education, ensuring equitable recognition and reward for critical academic support roles.

This study contributes novel insight by documenting the lived economic realities of ALTAs in Ethiopia, linking compensation disparities to both performance outcomes and systemic inequities, and situating these findings within global evidence on technical staff satisfaction. Such context-specific evidence is largely absent from existing literature, which typically focuses on academic or healthcare professionals [2, 16, 19, 52, 53].

Professional development

ALTAs at MTU expressed moderate dissatisfaction with PD opportunities, as reflected by an average score of 2.88 ± 0.50 (Table 3). This suggests that ALTAs perceive limited avenues for skill enhancement, internal and external training, and career advancement. Although ALTAs recognize the value of acquiring new competencies and advancing professionally, the available PD programs appear insufficient to meet their expectations.

The Pearson correlation analysis revealed a weak but significant positive association between PD and overall JS (r = 0.185, p = 0.039), indicating that while greater professional growth opportunities are linked to higher job satisfaction, the effect is modest. This finding aligns with prior studies conducted among academic and technical staff in Ethiopia [2] and Sub-Saharan Africa [12, 17], suggesting that training and career advancement opportunities play a critical, albeit sometimes limited, role in motivating technical personnel. The relatively low correlation coefficient may reflect structural limitations in Ethiopian public universities, where opportunities for advancement are constrained by institutional hierarchy and resource scarcity.

A major source of dissatisfaction identified by participants relates to the promotion and PD system implemented at MTU in 2021. This system requires ALTAs to formally apply for promotions based on vacant positions, rather than advancing automatically through seniority. Consequently, long-serving staff feel that their experience is undervalued, and opportunities for recognition are inconsistent. Similar patterns have been documented among health professionals in Addis Ababa [10], where restricted or delayed career advancement contributed to lower job satisfaction.

Qualitative responses further highlighted issues of autonomy and involvement in professional decisions. Participants reported limited participation in decisions regarding laboratory teaching assignments, selection of equipment, and prioritization of research tasks. This lack of professional discretion constrains ALTAs’ sense of ownership over their work and limits their ability to develop specialized skills. International evidence suggests that professional autonomy is positively associated with both JS and performance among technical staff in higher education [17, 28, 29, 54]. Therefore, the absence of decision-making power represents a significant barrier to motivation and perceived professional growth.

The findings have important theoretical implications, reinforcing Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory and Self-Determination Theory, which emphasize the importance of growth, achievement, and autonomy as intrinsic motivators. While compensation and WE act as hygiene factors preventing dissatisfaction, PD and autonomy function as motivators that can enhance engagement and performance when adequately provided. The study contributes novel insight by demonstrating how PD limitations specifically affect ALTAs a group largely overlooked in Ethiopian and international higher education literature.

From a practical standpoint, the results suggest that universities should implement targeted PD programs for ALTAs, including structured training, mentorship, recognition of long service, and inclusion in laboratory decision-making processes. Such measures are likely to increase job satisfaction, enhance performance, and improve retention. Furthermore, aligning promotion systems with experience and performance can reinforce motivation and demonstrate institutional commitment to valuing technical staff, creating a more equitable and effective workplace.

Hence, the study emphasizes that PD is a key, though underutilized, mechanism for improving JS and performance among laboratory technical assistants, highlighting both contextual constraints in Ethiopia and broader lessons for universities in similar resource-limited settings.

Job recognition and support

ALTAs at MTU reported moderate dissatisfaction with JRS, with an average score of 2.77 ± 0.62 (Table 3). This finding suggests that ALTAs perceive their contributions as undervalued and feel that they do not consistently receive the necessary support from supervisors and institutional management to perform their roles effectively. Prior studies in Ethiopia [12, 24, 42] and Sub-Saharan Africa [17, 23] similarly highlight that insufficient recognition and support for technical and non-academic staff is a common source of job dissatisfaction, often leading to demoralization and reduced motivation.

Specific concerns raised by participants included limited communication and feedback from supervisors, inadequate acknowledgment from colleagues, and restricted access to essential resources, such as laboratory equipment and teaching support materials. These issues are consistent with evidence from higher education institutions in other developing countries, including Oman [17], where technical staff indicated that inadequate recognition and support negatively affected JS and performance outcomes.

The Pearson correlation analysis demonstrated a moderate positive relationship between JRS and overall JP (r = 0.402, p < 0.001). This indicates that improvements in recognition and support are associated with higher levels of JP. While this correlation is not as strong as that observed for compensation or WE, it nevertheless represents a meaningful connection that warrants institutional attention. Comparable correlations have been reported in studies of technical staff in Indonesian universities [16] and Malaysian polytechnics [21], suggesting that recognition and support are universally relevant motivators, even if their magnitude varies across contexts.

From a theoretical perspective, these results support Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory, in which recognition functions as a motivator rather than a hygiene factor: when employees receive acknowledgment for their contributions, intrinsic motivation and performance are enhanced. Social Exchange Theory further explains that perceived lack of recognition weakens the reciprocal relationship between employees and the organization, reducing discretionary effort and engagement. The ALTAs’ experiences also emphasize the importance of both formal and informal mechanisms of recognition, including feedback from supervisors, acknowledgment by colleagues, and provision of sufficient resources to perform tasks effectively.

Practically, these findings highlight the need for university administrators to implement structured recognition programs, including routine feedback, performance appreciation, and equitable access to resources for laboratory staff. Even relatively low-cost interventions, such as formal acknowledgment during departmental meetings or written commendations, can reinforce employee morale and strengthen the link between JS and performance. Addressing these issues is particularly relevant in low-resource higher education contexts, where systemic constraints may limit financial rewards, making non-monetary recognition a critical tool for improving staff engagement.

Hence, this study contributes novel empirical evidence by demonstrating that JRS are significant determinants of JP for ALTAs in Ethiopia an under-researched occupational group while situating these findings within both local and international higher education contexts. By combining quantitative correlations with qualitative insights, the results provide a nuanced understanding of how recognition and support or the lack thereof impact motivation, satisfaction, and performance in technical academic roles.

Work-life balance

ALTAs at MTU reported significant dissatisfaction with their WLB, with a mean score of 1.998 ± 0.74 (Table 3). This suggests that ALTAs experience substantial challenges in reconciling professional responsibilities with personal and family obligations. Participants highlighted long working hours, inflexible schedules, and overlapping professional tasks as key barriers to achieving a satisfactory balance. Such constraints may limit their ability to rest, pursue further studies, or attend to family responsibilities.

The Pearson correlation analysis revealed a strong positive association between WLB and overall JP (r = 0.616, p < 0.001). This indicates that improvements in WLB are closely linked to enhanced JS and performance. ALTAs who perceived greater flexibility and equitable distribution of workload were more likely to report higher levels of JS and engagement. These findings are broadly consistent with international studies demonstrating that WLB is a critical determinant of JS and productivity in technical and academic staff [20, 50, 51].

When compared with Ethiopian contexts, prior research has shown that health professionals and academic staff similarly report challenges in maintaining WLB due to extended working hours and high workloads [9, 10, 39, 46]. However, the present study uniquely highlights that ALTAs a largely overlooked non-academic group face similar, if not more pronounced, difficulties due to the hands-on, time-intensive nature of laboratory work and limited institutional flexibility. This provides novel insight into an under-researched occupational group in Ethiopia and other low-resource higher education contexts.

Theoretical perspectives help to contextualize these findings. Self-Determination Theory posits that autonomy and control over one’s work are essential for intrinsic motivation and well-being. In this study, ALTAs’ limited control over work schedules and task allocation likely contributes to reduced motivation and lower perceived job satisfaction. Additionally, Social Exchange Theory suggests that when institutions fail to support employees’ WLB, the perceived imbalance weakens the psychological contract between employee and employer, reducing discretionary effort and engagement.

From a practical standpoint, the findings highlight the need for institutional interventions aimed at enhancing WLB for ALTAs. Potential strategies include flexible scheduling, rotation of laboratory duties to distribute workload evenly, and provision of adequate staffing to prevent overburdening. Training on time management and stress reduction, alongside consideration of personal obligations in task assignment, could further enhance well-being and productivity. These interventions are particularly relevant in resource-limited university settings, where structural constraints often exacerbate work-life challenges.

Thus, this study contributes novel evidence by quantifying the relationship between WLBand JP among Ethiopian ALTAs, highlighting both universal motivators and context-specific constraints. By situating these findings within both Ethiopian and international research, the study demonstrates that addressing WLB is crucial not only for individual well-being but also for institutional performance and sustainability.

Relationships with colleagues

ALTAs at MTU reported a moderate level of satisfaction with their relationships with colleagues, with a mean score of 2.60 ± 0.64 (Table 3). This suggests that while ALTAs generally maintain positive professional interactions, some tension and occasional conflict are present. Participants described supportive peer interactions in routine laboratory work but noted that competition for limited resources and overlapping responsibilities sometimes led to interpersonal strain.

The Pearson correlation analysis indicated no significant relationship between relationships with colleagues and overall JS (r = -0.055, p = 0.544), suggesting that, within this context, the quality of peer relationships does not meaningfully influence overall satisfaction. The negative sign of the correlation, though negligible, may reflect minor frustrations arising from unequal task distribution or resource constraints, but its magnitude is too small to have practical significance. This finding contrasts with previous research in other higher education and healthcare contexts [15, 21, 29], where supportive peer relationships were strongly associated with higher job satisfaction.

Comparative evidence from Ethiopian universities and healthcare institutions indicates that technical staff may prioritize structural and material factors such as compensation, workload, and PD over peer relationships when evaluating JS [9, 12, 28]. In resource-limited settings, the capacity of colleagues to influence satisfaction is constrained by overarching institutional challenges, such as limited autonomy, insufficient infrastructure, and high workload. Similarly, studies from Sub-Saharan Africa and South-East Asia have reported that, although collegial support is valued, it is secondary to fundamental work conditions in determining JS among technical and laboratory staff [16, 17, 20].

From a theoretical perspective, this finding aligns with Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory: while interpersonal relationships can serve as motivators under certain conditions, they are insufficient to overcome dissatisfaction caused by hygiene factors such as inadequate pay, unsafe WEs, and limited professional development. Social Exchange Theory further suggests that peer interactions, in the absence of institutional support and recognition, may exert minimal influence on overall perceptions of job satisfaction.

Practically, while ALTAs generally maintain cordial relationships with their colleagues, institutions should continue to foster collaborative WEs. This can include team-building activities, clear role definitions, and mechanisms for conflict resolution, which may enhance workplace harmony even if they do not directly drive overall job satisfaction. Recognizing that satisfaction is primarily shaped by structural and resource-related factors helps administrators target interventions more effectively, focusing on compensation, workload, and professional growth while maintaining a supportive peer culture.

Thus, this study provides novel insight by demonstrating that, for ALTAs in Ethiopian universities, peer relationships are not a primary driver of job satisfaction, highlighting the contextual importance of material and institutional factors. This contrasts with findings from higher-income or more resourced contexts and highlights the need for policy and management strategies tailored to local structural realities.

Communication and leadership

ALTAs at MTU reported a moderate level of satisfaction with communication and leadership, with a mean score of 2.90 ± 0.52 (Table 3). This suggests that while there are some positive perceptions, ALTAs perceive considerable room for improvement in how decisions are communicated and how leadership structures function. Participants highlighted a lack of transparency in decision-making, limited opportunities for staff input, and inconsistent guidance from supervisors and department heads as key concerns.

The Pearson correlation analysis indicated no significant relationship between communication and leadership and overall JP (r = -0.097, p = 0.282). The weak negative correlation suggests that although reduced satisfaction with leadership and communication may slightly correspond to lower job satisfaction, the association is minimal and practically insignificant. This contrasts with findings from higher-income or better-resourced contexts, where leadership quality often strongly influences employee satisfaction and performance [17, 22, 47].

Comparative evidence from Ethiopia suggests a similar pattern. Studies on academic and technical staff in Ethiopian universities show that structural and resource-related factors such as compensation, workload, and PD tend to outweigh communication and leadership in determining overall JS [2, 12]. In resource-limited institutions like MTU, even effective communication practices may not fully offset dissatisfaction arising from inadequate pay, infrastructure, or professional growth opportunities. Internationally, similar findings have been reported among medical laboratory technologists in Oman [17, 41], where staff reported moderate job dissatisfaction despite generally positive coworker relationships, highlighting the primacy of systemic factors over leadership alone in shaping satisfaction.

Qualitative responses highlighted that the relationship dynamics with supervisors and department heads were perceived as less than ideal, with ALTAs feeling undervalued or overlooked in decision-making processes. At the same time, respondents emphasized the benefit of supportive coworker relationships, which foster collaboration and mutual assistance. This aligns with international evidence suggesting that teamwork and collegiality can partially buffer the negative effects of hierarchical or communication deficiencies on employee satisfaction [17, 22, 30, 31].

From a theoretical perspective, these findings can be interpreted using Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory and Social Exchange Theory. Leadership and communication can function as motivators when effective, but in the absence of supportive structural conditions such as adequate compensation, professional growth, and a safe WE their impact on overall JS may be limited. Similarly, Social Exchange Theory posits that employees’ perception of fairness and recognition from supervisors is central to motivation; however, if systemic constraints undermine their ability to perform or advance, even high-quality leadership will have only a modest effect.

Practical implications of these findings include the need for MTU administrators to enhance transparency in decision-making, increase opportunities for ALTAs to contribute to laboratory management decisions, and establish clear channels of communication. While coworker support is relatively strong, structured feedback mechanisms, regular team meetings, and participatory decision-making can further improve perceptions of leadership and communication, thereby reinforcing both satisfaction and engagement.

Hence, this study contributes novel insight by highlighting that for ALTAs in Ethiopian universities, communication and leadership quality, though relevant, are secondary to structural and resource-related factors in determining job satisfaction. This nuanced understanding informs both institutional policies and the broader academic discussion on how to optimize satisfaction and performance among technical support staff in under-resourced higher education contexts.

Job security

ALTAs at MTU reported a moderate to high level of satisfaction with job security, with a mean score of 3.29 ± 0.60 (Table 3). This indicates that ALTAs generally feel confident in the stability of their employment, reflecting trust in the university’s commitment to retaining staff and the absence of recent layoffs or downsizing. Such perceptions of stability are critical, as they provide a foundation for employees to engage fully in their roles without the stress associated with potential job loss.

The Pearson correlation analysis revealed no significant relationship between job security and overall JP (r = -0.035, p = 0.702), suggesting that, in this context, confidence in employment stability does not meaningfully influence performance outcomes. The negligible negative correlation implies that while reduced perceptions of job security could theoretically dampen performance, the effect is effectively zero in this sample. This contrasts with findings from studies in Malaysian and Indonesian higher education institutions, where job security has been positively linked to employee motivation and performance [2, 21, 51]. Similarly [22, 52], reported a significant relationship between perceived job stability and performance among academic staff, highlighting differences in institutional and contextual factors.

In Ethiopia, previous research among health professionals and academic staff has shown that stable employment is valued but often secondary to factors such as compensation, WE, and PD in predicting JS and performance [9, 12, 50]. The present study extends this evidence by showing that for ALTAs a largely overlooked occupational group job security is relatively assured and thus does not emerge as a primary driver of performance. This finding offers novel insight, demonstrating that in contexts where public university positions are permanent or semi-permanent, other motivators, such as career advancement, recognition, and material conditions, assume greater importance.

From a theoretical perspective, Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory helps contextualize these findings. Job security functions as a hygiene factor: its presence prevents dissatisfaction but does not inherently motivate employees to higher performance. In the case of MTU ALTAs, the perceived stability of employment satisfies a basic need, but does not translate into additional discretionary effort or higher productivity. Similarly, Social Exchange Theory suggests that while secure employment supports a stable psychological contract, it is insufficient to drive performance when other structural or motivational factors, such as pay or professional development, are limited.

Practical implications of these findings suggest that while maintaining job security remains important, university administrators should prioritize enhancing compensation, professional growth, recognition, and working conditions to more effectively improve performance and satisfaction among ALTAs. Institutions in similar Ethiopian and low-resource contexts can benefit from focusing resources on these higher-impact factors, while continuing to safeguard employment stability as a foundational element.

Thus, this study provides novel empirical evidence showing that for ALTAs in Ethiopian universities, job security though valued is not a primary determinant of JP, emphasizing the contextual importance of resource and motivation-based factors in shaping satisfaction and productivity.

Multiple regression analysis

The impact of specific JSFs on the JP of ALTAs at MTU was examined using multiple regression analysis. Prior to analysis, key assumptions including normality, linearity, multicollinearity, and homoscedasticity were tested and found to be acceptable, ensuring the robustness of the results. The questionnaire used for measuring independent variables underwent content and face validity assessment through expert review and pilot testing, enhancing the methodological rigor of the analysis.

The overall regression model demonstrated a high level of correlation between the independent variables and JP, with R = 0.795, and accounted for 63.3% of the variance in JP (R² = 0.633) (Table 4). This indicates that factors such as WE, CB, professional development, WLB, JRS, communication and leadership, relationships with colleagues, and job security collectively exert a substantial influence on ALTAs’ performance.

Table 4.

Regression coefficients of key JSF predicting job performance of ALTAs at MTU

Model	JSFs	Unstandardized Coefficients	Standardized Coefficients	t	Sig.
		β	Std. Error	Beta
1	(Constant)	1.888	0.369	–	5.116
	WE	0.278	0.069	0.303	4.041
	CB	0.319	0.074	0.300	4.318
	PD	0.277	0.058	0.426	5.339
	WLB	0.275	0.052	0.419	5.331
	JRS	0.210	0.062	0.268	3.371

WE was positively associated with JP (β = 0.278, p < 0.001), suggesting that improvements in laboratory infrastructure, safety measures, and supervisory support could enhance employee effectiveness. This aligns with prior Ethiopian studies [12, 13, 34] and international evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa [23], which emphasize the critical role of physical and organizational conditions in technical staff performance.

Similarly, CB had a positive and significant effect on JP (β = 0.319, p < 0.001), highlighting that fair remuneration and adequate allowances are strong motivators. These results are consistent with research from Malaysia and Indonesia [2, 21], demonstrating that equitable pay and benefits are central to technical staff engagement and productivity, particularly in resource-limited higher education contexts.

WLB was also positively correlated with JP (β = 0.275, p < 0.001). ALTAs who perceived greater flexibility and equitable distribution of workload reported higher performance levels. This finding resonates with global studies [20] and Ethiopian research [9, 10], confirming that the ability to reconcile professional responsibilities with personal life is a meaningful determinant of staff performance and satisfaction.

JRS were positively associated with performance (β = 0.210, p = 0.001), suggesting that acknowledgment from supervisors and access to necessary resources can improve engagement and effectiveness. Although the effect size was smaller compared to compensation or WE, it remains practically relevant. Similar patterns have been observed among laboratory technologists in Oman [22], indicating the universal importance of recognition in motivating technical staff.

Finally, PD exhibited a significant positive effect on JP (β = 0.277, p < 0.001), demonstrating that opportunities for skill enhancement, training, and career advancement are crucial for improving performance. This aligns with findings from Ethiopia [12, 17] and other low- and middle-income countries [16, 42, 53, 54], which show that structured professional growth programs enhance motivation and job effectiveness.

Theoretical implications of these findings suggest that Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory is applicable in this context: hygiene factors such as WE and compensation prevent dissatisfaction, while motivators like professional development, recognition, and WLB drive performance. Social Exchange Theory further supports the results, highlighting that employees reciprocate organizational support and recognition with enhanced effort and productivity.

Practical implications include the need for university administrators to prioritize improvements in laboratory conditions, fair compensation, structured professional development, recognition programs, and policies supporting WLB. Implementing these measures can enhance LTA performance, retention, and overall institutional effectiveness, particularly in under-resourced higher education settings.

Hence, this study provides novel empirical evidence on the factors influencing JP among ALTAs in Ethiopia, demonstrating the combined importance of structural, motivational, and relational factors. By integrating quantitative analysis with theoretical and contextual interpretation, the findings offer actionable insights for both management and policy in similar low-resource university settings.

Limitations of the study

This study has several limitations. First, it was conducted at a single university, limiting the generalizability of findings to other institutions. Second, the cross-sectional design restricts the ability to establish causal relationships between JSFs and JP. Third, data were self-reported, which may introduce bias, and the qualitative component was limited, reducing the depth of contextual understanding. Fourth, the gender imbalance among participants may affect representativeness. Despite these limitations, the study provides valuable insights into the determinants of JS among ALTAs and offers a foundation for further research aimed at enhancing employee satisfaction, performance, and institutional effectiveness in higher education settings.

Conclusion and recommendations

The findings of this study indicate a significant lack of JS among ALTAs at Mizan-Tepi University, which may affect the quality of practical education and research support. Key factors influencing satisfaction and performance include CB, WE, professional development, job recognition, and WLB.

A supportive, well-resourced, and collaborative WE were found to enhance motivation, foster positive relationships with colleagues and supervisors, and improve JP. PD opportunities such as training programs, workshops, and skill-building initiatives were highly valued, and limited access to these opportunities contributed to lower satisfaction. Recognition and support from supervisors and faculty were also critical, with acknowledged ALTAs reporting higher motivation and engagement. WLB emerged as another important determinant, as ALTAs faced challenges with inflexible schedules and overlapping responsibilities. While job security was generally perceived as adequate, clear communication regarding employment prospects remains important for maintaining morale and long-term engagement.

Thus, enhancing JS among ALTAs requires a multifaceted approach: improving the WE through safe, well-equipped laboratories and supportive leadership; providing competitive CB; expanding PD opportunities; promoting JRS through structured feedback and team-building initiatives; facilitating WLB; and ensuring transparent career pathways and job security. Implementing these strategies can boost morale, motivation, and performance, benefiting both the staff and the institution.

For future research, longitudinal studies could examine the impact of improved JS on staff retention, institutional performance, and student outcomes. Investigating the effectiveness of targeted interventions, such as PD programs or flexible work arrangements, would provide practical guidance for policy and management in low-resource university settings. From a policy perspective, universities should prioritize structured support systems for ALTAs, invest in professional growth opportunities, and establish clear recognition and reward mechanisms to sustain motivation and enhance institutional effectiveness.

Abbreviations

MTU

Mizan-Tepi University

ALTAs

Academic Laboratory Technical Assistants

JS

Job satisfaction

JSFs

Job satisfaction Factors

JP

Job Performance

WE

Work Environment

CB

Compensation and Benefits

PDT

Professional Development Training

WLB

Work-Life Balance

JRS

Job Recognition and Support

Authors’ contributions

The manuscript was prepared by AA. The conceptualization and design of the study were carried out by HA, while ET and AA were responsible for the analysis and interpretation of the data. BM and TA oversaw the analysis and interpretation, providing essential feedback during the research process. All authors reviewed and endorsed the final version of the manuscript.

Funding

No funding.

Data availability

To protect the privacy of individuals’ identities, not all data produced or examined in this study is accessible to the public. The datasets created and analyzed in this research are part of a continuing project, and I will provide access to them to organizations and individuals upon receiving a formal request.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

This study was conducted in accordance with the ethical principles set forth by MTU for research involving human participants. Ethical clearance was obtained from the Institutional Review Board of MTU (Reference No. MTUIRB/234/16), approved on August 12, 2016. All participants provided informed consent prior to participation, and every effort was made to protect their rights, privacy, and well-being throughout the research process. The study protocol was thoroughly reviewed and approved by the ethics committee to ensure full compliance with institutional and ethical standards. Participants were clearly informed about the purpose of the study, expected outcomes, potential benefits, and any possible risks associated with their involvement, and written consent was obtained before data collection commenced.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.