Abstract
Background:
Law enforcement, particularly policing, is a highly stressful occupation leading to stress, depression, anxiety, and substance intake. Over time, such persistent stress can affect both their professional efficacy and personal well-being.
Aim:
To estimate the level of stress, depression, anxiety, and substance intake patterns among police personnel.
Materials and Methods:
A cross-sectional study consisting of 75 police personnel, including constables and assistant sub-inspectors were conducted in Indore district, where four police stations were selected by simple random sampling and nonprobability convenience sampling in two stages. police stress questionnaire–operational and organizational, DASS scale, and ASSIST were used. Data was entered in an Excel sheet and analyzed using SPSS Software. Categorical data is expressed as proportions and percentages and continuous data as mean and standard deviation. Wherever applicable test of association was applied.
Results:
A total of 42 (56%) participants were in a moderate stress level in the operational stress questionnaire; however, it was 28 (37%) in organizational stress. A total of 19 (25%) police personnel had some features of depression, with 13 (17.3%) being mild, five (6.7%) moderate, and one (1.3%) being severe. Tobacco intake (smoke as well as smokeless) was present in 35 (47%) participants, while alcohol intake was found in 44 (59%) participants.
Conclusion:
The majority of the participants were in a moderate stress level in the operational stress questionnaire; however, low or no stress was reported by a few according to the organizational stress questionnaire. In comparison with depression, many participants were found to have anxiety. Alcohol intake was more commonly seen than tobacco intake.
Keywords: Anxiety, depression, police personnel, stress, substance intake
Law enforcement is an occupation with some peculiar characteristics that can cause work stress, and the policing job is one of the most stressful.[1] Police personnel are one of the few professionals where people are expected to face physical dangers and, if necessary, to risk their lives as well as face significant stress in many other aspects.[2] In most cases, occupational stress is the result of the disparity between challenges or stressors related to an occupation and the individual’s inability to cope. In other instances, occupational stress is the product of conflicting expectations, values, needs, and demands of the occupation. To this extent, individuals can perceive changes in work conditions and demands as threats. These perceptions may cause a psychological imbalance affecting an individual’s work performance and outlook.[3] The depression and anxiety in workplaces and organized official public services interfere with the productivity and performance also create an impact on the physical and emotional health of workers. Stress among policemen may present in the forms of fatigue, depression, difficulty concentrating, irritability, impulsive behavior, substance intake, addiction, etc.[4] The outcomes of depression, anxiety, and stress are also associated with negative outcomes in other aspects of life, including general satisfaction, quality of life, and social interactions.[5] To date, few studies have been conducted combining all three domains, including occupational stress, depression, anxiety, and substance intake in police officers. Hence, this study is conducted with the aim of assessing different psychiatric problems among police personnel.
The aim of the study was to estimate the level of stress among police personnel, to assess depression, anxiety, and substance intake patterns among police personnel and to find their association with various sociodemographic factors.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study design and settings
A cross-sectional field-based study was conducted among police personnel in Indore city.
Sampling strategy
A two-stage sampling approach was employed.
Stage 1: Selection of police stations
A list of all police stations in Indore city served as the sampling frame. From this list, four police stations were selected using simple random sampling without replacement, ensuring equal probability of selection and reducing selection bias at the cluster level.
Stage 2: Selection of participants
Within each selected police station, a nonprobability convenience sampling method was used to recruit participants. All constables and assistant sub-inspectors who were present at the station during the data collection period and met the inclusion criteria were invited to participate. On each visit, an average of 5–6 personnel were interviewed, depending on availability and willingness. Given that approximately 15–20 out of 40 posted personnel were typically present at a given time, multiple visits were scheduled at 7–10 day intervals to maximize coverage.
Sample size
The final sample size was 75. Assuming the study aims to estimate a proportion (e.g., prevalence of a stress-related issue among police personnel), the required sample size for a 95% confidence level, ±10% margin of error, and an expected prevalence of 50% (which gives the maximum sample size), the ideal sample size would be 96 participants. However, due to feasibility constraints including time-intensive interviews, personnel availability, and logistical factors, data collection was practically limited to 75 participants across four randomly selected police stations.
Inclusion and exclusion criteria
Participants were included if they
Were posted as constables or Assistant sub-inspectors in one of the selected police stations.
Provided written informed consent.
Did not report any diagnosed physical, medical, or psychiatric illness at the time of data collection.
Data collection procedure
Data was collected through structured, face-to-face interviews, conducted in a private setting within the police station. Each interview lasted approximately one hour per participant using standardized tools and scales.
Data collection tools
Police stress questionary-operational (PSQ-Op)
The 20-item PSQ-Op[6] measures one of the most common stressors for police officers, operational stress.
Police stress questionnaire-organizational (PSQ-Org)
The PSQ-Org[6] is a 20-item measure created to monitor organizational stress in police officers.
Depression anxiety stress scale (DASS-42)
The DASS-42[7] is a set of three self-report scales designed to measure the emotional states of depression, anxiety and stress.
Assist (alcohol, smoking, and substance involvement screening test)
The ASSIST[8] was developed to detect and manage substance use and related problems in primary and general medical care settings.
Data analysis
Data was entered in an Excel sheet and analyzed using SPSS Software. Categorical data expressed as proportion and percentage and continuous data as mean and standard deviation. Wherever applicable test of association was applied.
RESULTS
The majority of the participants were in the age group of 18–30, married, males and from a rural background. Maximum had studied till class 10th, followed by a group of graduates. And, the majority were in the salary group of Rs. 18,000–25,000/month [Table 1].
Table 1.
Sociodemographic details
| Variable | Sub-variables | Number (%) |
|---|---|---|
| Age | 18–30 | 30 (40) |
| 31–40 | 22 (29.3) | |
| 41–50 | 15 (20.0) | |
| 51–60 | 8 (10.7) | |
| Sex | Male | 70 (93.3) |
| Female | 5 (6.7) | |
| Marital status | Unmarried | 9 (12) |
| Married | 66 (88) | |
| Domicile | Urban | 31 (41.3) |
| Rural | 44 (58.7) | |
| Education | Secondary | 9 (12) |
| Higher secondary | 29 (38.7) | |
| Diploma | 6 (8) | |
| Graduate | 26 (34.7) | |
| Post graduate | 5 (6.7) | |
| Income | 18–25,000 | 35 (46.7) |
| 26–30,000 | 13 (17.3) | |
| 31–35,000 | 6 (8) | |
| 36–40,000 | 10 (13.3) | |
| 41–45,000 | 7 (9.3) | |
| 46–50,000 | 2 (2.7) | |
| 51–55,000 | 1 (1.3) | |
| 56–60,000 | 1 (1.3) |
Stress levels were further classified into low, moderate, and high by taking the mean ± 1 SD as per the suggestion from the author who developed the questionnaire. A total of 42 (56%) participants were in a moderate stress level in the operational stress questionnaire; however, it was 28 (37%) in organizational stress. Major problems in operational were over time demands, limitations to social life, lack of understanding from family and friends, eating healthy at work, finding time to stay in good physical condition, while major problems in organizational were staff shortage, lack of resources, lack of training on new equipment, and leave issues [Table 2].
Table 2.
Police stress questionnaire scores (grading frequency and mean)
| Variable | Category | Frequency | Percent (%) |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean | SD | Min | Max | |
| PSQ-operational | 79.41 | 24.18 | 28 | 123 |
| PSQ-organizational | 62.37 | 21.584 | 30 | 120 |
| PSQ-operational (Frequency grading) | No or low | 15 | 20 | |
| Moderate | 42 | 56 | ||
| High | 18 | 24 | ||
| PSQ-organizational (Frequency grading) | No or low | 41 | 54.7 | |
| Moderate | 28 | 37.3 | ||
| High | 6 | 8 | ||
Test used: Frequency charting, cross tabs
Overall, 19 (25%) police personnel had some features of depression, with 13 (17.3%) being mild, five (6.7%) moderate, and one (1.3%) being severe. No significant association has been found between gradings of depression as well as anxiety with both alcohol intake and tobacco intake (Table attached in Annexure).
A significant difference has been found between marital status and both the operational and organizational stress questionnaire. (P = 0.02, 0.03) with stress being more in married samples. Similarly significant difference has been found between domicile status and operational stress questionnaire (P = 0.002), with mean score more in the urban sample and income groups and organizational stress questionnaire (P = 0.04). No significant difference has been found in depression and anxiety across various domains of the sociodemographic variables.
Tobacco intake (smoke as well as smokeless) was present in 35 (47%) participants, while alcohol intake was found in 44 (59%) participants. Both tobacco and alcohol have been used by 22 (29%) police personnel either concurrently or sequentially in their lifetime.
No history of intake of cannabis, opioids, sedatives, cocaine, stimulants, etc., was reported. Significant association (P = 0.02) is found between domicile status and alcohol intake, with alcohol intake more in urban than rural groups.
DISCUSSION
The study of the nature and extent of stress in law enforcement continues to be a complex and challenging task for social scientists. The available literature on police stress in India indicates a wide range of job and organizational stressors faced by police personnel. These stressors were observed to vary across cities, designations, and over time. With these issues in mind, this article attempts to explore the sources of stress for police personnel. The distribution of sample is as per Table 1.
An earlier study on occupational stress among police personnel in India, the mean of PSQ-OP and PSQ-OG was 79.79 and 76.53 as per Table 2.[9] In our study, the PSQ-OP mean is similar (79.41), but the PSQ-OG score is lower (62.37). The difference can be due to variation in the organization’s set-up. In PSQ-OP, the majority of the participants reported high stress in the factors of over time demands, limitations to social life, lack of understanding from family and friends, eating healthy at work, and finding time to stay in good physical condition. In PSQ-OG, the majority of the participants reported high stress in the factors of staff shortage, lack of resources, lack of training on new equipment, leave issues, and changes in policies.
Considering the DASS scale as per Table 3, about 26% of participants were found to have some or more features of depression. This is much less as compared to an earlier study among the police personnel.[10] In our study, anxiety was present in about 53% of participants, which is much higher than the results found in the above study.[10] The findings of the present study as shown in Tables 3 and 4 are supported by a study on the prevalence of stress and the associated sociodemographic and work factors among police personnel in Malaysia.[11] Depression and anxiety in workplaces and organized official public services interfere with productivity and performance and also impact the physical and emotional health of workers. As a result, they may suffer from both physical and mental illness. They might exhibit absenteeism, lack of interest, lack of concentration, within the working efficiency and performance. If not resolved and controlled, this may lead to major complications like depression and suicidal thoughts and a propensity for increased substance abuse to relieve depression and anxiety. Training programs on sources of distress, regular psychological support, and group intervention could be helpful.
Table 3.
Depression, anxiety, and stress scale
| Variable | Frequency (%) |
||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Normal | Mild | Moderate | Severe | Extremely severe | |
| Depression | 56 (74.7) | 13 (17.3) | 5 (6.7) | 1 (1.3) | 0 |
| Anxiety | 35 (46.7) | 6 (8.0) | 10 (13.3) | 10 (13.3) | 14 (18.7) |
Table 4.
Comparison of PSQ mean with other sociodemographic parameters
| Variable | PSQ-operational | PSQ-organizational | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
| ||||||
| Mean | SD | P | Mean | SD | P | |
| Marital status | ||||||
| Unmarried | 62.56 | 25.79 | 0.02 | 48.33 | 10.00 | 0.03 |
| Married | 81.71 | 23.22 | 5.25 F | 64.29 | 22.06 | 4.53 F |
| Domicile | ||||||
| Urban | 89.29 | 18.25 | 0.002 | 67.84 | 23.68 | 0.65 |
| Rural | 72.45 | 25.57 | 9.87 F | 58.52 | 19.33 | 3.50 F |
| Income | ||||||
| 18–25,000 | 75.46 | 20.07 | 0.79 | 62.77 | 21.16 | 0.04 |
| 26–30,000 | 80.69 | 25.42 | 0.546 F | 54.38 | 13.76 | 2.16 F |
| 31–35,000 | 80.33 | 13.99 | 73.00 | 23.85 | ||
| 36–40,000 | 78.60 | 22.44 | 51.60 | 18.42 | ||
| 41–45,000 | 90.86 | 20.98 | 75.14 | 26.70 | ||
| 46–50,000 | 99.50 | 10.60 | 91.50 | 20.50 | ||
| 51–55,000 | 78.00 | 75.00 | ||||
| 56–60,000 | 85.00 | 36.00 | ||||
Substance abuse is very common among police personnel, mainly in the form of self-medication to relieve anxiety and depression as per Table 5. In our participants, alcohol and tobacco abuse were found. None of them ever took or tried other substances in the form of cannabis, opioids, sedatives, stimulants, etc. Among the total participants who currently use or have used alcohol ever, about 20% require intervention, of which 18% require brief intervention and 2% require intensive treatment. Our results are like those found in an earlier study in which about 18.1% of the male police officers experienced adverse consequences due to alcohol abuse.[12] Chronic alcohol intake results in cardiovascular problems, gastrointestinal and hepatic impairment. More research is needed to delineate the patterns and predictors of alcohol use in police officers. Tobacco use in a harmful or dependence pattern has been found in nearly 48% of the participants who use tobacco. A study conducted among police personnel working in various police stations across Mumbai showed that tobacco with lime was found to be the most common habit in the police personnel (34.0%), followed by alcohol (19.3%).[13] Another study in Karnataka showed that 29% of the police personnel had substance abuse, which is similar to our findings.[9] Another Indian study also showed that alcohol and tobacco chewing habits are higher among policemen.[14]
Table 5.
Sociodemographic data and substance intake
| Variable | Tobacco | Alcohol | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
| ||||||
| No | Yes | P | No | Yes | P | |
| Domicile | ||||||
| Urban | 17 | 14 | 0.826 | 8 | 23 | 0.022 |
| Rural | 23 | 21 | 23 | 21 | ||
The majority of participants in the present study reported high stress due to factors like overtime demands, limitations on social life, and a lack of understanding from family and friends. These findings were similar to the findings of a study where lack of time for family and low salary were the primary causes of stress among police personnel in Uttar Pradesh.[15] Similarly, police personnel in Wardha, Maharashtra, were under stress due to varied reasons such as criticism by superiors, excess work, lack of reward, inadequate value given to abilities and commitments, and no satisfaction from work.[16]
In our study, the majority of the participants reported high stress in the factors of staff shortage, lack of resources, lack of training on new equipment, leave issues, and changes in policies. A study on sources of stress among Chennai police revealed that stress was due to organizational and operational factors rather than physical hazards involved in police work. The factors included round-clock duty, no time for family, inadequate salaries/facilities, negative interaction with other police staff, poor equipment, no recognition, too many cases, insufficient staff, and harassment.[17] Another study revealed that a lack of superiors’ interest in their subordinates, irregular office work, heavy workload, and dealing with criminals were stressors faced by constables in the Northern part of Tamil Nadu.[18] A study conducted in Karnataka points to the high level of stress among Indian police personnel and the need for urgent interventions from the government to address the occupational stress.
Limitations
This study has limitations that should be considered when interpreting the findings. Firstly, although police stations were randomly selected to reduce cluster-level selection bias, individual participants were recruited using convenience sampling based on their availability and willingness to participate. This approach may introduce selection bias and limit the generalizability of the results to all police personnel in the district. Secondly, operational constraints, such as duty rosters, field assignments, and variable work shifts, made it logistically infeasible to randomly select individual participants within each police station. As a result, the study sample may over-represent those who were either on desk duty or more accessible during the data collection period. Additionally, the sample size was not based on a formal statistical power calculation but was determined pragmatically, based on time and personnel available during the study period. Therefore, the finding should be viewed as exploratory and indicative, rather than conclusive or representative of the entire police force in the region.
CONCLUSION
Stress, depression, anxiety, poor quality of life, and substance abuse are undeniable consequences of the stressful activities law enforcement officers face daily. Law enforcement agencies need to provide access to regular mental health meetings, check-ups, counseling, cognitive behavior therapies and pharmacotherapy. Preventive measures should be implemented to ensure the health and well-being of their employees and to limit potential agency liabilities. This population should be supported by specific training to reduce the risk of developing chronic diseases.
Ethical considerations
Ethical approval was obtained from the Institutional Ethics Committee. Permission to conduct the study was secured from the Superintendent of Police, Indore City. All participants provided written informed consent, and confidentiality of responses was ensured. IMCHRC/IEC/2017/83, dated 18.11.2017, letter from Police Superintendent, PO.A/INDORE EAST, PA, 1035-A/2017, dated 26.10.2017.
Authors’ contributions
Acquisition, analysis and interpretation of data: NN, AK, MKD; Drafting the article and revising it ctitically for important intellectual content, final approval of the versions to be Published: NN, AK, MKD, KK, AK.
Data availability
Data will be made available on reasonable request.
Conflicts of interest
There are no conflicts of interest.
Funding Statement
Nil.
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Associated Data
This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.
Data Availability Statement
Data will be made available on reasonable request.
