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. 2026 Feb 21;14(1):2633819. doi: 10.1080/21642850.2026.2633819

Psychosocial correlates of well-being among retired academics at Ghanaian Universities

Frances Emily Owusu-Ansah a,*, Daniel Opoku b, Raymond Chegedua Tangonyire c, Rita Holm Adzovie d, Anthony Afriyie Amponsah e, Akua Afriyie Addae f
PMCID: PMC12927398  PMID: 41737375

Abstract

Background

Retirement is an important phase of life with varied experiences and potential challenges to well-being, especially in low- and middle-income countries. Academic environments can be particularly taxing, with deleterious impacts on well-being. However, there is inadequate research in Ghana on academic retirees' well-being.

Objective and methods

The purpose of this study was to investigate the postretirement experiences and well-being status of academic retirees at some Ghanaian Universities by examining the psychosocial correlates and predictors of well-being. Using a quantitative, nonexperimental, correlational design, the study examined relationships among variables of interest by means of retrospective approach. A sample of two hundred and eighty academic retirees completed self-rated questionnaire on their general well-being, perceptions of control, quality of life and retirement satisfaction.

Results

Findings showed that well-being and retirement satisfaction among retired academics were associated with better quality of life in the areas of physical and mental health, social support, and perceived control. Psychological or mental health, perceived control, and financial satisfaction were significant predictors of retirees' well-being.

Conclusion

Insights from this study may inform further research on evidence-based efforts in Ghana for clinical practice and institutional responses that promote academic retirees' well-being, particularly in the areas of perceived control, mental health, and financial security.

Keywords: Well-being, mental health, perceived control, social support, retirement

Introduction

Retirement from work is a reality for any working person at some point in life. As in any phase of life, retirement has unique opportunities and challenges and may be associated with changes in health status, vitality, and financial constraints. Adequate early preparations facilitate psychological readiness, a sense of control for successful transition, and adjustment to postretirement life experiences (Amani et al., 2023; Ellis et al., 2017; Henning et al., 2022; Lachman, 2006; Rodin, 1986; Wang & Shi, 2014).

Generally, studies on retirement show that it is a multifaceted and heterogeneous process (Nordenmark & Stattin, 2009; Sohier et al., 2021). Experiences differ according to individual vulnerabilities and the process of adjustment (Henning et al., 2022; Shin et al., 2021). Post-retirement adjustment or functioning may be influenced by several factors including type of job (Cahill et al., 2019; Ellis et al., 2017; Oteng et al., 2022; Sohier et al., 2021), productivity (Cahill et al., 2021), age or gender (Cahill et al., 2021), financial security (Adam et al., 2017), preparedness (Amani et al., 2023), and whether or not retirement was voluntary or mandatory (Nordenmark & Stattin, 2009); and opportunities for work (paid and unpaid engagements). The interplay of these factors influences both identity perception and sense of satisfaction following retirement (Cahill et al., 2021). Mandatory retirement, for example, strongly predicts dissatisfaction and poorer psychosocial functioning while some personal influence on the timing of retirement has been associated with better psychosocial well-being (Atalay & Barett, 2022), pointing to the essential link between perceived control and well-being.

Perceived control represents the belief that individuals can determine their own internal states and behavior and influence their environment and/or bring about desired outcomes. It is reflected in related constructs such as locus of control (Rotter, 1966), self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997), mastery and autonomy (Nyende et al., 2023). Control beliefs, both primary and secondary, are operationalized with self-assessment statements with which one rates one's ability to bring about a desired outcome or to overcome external constraints to reach goals. Robinson and Lachman (2017) posited that while perceived control benefits may vary across cultures and serve as a function of demographic characteristics, control beliefs show a curvilinear pattern over the life span, peaking in midlife and declining at an accelerated rate in later adulthood due to age-related changes, limitations or challenges. With age, a realistic appraisal of a person's situation about controllability is a hallmark of successful ageing (Heckhausen & Baltes, 1991). Outcomes can be optimized by adjustment of behavioral and cognitive control strategies to age-related changes in control capacity. Adults adapt to age-related challenges across the life span with control strategies of goal engagement or disengagement process congruent with existing constraints or opportunities for a successful ageing experience and well-being (Robinson & Lachman, 2017).

Perceived control is linked with physical and emotional well-being through promotion of adaptive coping, emotional regulation, sustained motivation and goal pursuit, and a sense of agency and personal meaning given an individual's belief that what is at stake is within own control and therefore takes necessary actions that reduce stress (Msetfi et al., 2024). The perceived control literature consistently shows that it plays a critical role in physical and psychological well-being; enhances resilience and adaptation, as it buffers the negative effects of stress and encourages active coping, especially in older adults (Ahmed et al., 2025; de Quadros-Wander et al., 2014; Henning et al., 2022; Hong et al., 2021; Nyende et al., 2023; Qu et al., 2024; Robinson & Lachman, 2017). Good social support networks, dispositional optimism, and good physical and mental health are also associated with well-being (Barbosa et al., 2016; Wood et al., 2022).

Retirement and well-being research in Ghana

In Ghana, retirement is mandatory at the attainment of 60 years of age. At this age, many officially retire from active public service. In universities, however, many who are ‘officially retired’ by virtue of their age may continue to work on postretirement contracts (Cahill et al., 2021), depending on institutional or departmental needs and personal choices. Therefore, postretirement engagement within the Ghanaian context, though possible, is not automatic. In this study, ‘retirees’ refer to those academics who have attained the mandatory retirement age and are therefore ‘officially retired’, but who may still be engaged by their universities for work through postretirement contracts under different conditions of service (UG Special Reporter, 2016).

Generally, and beyond the Ghanaian context, there are mixed findings on impact of continuing to work after retirement (Li et al., 2021). While it can be beneficial for some (for example, less heavy work, voluntary, and cognitively engaging), it can have detrimental impact on well-being for those in high-stress jobs, such as academia, who have to keep working because of financial needs or constraints. Continued affiliation with a department, access to campus events, and regular contact with colleagues and students, for example, can boost social connectedness (positively impacting well-being). However, low pay or piecemeal compensation can affect financial security and increase stress (Baxter et al., 2021). In Ghana, it is not uncommon for many ‘retired’ academics to seek postretirement contracts that are motivated by financial reasons (Salifu, 2023). Therefore, the net effect of continuing to work after retirement depends on the interplay of these factors, individual needs, and the socioeconomic context.

It is noteworthy that much of the current research on issues around retirement comes from high-income countries and a dearth of knowledge on the subject in low- and middle-income countries such as Ghana. The increasing number of older academics in Ghanaian Universities (Salifu, 2023) makes issues around retirement an important area of investigation. Additionally, the heterogeneity and mixed findings on the overall effect of retirement (Ugwu et al., 2024) reveal gaps in the clear understanding of how retirement, perceptions of control, and well-being, for example, interact in understudied populations and contexts.

The concept of well-being is multidimensionally complex, and conceptualizations vary (Jarden & Roache, 2023). A common conceptualization of well-being refers to individuals' general evaluation of affective states and how they function at both the personal and social levels (Michaelson et al., 2012). In the current study, an academic retiree's well-being reflects the extent to which a retiree enjoys and is satisfied with his/her psychosocial state and functioning, including areas such as physical and mental health, interpersonal relationships, and financial security. The unique way in which ‘retirement’ is conceptualized in this study has potential financial, social, and emotional implications for understanding well-being in this cultural context.

Studies conducted in Ghana have reported varied meanings of well-being (Kangmennaang & Elliott, 2019) with differences in focus of research (Golo & Novieto, 2022). A study by Baidoo and Ansah (2023), for example, conducted among university staff, focused on the relationship between the psychosocial climate within universities and workers' burnout. Baidoo and Ansah (2023) claimed that their work was the first to examine factors related to staff well-being in institutions of higher learning in Ghana. Burnout arguably speaks to the quality of well-being and mental health. However, their study neither specifically examined the well-being or mental health of retired university workers nor used established well-being instruments in their investigation. Instead, it focused on the extent to which work-related burnout and psychosocial environment predicted intention to leave employment.

Ghanaian studies on postretirement experiences are diverse and differ in both sample and focus from the current study. Earlier works (Acheampong et al., 2016; Adom et al., 2020), which were also conducted among university staff, did not specifically investigate well-being and mental health but centered on related issues such as quality of life and job satisfaction. Other studies that have investigated mental health-related issues (e.g. Amponsah et al., 2014; Milledzi et al., 2017; Ofori, 2020) were not conducted among those in academia. Likewise, Hayward (1979) qualitative study on Ghanaians' perception of well-being in the 1970s, for example, was linked primarily to perceptions of the political situation of the time. While some studies have examined the postretirement lives of elderly Ghanaians in general (Agyeman, 2021; Gyasi, 2019; Oteng et al., 2022), others have examined issues related to retirement, such as retirement planning (Dovie, 2018; Ewusi et al., 2021; Kwegyiriba et al., 2021), postretirement economic security and satisfaction (Adam et al., 2017; Addison, 2007; Andoh, 2018), and motivations for part-time postretire teaching engagements (Salifu, 2023).

Conclusively, studies in Ghana that specifically focus on the mental health or well-being of academic retirees at universities are lacking. However, there are several conditions in Ghana that may differentiate the experiences and well-being of Ghanaian retirees from those of other countries or cultural contexts. Limited pension coverage, inflation and rapid currency depreciation, for example, can reduce the purchasing power for fixed pensions and create income uncertainty for retirees. Likewise, gaps in health care access for older adults, large informal economy and limited coverage of social protection or long-term geriatric care services (Atakro et al., 2021), coupled with cultural norms on filial financial responsibilities and extended family relations, and changing social support systems expose Ghanaian retirees to potential isolation, unmet care needs, and poverty risks (Amoak et al., 2024; Government of Ghana, 2010). Furthermore, in the Ghanaian academic culture, being in academia often confers social status which may become burdensome or challenging when coupled with unrealistic or demanding expectations such as the expectation to make hefty financial donations (e.g. at funerals and social gatherings). Thus, retirement without postretirement contracts or other meaningful community engagements and recognition can produce a quicker decline in finances, social status or identity, purpose, and well-being than in countries with fiscally stronger economies or cultures with more functionally established nuclear family and care systems that buffer retirees.

The Ghanaian literature evidences a gap in information on correlates or factors that influence psychological well-being among Ghanaian academic retirees. To the best of our knowledge, there is currently no study that has specifically examined the postretirement well-being of Ghanaian academics. However, clinical and empirical evidence suggests that working in academia is replete with stress and pressures that impair well-being (Urbina‐Garcia, 2020). The significance of the current study lies in being the first study in Ghana to directly examine how variables like perceived control, retirement satisfaction, quality of life, and well-being interact in this group of people and thus contribute to knowledge about this understudied population within the Ghanaian cultural context. Furthermore, this topic warrants attention as an important area of investigation, as it concerns the well-being of academic frontline workers for national advancement and productivity. The relevance of the study, therefore, cannot be overemphasized.

Study rationale and objective

Beyond the research gap in the Ghanaian empirical literature on academic retirees' psychological or mental health and well-being, this study was motivated primarily by observations within some Ghanaian University communities that mirrored different adjustments and well-being statuses of academics following retirement. The physical and psychosocial well-being of some patients seemed to deteriorate quickly. While some people experience rapid health challenges (such as stroke), a decline in vitality, and seemingly sudden premature deaths, others are energetic, actively engaged in their communities, and seemingly well adjusted. These observations birthed the question ‘What accounts for these differences’? The answer to a seemingly simple question may be complex and worthwhile for scientific investigation. Consequently, this study sought to explore the postretirement experiences and well-being of academic retirees at some Ghanaian Universities in the bid to illuminate the subject of postretirement psychological functioning and associated correlates. The underlying question of the study is as follows: ‘After retirement from academia, who is doing well or better adjusted and how?’ We believe that findings from this work would provide germinal insights for a better understanding of the postretirement life of Ghanaian academics to inform further research and evidence-based efforts for appropriate context-specific responses that would improve their quality of life and well-being. Beyond Ghana study insights would contribute to existing knowledge on the subject, being from an understudied cultural context, to spur further research in a way that may potentially influence policy formulations and clinical practice applications.

The main objective of this study was to investigate the postretirement experiences and well-being of retired academics in some Ghanaian Universities. Specific questions related to this objective were as follows:

  • a)

    What are the correlates and predictors of the well-being of academic retirees?

  • b)

    What differences exist, if any, among retirees from different universities?

Method

This study deployed a cross-sectional survey to investigate the postretirement experiences of academic retirees at some Ghanaian Universities. A quantitative, nonexperimental, correlational design was used to examine relationships among interested variables by means of retrospective approach whereby participants self-rated on psychological questionnaires. Self-rating in a retrospective manner enables respondents to reflect on own functioning. Ethical approval for the study was sought and obtained (CHRPE/AP/442/23).

Participants and procedure

A total of 280 academic retirees from three public universities in Ghana participated in the study within the months of September–December, 2023, and were sampled through convenient and snowball sampling techniques. The contact lists of retirees were obtained from relevant offices at the collaborating universities (e.g. Human Resource office). Retirees were contacted by phone and bulk SMS messaging to solicit their participation in the study after they had been provided with adequate information on the study and had any concerns or questions answered. Once verbal consent was obtained, willing participants did so without any coercion, aware that there are no known risks to participating and that they could withdraw without any negative consequences to themselves. Anonymity and confidentiality were ensured as there was no personally identifying information linking responses to participants in any way.

A google format of questionnaires used was prepared, for ease of administration, in addition to hard copies for participants who may prefer paper-pencil completion to the digitized version. Retirees who willingly consented to participate were either sent a soft copy of the questionnaire (in Google format) or a hard copy to complete as desired. Consistency in data collection at the three study sites was ensured by adequate training and written guidelines for research assistants. Data collection challenges (e.g. blatant participation refusals) necessitated the inclusion of ‘snow balling’ technique, through personal contacts, to solicit participation with no particular efforts made for an even gender presentation.

As public institutions, the universities share similarities in terms of governance model, core or formal policies (e.g. staff recruitment), and external regulations by the Ghana Tertiary Education Commission (GTEC) (Act 1023-Education regulatory bodies Act, 2020). However, they differ in funding mandate, statutory details, and how some policies (e.g. human resource regulations and promotion criteria or grading of academic ranks) are operationalized in practice. Other differences like campus location and living conditions (e.g. standard of living and availability of on-campus housing) may influence staff stress and differences in well-being (Tetteh, 2012).

Measures

An adapted version of the World Health Organization Quality of Life shorter version (WHOQOL-BREF), the Retirement Satisfaction Inventory (RSI), the Perceptions of Control Scale (PCS) and the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS) were used in the study. The descriptive statistics and internal consistency reliabilities for the measures in this sample are presented in Table 1. The scales demonstrated acceptable internal consistency in the current sample, suggesting that the scales reliably measure the underlying constructs.

Table 1.

Descriptive statistics and internal consistency reliabilities for measures.

Measures Mean Standard deviation Cronbach alpha
Retirement satisfaction inventory (RSI) 4.10 2.27 0.95
WHO quality of life shorter version (WHOQOL-BREF) 3.83 1.08 0.96
Satisfaction with life scale (SWLS) 5.21 2.08 0.90
Perceptions of control scale (PCS) 5.48 1.99 0.90
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The World Health Organization Quality of Life (WHOQOL-BREF) is a self-report instrument widely used to measure quality of life with good psychometric properties (Archuleta et al., 2023). Minor linguistic edits were made for greater clarity and suitability to the Ghanaian cultural setting. The WHOQOL-BREF is a shorter version of the original instrument, consisting of twenty-six items, designed for easier administration and scoring, to measure the quality of life across four domains - physical health, psychological health, social relationships, and environment. Respondents rate themselves on a 5-point Likert scale, on how satisfied they are with themselves, where 1 represents ‘very dissatisfied’ and 5 represents ‘very satisfied’. Higher domain scores indicate good functioning in that domain.

The Retirement Satisfaction Inventory (RSI) is a self-report questionnaire designed to assess retirement satisfaction and perceptions of retirement-related experiences predictive of adjustment and contentment in later life. The RSI is a valid instrument with good internal consistency and test-retest reliability (Wang & Shi, 2014). It consists of twenty items that assess retirement satisfaction such as financial security, health, leisure activities, social and family relationships, community involvement and personal development. It is organized into four subscales of psychological, social, health, and financial satisfaction. Items are rated on a 6-point Likert scale, where 1 indicates ‘strongly disagree’ and 6 indicates ‘strongly agree’. Higher scores indicate greater satisfaction with retirement, while lower scores indicate less satisfaction.

The Diener et al. (1985) The Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS) was used to assess participants' overall satisfaction with life and a global index of well-being. The scale consists of five statements assessing global or overall satisfaction with life and is rated on a 7-point scale from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (7). High total scores indicate higher satisfaction with life. The SWLS has good internal consistency and stability with desirable convergent and discriminant validity (Diener et al., 1999); having been used and validated in older adult samples (Diener et al., 1985) and in cross-cultural studies (Pedroso-Chaparro et al., 2021) and does not appear to be overly sensitive to social desirability.

Perceptions of control scale (PCS)

Perceptions of control was assessed with primary and secondary forms of control items (six items each) adapted from existing scales (Brandtstädter & Renner, 1990; Wrosch et al., 2000) with good internal reliability. In this study, participants' actual use of or engagement with control processes was measured by having them rate items in terms of the frequency with which they engaged in those control strategies. That is, participants rated each control item according to their perception of self in the use of that control item on a 7-point scale ranging from very bad at (1) to very good at (7); with a higher mean score indicating higher perceived control.

Data analysis

Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS, version 27), following data curation and management. Significantly incomplete data were excluded in the analysis. Analyzes of variance, correlations, and multiple linear regression were performed to examine relationships and with a 95% confidence interval.

Results

Sociodemographic characteristics of participants

There was a total of 280 participants from three public universities in Ghana with more male than female retirees and a mean age of 65.7 (SD = 6.1). Detailed characteristics of participants (and numeric breakdown of sociodemographic variables) are presented in Table 2.

Table 2.

Sociodemographic characteristics of participants.

Variables Mean SD Frequency Percentage
         
Age 63.7 6.1    
Gender        
Male     205 73.2
Female     75 26.8
Marital status        
Married     229 81.8
Divorced     13 4.6
Widowed     20 7.1
Separated     5 1.8
Never married     12 4.3
Religion        
Christian     256 91.4
Islam     14 5.0
Traditional believer     1 0.4
Eckankar     2 0.7
No religion     7 2.5
Affiliated university        
KNUST     114 40.7
UCC     93 33.2
UG     73 26.1
Specialization        
Business and management     21 7.5
Agriculture and environmental sciences     35 12.5
Education, humanities, and social sciences     118 42.1
Science and engineering     43 15.4
Allied health and medicine     63 22.5
Mode of retirement        
Voluntary retirement     43 15.4
Involuntary retirement     237 84.6
Contracts        
Not post-retirement contracted     100 35.7
Post-retirement contracted     180 64.3
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For a coherent presentation, we organized participants' academic discipline or area of specialization into five groups namely, Business and Management; Agriculture and Environmental Sciences; Education, Humanities and Social Sciences; Science and Engineering; Allied Health and Medicine. The majority of them were from education, humanities and social sciences, followed by those from allied health and medicine, science and engineering, and then agriculture and environmental sciences, and business and management.

A total of 84.6% (237) of the participants did not voluntarily retire but had attained the mandatory retirement age of 60 years. However, a few others (15.4%, 43) voluntarily did so for varied reasons. Over 50% of participants had postretirement teaching contracts. The length of time for those on postretirement contracts ranged from 1 to 15 years; with a majority (122, 43.6%) being between 1 and 5 years. Those within the 6–10 years bracket formed 20.1% (56) and very few (6, 1.9%) had been contracted for over 10 years.

Examination of the year of retirement for participants in this study revealed that relatively fewer (26, 9.4%) retired between the years of 2000 to 2010 compared to those who retired between 2011 to 2023 years (245, 87.4%). Participants differed in the number of persons who financially depended on them. While majority of retirees (191, 68.3%) had between 1 and 5 dependents, some had none (31, 11.1%). A few of them (46, 16.5%) had between 6 and 10 dependents, and very few others (6, 2.2%) had more than 10 persons who financially depended on them.

A correlation of satisfaction with life (an index of global subjective well-being), retirement satisfaction, quality of life, and perceived control was conducted to examine how these variables related with well-being. Bivariate correlations, shown in Table 3, indicated that all variables were positively and significantly associated with each other indicating that higher levels of retirement satisfaction, for example, were associated with higher levels of perceived control, better sense of subjective well-being, and better general quality of life.

Table 3.

Bivariate correlations of variables.

Variables Well-being Retirement satisfaction Quality of life Perception of control
Well-being 1      
Retirement satisfaction 0.35** 1    
Quality of life 0.48** 0.44** 1  
Perception of control 0.58** 0.37** 0.48** 1
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**

The correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

As a well-being construct, the satisfaction with life scale (being a global index of subjective well-being) arguably shares similarity with the quality of life measure. However, the quality of life measure being different in terms of specificity (scale measures quality of life in specific domains of functioning), necessitated a clearer understanding of the relationship of a general sense of subjective well-being to the specific domains of quality of life (i.e. physical health, psychological health, environment, and social relationships). Therefore, another correlational analysis was conducted to examine these relationships. The results revealed that the specific domains of quality of life that were significantly and positively associated with well-being were physical health, psychological health and social relationships. These findings suggest that good physical health, good psychological health and good social support networks are associated with higher levels of subjective well-being. Retirees who enjoyed good physical and mental health and who had meaningful social connections were more generally satisfied with their lives. The quality of one's environment was not significantly associated with well-being. The results are presented in Table 4.

Table 4.

Bivariate correlations of well-being and quality of life domains.

Variables Well-being Physical health Psychological
health		 Social
relationships		 Environment
Well-Being 1        
Physical Health 0.45** 1      
Psychological
Health		 0.61**   1    
Social
Relationships		 0.37**     1  
Environment −0.10       1
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**

The correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

To examine which variables predict retirees' well-being, well-being was regressed on retirement satisfaction, quality of life (i.e. physical health, psychological or mental health, quality of environment, and social relationship domains) and perceived control. The results, presented in Table 5, indicated a good model: F (6, 273) = 39.98 p < 0.001; and the variables together accounted for 47% (R2 = 0.47) of the variance in the well-being of retirees. The results also showed that quality of psychological health or mental health (B = 0.76, β = -0.38 p < 0.001) and perceived control (B = 0.43, β = -0.35, p < 0.001) were the significant predictors of retirees' well-being.

Table 5.

Summary of multiple regression analysis of variables predicting subjective well-being of retirees.

  95% Confidence Interval
Variables B SE Lower Upper β p
Constant −0.25 1.07 −2.38 1.85   0.81
Retirement satisfaction 0.08 0.23 −0.37 0.52 0.17 0.74
Physical health 0.13 0.18 −0.22 0.48 0.04 0.47
Psychological health 0.76 0.14 0.48 1.05 0.38 <0.001
Environment −0.19 0.21 −0.60 0.22 −0.04 0.47
Social relationships 0.05 0.19 −0.32 −0.32 0.01 0.81
Perceived control 0.43 0.07 0.30 0.56 0.35 <0.001
 R2 0.47   p < 0.001      
 Adjusted R2 0.45          
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Controlling for gender, mode of retirement (whether retirement was voluntary or involuntary), number of dependents, and inclusion of financial satisfaction (a domain in retirement satisfaction) in the model also evidenced a good model fit: F (9, 264) = 27.15 p < 0.001 and accounted for 48% of the variance (R2 = 0.48) in retirees' well-being. Again, the strongest predictors of retirees' well-being in this model were quality of mental or psychological health (B = 0.75, β = 0.38 p < 0.001), perceived control (B = 0.41, β = 0.34 p < 0.001) and financial satisfaction (B = 0.34, β = 0.14 p = 0.005) as shown in Table 6 below.

Table 6.

Multiple regression analysis of independent and control variables predicting subjective well-being together with financial satisfaction.

 
 95% Confidence Interval
Variables B SE Lower Upper β p
Constant −0.87 0.92 −2.70 0.10   0.35
Physical health 0.07 0.18 −0.29 0.42 0.02 0.72
Psychological health 0.75 0.14 0.46 1.03 0.38 <0.001
Environment −0.17 0.21 −0.58 0.24 −0.04 0.42
Social relationships 0.10 0.19 −0.27 0.47 0.03 0.61
Perceived control 0.41 0.07 0.28 0.54 0.34 <0.001
Gender −0.16 0.13 −0.42 0.91 −0.06 0.22
Mode of retirement −0.01 0.15 −0.31 0.29 −0.00 0.94
Number of dependents −0.01 0.02 −0.05 0.03 −0.02 0.64
Financial satisfaction 0.34 0.17 0.10 0.56 0.14 0.005
 R2 0.48   p < 0.001      
 Adjusted R2 0.46          
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Further analyzes were conducted to examine if any differences existed in the well-being of retirees from the three participating universities given some local contextual differences that may influence well-being. Results of a one-way analysis of variance did not indicate any significant difference in the well-being of retirees from the three universities F (2, 277) = 0.47, p = 0.63 (see Table 7 below). Likewise, there was no significant difference in the well-being and levels of satisfaction with retirement among retirees with postretirement contracts and those without contracts as evidenced by results on independent samples t-test for equality of means (means of 5.08, 5.27, p = 0.81 and 3.56, 3.57, p = 0.56, respectively). Those who retired voluntarily (mean = 5.38) were not significantly different (p = 0.40) in their levels of well-being from involuntary retirees (mean = 5.14) (that is, those mandated by age to retire).

Table 7.

One-way analysis of variance in retirees' subjective well-being among various universities.

Source SS df MS F p
Between groups 0.06 2 0.03 0.47 0.63
Within groups 19.02 277 0.07    
Total 19.08 279      
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Discussion

This study examined the well-being of academic retirees from three public universities in Ghana. A total of two hundred eighty (280) academic retirees participated in the study. We examined retirees' general satisfaction with their lives (a global index of subjective well-being), their retirement satisfaction, their quality of life (generally and in specific domains) and their perceptions of control with the aim of understanding their postretirement experiences and well-being. We explored the study's underlying question (‘After retirement from academia, who is doing well or better adjusted and how?) by examining correlates and predictors of retirees’ well-being.

Our findings revealed that good physical and psychological or mental health, social support, and greater perception of control over situations in one's life were associated with higher levels of retirement satisfaction and general well-being, as evidenced by significant positive correlations. Academic retirees who enjoy these experiences are better adjusted (have greater well-being) and satisfied with their postretirement life experiences, corroborating similar findings from earlier works (Asebedo & Seay, 2014; Barbosa et al., 2016; Gyasi, 2019). The association of perceived control with better health and well-being is also consistent (see for example, Hanfstingl et al., 2021; Henning et al., 2022; Robinson & Lachman, 2017).

Mental or psychological health, perceived control, and financial security were the strongest predictors of well-being among retirees in this study, accounting for a large percentage (48%) of variance having controlled for gender, number of dependents and mode of retirement. This finding suggests that these (good psychological or mental health, perceived control, and financial security) importantly contribute to retirees' well-being. Adequate preretirement financial planning (Amani et al., 2023) has been associated with better well-being in retirement; resonating with our finding of financial satisfaction or security as a significant predictor after controlling for number of dependents. Therefore, in response to the question about who does well after retirement, our study suggests that these are likely to be those retirees who enjoy good psychological or mental health, who believe self to be efficacious in attaining desired outcomes, and who have enough money to meet both needs and wants.

Our study also revealed some unexpected findings. There was no significant difference in the well-being and retirement satisfaction of retirees who did so voluntarily and those who did not; and between retirees with postretirement contracts and those without postretirement contracts. Likewise, a comparison of retirees by institution showed no significant difference in the well-being or retirement satisfaction among retirees from the three public universities. Unlike findings from the works of Atalay and Barett (2022) and Nordenmark & Stattin (2009), who found involuntary retirement to be a strong predictor of poorer well-being among retirees, this study did not reveal any significant association.

Our findings may reveal some context-specific peculiarities. In Ghana, given that sixty years is the expected or ‘compulsory’ retirement age, people may be more psychologically prepared to retire as they approach this age and may find other personally meaningful sources of engagement outside academia even before they attain the age of sixty. An earlier work showed that higher levels of good mental health are more likely among retirees who, not being strongly attached to their work roles status and identity (Wang & Shi, 2014), are better able to transition into other areas of their lives deemed equally meaningful. Furthermore, the homogeneity in well-being and retirement satisfaction may be due to the quality of social embeddedness and sense of purpose arising from a perceived continued respect and inclusion accorded within local communities even as retirees (e.g. as elders, mentors, or advisors); and within a cultural context where social connectedness and reciprocity are intrinsic to well-being (Tsai & Dzorgbo, 2012).

The lack of significant difference in the well-being and retirement satisfaction among retirees of the three public universities may also be attributable to a lack of significant difference in the key areas of governance and functioning (e.g. staff remuneration and conditions of service) since all three institutions are public universities in Ghana. Furthermore, though retirement has been severally conceptualized and operationalized (Wang & Shi, 2014), in this study retirement status was self-assessed by retirees' own views and experiences with respect to their engagement or withdrawal from the workforce. Thus, a retiree may assess self as ‘retired’ from academia but may be well engaged in other income generating ventures or non-paid, yet personally meaningful and satisfying activities. Though Ghana has sixty years as the ‘compulsory’ retirement age, given the increasing life expectancy in Ghana (ca. 65.5 years), retired academics, being physically and mentally active, may have other meaningful communal sources of engagement outside academia. This aspect was not examined in the current study though it may explain the difference in our findings and calls for further research.

Limitations of the study

Our study has limitations that warrant attention for future research. Self-reported data are susceptible to bias although accurate appraisal of self and experience is possible. The study findings are insightful and useful for the Ghanaian context, yet as a correlational study causal inferences cannot be made. Furthermore, there was a general difficulty in getting academic retirees to participate in the study. While some declined participation because they were ‘too busy’, others were indisposed because of ill-health. Other challenges included lack of current contact information of some retirees which made efforts to reach them impossible. These constraints affected the number of participants obtained. Therefore, there must be caution in the generalization of findings. These limitations notwithstanding, results from the study provide germinal insights into the psychosocial factors associated with well-being among Ghanaian academic retirees and call for further investigation.

Conclusion and future directions

The findings of this study suggest that the quality of psychological or mental health, perceived control, and financial security are important for well-being following retirement from academia in Ghana. Additionally, greater satisfaction with the quality and conditions of one's life after retirement enhances subjective well-being.

Though causality cannot be established, findings are insightful for further research. Future studies that employ mixed methods approach could provide more comprehensive information that better delineate links between well-being and the variables investigated. A combination of quantitative and interpretative phenomenological approaches for an in-depth understanding of the lived experiences of academic retirees would be a step in the right direction. In this study, there was no significant difference in the well-being and retirement satisfaction of retirees across three classifications: those who retired voluntarily and those who did not, those with postretirement contracts and those without postretirement contracts, and those who retired by institution (i.e. from the three public universities). Future studies that compare the experiences of retired academics from public and private universities may be illuminating in identifying potential personal and institutional factors and differences that may influence well-being outcomes.

In Ghana, there is evidence that show substantial prevalence of depression and mental health needs among older adults which exceeds global averages; with social isolation and reduced social participation being common drivers of poor outcomes in older Ghanaians (Lloyd-Sherlock et al., 2019). Retired academics, for whom retirement severs work-based social ties and who may not be otherwise meaningfully engaged, may be doubly exposed. Financially, pension and retirement income are often inadequate creating financial insecurity after retirement (Sakoe & Twum-Barima, 2024). Poor retirement planning and low preretirement preparation (mentally and financially) in Ghana increase vulnerability and correlate with poorer well-being after retirement (Ongoh et al., 2024). Our findings, though preliminary, have implications that raise important questions for university leadership in the area of retirement preparations and mental health support systems for retirees. Are academics adequately prepared (psychologically and financially) for retirement in Ghana? What evidence-based interventions or policies are in place for the promotion and maintenance of good mental health and well-being among academic retirees in Ghana?

As the first study of its kind, our findings contribute to setting research priorities and underscore the importance of further research into efforts at institutional support system policies that promote good psychological health, self-efficacy, and financial security through adequate preparations for retirement. Our findings, though they pertained to Ghana, may be similarly or differently nuanced than those of academic retirees around the globe, particularly those in low- and middle-income countries such as Ghana. Therefore, experimental studies and the inclusion of staff mental health needs and financial security in the research agendas of universities could be helpful in providing more insights for context-specific responses that may positively impact the lives of academic retirees.

Supplementary Material

CHRPE Participant Information Leaflet_Guide Template new.pdf

CHRPE Participant Information Leaflet_Guide Template new.pdf

RHPB_A_2633819_SM0022.pdf (112.9KB, pdf)

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge with gratitude all participants and research assistants who supported this study.

Supplementary material

Supplementary data for this article can be accessed at https://doi.org/10.1080/21642850.2026.2633819.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Funding

The study was self-funded.

Data availability statement

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study can be made available on request of the PI.

Statement on human subjects participation

The study was conducted with human subjects according to the Helsinki Declaration, with full respect for the principles of informed consent and assent, and the autonomy of participants, including their right to withdraw at any time. An ethical approval was obtained from the Committee on Human Research and Publication Ethics.

Open scholarship

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This article has earned the Center for Open Science a badge for Open Data. The data and materials are openly accessible at https://figshare.com/s/0ad0de27b92b0269aafe. To obtain the author's disclosure form, please contact the Editor.

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Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Supplementary Materials

CHRPE Participant Information Leaflet_Guide Template new.pdf

CHRPE Participant Information Leaflet_Guide Template new.pdf

RHPB_A_2633819_SM0022.pdf (112.9KB, pdf)

Data Availability Statement

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study can be made available on request of the PI.

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