Ethnomedicinal plants and traditional healing practices of indigenous communities in Dan Sub-district, Kap Choeng District, Surin Province, Thailand

Abstract

Background

Medicinal plants constitute a vital component of healthcare systems, cultural identity, and community resilience in many rural societies, particularly in northeastern Thailand. However, ethnomedicinal knowledge in borderland regions—where cultural exchange and environmental pressures intersect—remains insufficiently documented. This study presents the first systematic and quantitative ethnobotanical assessment of medicinal plant use in Dan Sub-district, Kap Choeng District, Surin Province, a Thai–Cambodian borderland, with an emphasis on locally distinctive practices and implications for biocultural conservation.

Methods

Ethnobotanical data were collected through semi-structured interviews with 40 local informants. Medicinal plant uses were categorized by therapeutic application, life form, plant parts used, sources (wild or cultivated), and routes of administration. Quantitative ethnobotanical indices, including Fidelity Level (FL) and Informant Consensus Factor (ICF), were applied to evaluate cultural importance and agreement among informants. Jaccard’s similarity index was used to compare ethnomedicinal knowledge with surrounding regions. Community-based conservation practices and perceived threats were documented through local consultations.

Results

A total of 73 medicinal plant species belonging to 65 genera and 41 families were recorded, including 39 species newly documented for Surin Province. Herbs were the dominant life form (50.68%), and leaves were the most frequently used plant part (24.02%). Oral administration was the primary route of application (78.21%). High FL values were observed for Aquilaria crassna Pierre ex Lecomte (87.50%), Piper nigrum L. (82.50%), and Ficus hispida L.f. (80.00%). ICF analysis revealed strong agreement among informants for treatments related to gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, and reproductive ailments. Comparative analysis indicated both shared regional knowledge and locally specific adaptations characteristic of the borderland context. While community-based conservation practices persist, wild plant populations remain vulnerable to habitat loss and overharvesting.

Conclusion

By documenting new provincial records and elucidating how cross-border cultural interaction shapes ethnomedicinal knowledge, this study addresses a significant geographic and cultural gap in Thailand’s ethnobotanical literature. The findings underscore the importance of integrating quantitative ethnobotanical approaches with community-based conservation strategies to sustain ethnomedicinal knowledge and plant resources within rapidly transforming borderland agroecosystems.

Background

Ethnomedicinal knowledge constitutes a dynamic biocultural system shaped through long-term interactions among humans, plants, and local environments [1]. Beyond its role in healthcare, such knowledge embodies cultural values, ecological perceptions, and adaptive strategies that enable communities to cope with health risks and environmental variability [2]. Globally, traditional medical systems continue to support rural populations, with the World Health Organization (WHO) estimating that more than 80% of people rely partly or entirely on traditional medicine for primary healthcare [3]. However, the persistence of ethnomedicinal systems is increasingly challenged by rapid socio-cultural and environmental transformations, particularly in rural and borderland regions.

Among the most pervasive pressures are cultural homogenization and environmental degradation, which act simultaneously and often synergistically to reshape traditional healing practices [4]. Cultural homogenization—driven by formal education, market integration, biomedical expansion, migration, and mass media—has weakened the intergenerational transmission of localized medicinal knowledge, especially among younger generations [5]. As healthcare practices become standardized, the experiential, place-based, and ritual dimensions of ethnomedicine are progressively marginalized. Rather than causing uniform knowledge loss, this process often results in the selective retention of widely shared, household-based remedies, while specialized, ritualized, or practitioner-specific knowledge becomes increasingly vulnerable.

At the same time, environmental degradation, including deforestation, land-use change, and agricultural intensification, alters plant availability and access, directly constraining the continued use of wild medicinal species [6]. Communities frequently respond by modifying species selection, increasing reliance on cultivated taxa, and prioritizing renewable plant parts, leading to a functional simplification of ethnomedicinal repertoires rather than complete abandonment of traditional practices. Together, these pressures reshape healing systems, practitioner roles, and community reliance on traditional medicine [7]. Despite growing recognition of these dynamics, how ethnomedicinal knowledge systems reorganize under the combined influence of cultural homogenization and environmental change remains insufficiently understood, particularly in culturally diverse rural landscapes [8].

Southeast Asia provides a critical context for examining these processes due to its exceptional biocultural diversity and rapid socio-environmental transformation [9]. In Thailand, ethnomedicinal knowledge has developed through long-standing interactions among Thai, Burmese, Lao, and Cambodian traditions [10], with additional influences from Chinese and Indian medical systems [11]. Folk medical knowledge within Thai traditional medicine is highly localized and predominantly transmitted orally, rendering it especially vulnerable to sociocultural change [12]. Although numerous studies have documented medicinal plant use across forests, wetlands, and agricultural systems, most have focused on single ethnic groups or ecologically homogeneous settings [13]. Consequently, the adaptive capacity of ethnomedicinal systems in multi-ethnic, environmentally dynamic, and politically marginal landscapes—such as border regions—remains poorly explored.

Northeastern Thailand (Isan) exemplifies these challenges. The region is characterized by seasonal forests, agroecosystems, and a mosaic of ethnolinguistic groups whose medical traditions reflect distinct cultural worldviews and ecological knowledge [14]. Borderland areas within Isan are of particular analytical importance, as they experience intensified cultural exchange, migration, and land-use transformation while simultaneously maintaining strong local knowledge traditions. Surin Province, located along the Thai–Cambodian border, represents such a landscape where Khmer and Kuy communities maintain overlapping yet distinct ethnomedicinal traditions shaped by long-term cultural interaction and shared ecological settings [15]. Despite its recognized cultural and biogeographical significance, ethnomedicinal research in Surin Province remains limited. To date, only a single ethnobotanical study has documented medicinal plant use in Kap Choeng District, with a primary focus on species inventories rather than quantitative or comparative analyses [16]. While neighboring areas in northeastern Thailand have received greater ethnobotanical attention, systematic investigations that explicitly examine cultural homogenization, environmental pressure, and cross-border knowledge dynamics in Surin’s ethnomedicinal systems are still lacking [17, 18].

Dan Sub-district in Kap Choeng District offers a unique opportunity to address this gap. The area combines high ethnic diversity, continued reliance on plant-based medicine, and increasing exposure to environmental change and cultural standardization. Ethnomedicinal practices in this subdistrict are embedded within household routines, home gardens, and community-managed landscapes, making them particularly sensitive indicators of biocultural change. Yet, these practices have not been systematically documented or quantitatively analyzed, limiting efforts to understand resilience mechanisms and to develop culturally grounded conservation and rural health strategies.

Beyond their cultural and ecological significance, ethnomedicinal practices also play an important socio-economic role in rural communities by reducing healthcare costs, supporting household self-reliance, and contributing to informal livelihood strategies. In areas where access to formal healthcare is limited or financially constrained, plant-based medicine functions as a low-cost and culturally embedded alternative that buffers households against economic vulnerability. The sustainability of ethnomedicinal knowledge is therefore closely linked not only to cultural identity and biodiversity conservation, but also to local economic resilience. However, this socio-economic dimension remains underrepresented in quantitative ethnobotanical research, particularly in borderland regions undergoing rapid socio-environmental change.

In this study, we examine how ethnomedicinal knowledge is structured, maintained, and transformed within indigenous communities of Dan Sub-district under conditions of increasing cultural homogenization and environmental degradation. We hypothesize that cultural homogenization leads to the selective retention of widely shared, household-based medicinal practices, resulting in high informant consensus for common ailments, while environmental constraints promote shifts toward cultivated species and renewable plant parts. Together, these processes are expected to simplify ethnomedicinal repertoires while maintaining functional resilience in community healthcare systems.

Accordingly, this study aims to: (1) document and analyze medicinal plant species and their therapeutic applications, including patterns of plant part use, preparation methods, and routes of administration; (2) evaluate the relative cultural importance of medicinal plants and the degree of consensus among informants using quantitative ethnobotanical indices; (3) identify perceived threats to medicinal plant resources and challenges related to their conservation; and (4) compare ethnomedicinal knowledge and species composition of the study area with those of neighboring regions to identify shared knowledge, locally distinctive practices, and broader cross-cultural patterns. By situating local ethnomedicinal practices within wider socio-environmental processes, this study contributes to a deeper understanding of biocultural heritage resilience in Southeast Asian borderland communities.

Materials and methods

Area description

Dan Sub-district (Tambon Dan) is located in Kap Choeng District, Surin Province, in the lower northeastern region of Thailand (Fig. 1). The subdistrict lies between 14°38′–14°55′ N latitude and 103°66′–103°76′ E longitude, covering an area of approximately 120 km². Dan Sub-district shares borders with Kutan Sub-district, Kap Choeng District to the North, Tatum Sub-district, Sangkhla District to the East, Takian Sub-district, Kap Choeng District to the West, and Oddar Meanchey Province, Cambodia to the South [19].

Fig. 1.

Map of the study area: The left panel highlights Surin Province in orange within Thailand, whereas the right panel shows Dan Sub-district in Kap Choeng District in bright red within the province. The points in the right panel indicate the villages surveyed. (Map created with QGIS ver. 3.34, coordinate system WGS 84; EPSG:4326 [24])

The topography consists mainly of lowland plains and gently undulating terrain, with an average elevation of 140–180 m above sea level. The climate is classified as tropical savanna, with three distinct seasons: hot (March–May), rainy (June–October), and cool dry (November–February). Average annual temperatures range from 23 to 34 °C, and annual rainfall is approximately 1,300–1,500 mm, concentrated in the monsoon months [20]. The subdistrict comprises 18 villages with a total population of approximately 13,000 people, evenly divided between males and females [21]. The local economy of Dan Sub-district is primarily based on agriculture, with rice, cassava, sugarcane, and rubber as the main crops. Livestock is also raised for both draft work and consumption, including cattle, buffalo, pigs, ducks, and chickens. Most residents are engaged in farming, while supplementary livelihoods include wage labor, traditional weaving, and mat production from reeds [22]. In Surin Province, the agricultural sector contributes significantly to the provincial economy, with livestock accounting for approximately 54.5% and crops 37% of total agricultural output. Cassava production is around 59,000 tons, rubber 52,000 tons, beef cattle approximately 20,000 head, and pigs about 56,000 head [23].

Ethnolinguistic and cultural background

The population of Dan Sub-district is composed primarily of Kuy (Suai) and Lao Isan ethnic groups, who have coexisted in the area for generations. Most inhabitants adhere to Theravāda Buddhism, although indigenous spirit worship continues to play a central role in daily life, health, and healing practices. A small proportion of the population maintains animistic traditions, which are often integrated harmoniously with Buddhist rituals. This dynamic cultural landscape underpins local ethnomedicinal knowledge and practices.

The Kuy people of northeastern Thailand, like many minority groups in mainland Southeast Asia, possess a rich heritage of rituals, oral traditions, legends, and myths transmitted across generations [25]. These cultural frameworks often inform the selection, preparation, and application of medicinal plants. For example, specific plants are used in rituals to honor ancestral or territorial spirits, and certain species are considered efficacious only when prepared in accordance with traditional ceremonial protocols. The Kuy language lacks a written script, so Thai is used for written communication, while Kuy, Lao Isan, and Khmer are spoken in informal contexts such as homes, markets, and neighboring villages [26]. This multilingualism facilitates the exchange of ethnomedicinal knowledge across communities, allowing plant use, preparation methods, and healing practices to be shared and adapted within a culturally diverse setting.

Religious and cultural life in Dan Sub-district illustrates this synthesis of belief systems and medicinal practice. Theravāda Buddhism is deeply intertwined with indigenous spiritual beliefs, including reverence for ancestral and territorial spirits, and ritual healers often integrate both Buddhist and animist elements in therapeutic interventions. Such practices demonstrate that ethnomedicinal knowledge is embedded within broader cosmological and cultural frameworks.

The Kuy are also renowned for their traditional elephant knowledge, historically serving as elephant catchers and “elephant doctors” [27]. This intimate understanding of animal behavior parallels their detailed knowledge of medicinal plants, particularly in the treatment of animal ailments, highlighting the link between ecological familiarity and ethnomedicine. Additionally, long-standing expertise in blacksmithing and ironworking may reflect Hindu cultural influences [28], while weaving, practiced by both Kuy and Lao Isan women, represents not only household and cultural artistry but also the symbolic continuity of knowledge transmission, including the preparation and use of medicinal plants within domestic and ritual contexts [29].

Collection and identification of medicinal plant specimens

Botanical data were obtained through specimen collection and direct field observation during guided walks and field surveys. Scientific names were verified with the assistance of local botanists and cross-referenced using authoritative online resources, including Plants of the World Online (POWO) [30]. Voucher specimens of all confirmed species were deposited at the Vascular Plant Herbarium, Mahasarakham University (VMSU), Kantharawichai District, Maha Sarakham Province, Thailand, for archival purposes and future reference.

During fieldwork, ethnobotanical information was systematically documented, including habitat, plant parts used, preparation techniques, application methods, routes of administration, and ailments treated. Georeferenced data were recorded using a GPS device to map the spatial distribution of documented species. Data collection methods included field observations, guided walks, market surveys, semi-structured interviews, and focus group discussions, following established ethnobotanical methodologies [31]. The integration of multiple data collection techniques enabled cross-validation of information and enhanced the reliability of ethnomedicinal records.

Ethnobotanical interviews and informant selection

Ethnomedicinal data were collected from July 2024 to June 2025 across 18 villages representing diverse ethnic, linguistic, and religious backgrounds in Dan Sub-district (Table 1). Information on medicinal plant diversity and traditional uses was obtained through local healers, traditional herbalists, and Buddhist monks, who are widely recognized as key custodians of ethnomedicinal knowledge within the community.

Table 1.

Demographic information of the surveyed villages, including village name, GPS coordinates, number of households (NoH), gender distribution of key informants, ethnicity, language, and religion

Name of village	GPS Coordinates		NoH	Gender		Ethnicity	Language	Religion
	Latitude (N, S)	Longitude (E, W)		M	F
Ban Cho Rok	14°29′18″N	103°44′42″E	216	1	1	Ky	Ku	An
Ban Dan	14°28’03"N	103°40’56"E	266	2	2	Ky, Li	Is, Ku	An, Tb
Ban Huai Pang	14°29′29″N	103°43′57″E	66	1	1	Ky	Ku	An
Ban Kaset Thawon	14°30’06"N	103°42’30"E	195	1	1	Ky	Ku	Tb
Ban Khok Charoen	14°30’41"N	103°40’29"E	80	1	1	Li	Is	Tb
Ban Mai Ruea Thong	14°28’27"N	103°44’59"E	123	1	1	Li	Is	Tb
Ban Krathom	14°31’01"N	103°42’40"E	135	1	1	Li	Is	Tb
Ban Na Champa-Saeng Arun	14°29’05"N	103°42’08"E	83	1	1	Ky	Ku	Tb
Ban Na Rueang	14°30’07"N	103°40’25"E	119	1	1	Li	Is	Tb
Ban Noi Phatthana	14°27’31"N	103°40’51"E	148	1	1	Ky	Ku	Tb
Ban Non Samran	14°28’28"N	103°41’19"E	121	1	1	Ky	Ku	An
Ban Nong Krathom	14°27’25"N	103°40’51"E	150	1	1	Li	Is	Tb
Ban Nong Sombun	14°30’34"N	103°43’51"E	152	1	1	Ky	Ku	An
Ban Palat Rue Si	14°30’45"N	103°42’22"E	81	1	1	Li	Is	Tb
Ban Phon Thong	14°29′08″N	103°43′02″E	216	2	2	Ky, Li	Is, Ku	An, Tb
Ban Phrai Ngoen	14°27’11"N	103°41’32"E	71	1	1	Li	Is	Tb
Ban Sanuan	14°28′40″N	103°45′04″E	140	1	1	Li	Is	Tb
Ban That Noi	14°30’08"N	103°41’18"E	40	1	1	Li	Is	Tb

NoH (Number of households). Gender: M (male), F (female). Ethnicity: Ky (Kuy), Li (Lao Isan). Language: Ku (Kuy language), Is (Isan language). Religion: An (Animism), Tb (Theravāda Buddhism)

Informants were selected using purposive sampling [32] based on their recognized knowledge and experience in traditional healing practices, followed by snowball sampling [33], in which initial informants recommended additional knowledgeable individuals. This combined sampling strategy is widely applied in ethnobotanical research to access specialized knowledge holders and to capture intra-community variation in medicinal plant use. This approach ensured that informants were relevant to the research objectives and representative of local ethnomedicinal knowledge systems.

A total of 40 informants (20 men and 20 women), aged 20–65 years, participated in semi-structured interviews designed to document traditional knowledge and the cultural significance of medicinal plants [34]. Informants were selected based on specific inclusion criteria to ensure relevance and representativeness: (1) lifelong residence in Dan Sub-district, defined as being born and continuously residing in the area; (2) active use of medicinal plants for healthcare, either for self-treatment or within the household; and (3) recognition by community members as knowledgeable plant users or practitioners.

No personal or sensitive information was recorded. The interviews focused on local plant names, plant parts used, preparation techniques, modes of administration, and therapeutic applications. Additional information was collected on perceived changes in plant availability, shifts in healing practices, and challenges related to the transmission and conservation of ethnomedicinal knowledge. Informants also provided insights into perceived threats to medicinal plant species and challenges related to their conservation.

Interviews were conducted primarily in Thai and Kuy languages, with translators assisting when necessary. Prior to each interview, the objectives of the study were clearly explained, and Prior Informed Consent (PIC) was obtained from all participants. Informants were informed of their rights, including voluntary participation and the ability to withdraw at any stage. All procedures adhered to the International Society of Ethnobiology (ISE) Code of Ethics [35] and followed the principles of the Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing [36].

Data analysis

All quantitative analyses were conducted to calculate the Plant Part Value (PPV), Informant Consensus Factor (ICF), Fidelity Level (FL), and Jaccard Similarity Index (JI). All data entry, management, and statistical calculations were performed using Microsoft Excel 365.

Plant part value (PPV)

The Plant Part Value (PPV) measures how frequently different parts of a plant are used in traditional practices, highlighting which parts—such as leaves, roots, stems, flowers, or fruits—are most commonly employed by the local community. Following the method of Gomez-Beloz [37], PPV is calculated as:

where RU_{(plant part)} is the number of use reports for a particular plant part, and ∑RU is the total number of use reports for all plant parts. PPV is expressed as a percentage, with higher values indicating more frequent use and greater importance of that plant part in traditional applications.

Informant consensus factor (ICF)

The reliability of the recorded ethnomedicinal information was verified by consulting informants at least twice regarding the same concepts, allowing an assessment of the consistency of the data collected during interviews. Any information that contradicted the consensus of the informants was considered unreliable and excluded from the analysis. To evaluate the degree of agreement among informants regarding treatments for specific illness categories, the Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) was calculated for each category.

Reported ailments were classified into ten therapeutic disorder categories based on local disease concepts, ethnomedical practices, and the primary therapeutic targets described by informants. Although some categories may appear conceptually related, they were intentionally maintained as distinct disorder groups according to their dominant clinical focus and cultural interpretation. In this classification, Reproductive Disorders refer specifically to conditions associated with sexual function and reproductive health in both males and females, including sexual performance, fertility, and reproductive vitality. In contrast, Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Urinary Disorders were used exclusively for female-specific conditions, such as menstrual disorders, postpartum care, gynecological ailments, and urinary problems.

Disorders related to pathogens and host defense were grouped under Infection, Parasite and Immune Disorders, while ailments primarily affecting digestion, the musculoskeletal system, respiration, integumentary, cardiovascular function, the nervous system, or involving poisoning and toxic exposure were assigned to their respective disorder categories. Each use report was assigned to a single disorder category according to its principal therapeutic purpose, even when a plant species was reported to have multiple medicinal applications.

The ICF is defined as [38]:

where N_ur represents the number of use reports provided by informants for a particular plant-use category, and N_t is the total number of species used within that category across all informants. ICF values range from 0 to 1, with values approaching 1 indicating a high level of agreement among informants regarding the use of specific species for a given category.

Fidelity level (FL)

The Fidelity Level (FL), following the method proposed by [39], was used to determine the relative healing potential of each medicinal plant species in treating specific human ailments. FL quantifies the proportion of informants who consistently cited a plant for a particular therapeutic purpose, indicating its cultural and medicinal significance. The formula used for calculation is as follows:

where FL represents the fidelity level or relative healing potential, I_p is the number of informants who independently mentioned the plant for a specific ailment (frequency of citation for that ailment), and I_u denotes the total number of informants who reported using the plant for any ailment (total number of citations for that species).

Jaccard similarity index (JI)

Jaccard’s similarity index was employed to assess the similarity in medicinal plant species composition between the current study area and other regions of the country. Prior to analysis, plant species lists from previous studies were compiled, and all scientific names were updated and verified to ensure taxonomic consistency. The index is calculated using the formula:

where a represents the number of species in study area A (the current study), b is the number of species in study area B (comparison area), and c is the number of species common to both areas a and b. The JI ranges from 0 to 1, with 1 indicating complete similarity and 0 indicating no similarity. Multiplying the JI by 100 converts it into a percentage, providing a more intuitive representation of species similarity between the two study areas [40].

Results

Diversity of medicinal plants in Dan Sub-district

The ethnomedicinal survey in Dan Sub-district recorded 73 medicinal plant species, belonging to 65 genera and 41 families (Table 2). Family-level analysis revealed a clear dominance of Zingiberaceae, which contributed the highest number of species (9 species), followed by Acanthaceae and Asteraceae with 5 species each, and Fabaceae with 4 species. Four families—Apiaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Menispermaceae, and Poaceae—were each represented by 3 species, indicating moderate taxonomic contribution. A further seven families (Amaryllidaceae, Combretaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Lamiaceae, Piperaceae) were represented by 2 species each. The remaining 28families were each represented by a single specie , reflecting a broad but shallow taxonomic distribution, as shown in Fig. 2.

Table 2.

Ethnomedicinal uses of plant species documented in Dan Sub-district, Kap Choeng District, Surin Province, Thailand

Family	Scientific name	Vernacular name	LF	RS	%FL	UP	CoP	Preparation	Applications	RoA	TC	Voucher Number
Acanthaceae	Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall. ex Nees	ฟ้าทะลายโจร (Fathalaichon)	He	Wi	62.50	Le	Fresh	The plant is boiled in water, and the infusion is strained to obtain the liquid portion for administration	Local communities traditionally employ this plant in the treatment of diarrhea and gastrointestinal disorders resulting from food contamination	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders	TJS0114
					37.50	Le	Fresh	The plant is boiled in water, and the infusion is strained to obtain the liquid portion for administration	Traditionally used to alleviate fever and heat-related symptoms	Oral	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders
Acanthaceae	Barleria lupulina Lindl.	เสลดพังพอนตัวผู้ (Saletphangphontuaphu)	Sh	Cu	65.00	Le	Fresh	Fresh leaves are crushed into a fine paste with a small quantity of camphor, and the preparation is either applied topically to the affected area or combined with ethanol (local spirits) and used as a poultice for repeated application	The plant is traditionally used to treat herpes and shingles	Dermal	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders	TJS0122
					35.00	Rt	Fresh	The plant is macerated in local spirits and consumed orally	The plant is traditionally used to treat insect and animal bites, including centipede and scorpion stings	Oral	Poisoning and Toxicological Disorders
Acanthaceae	Clinacanthus nutans (Burm.f.) Lindau	เสลดพังพอนตัวเมีย (Saletphangphontuamia)	Sh	Cu	42.50	Le	Fresh	Fresh leaves are crushed into a fine paste, and the preparation is either applied topically to the affected area	The plant is traditionally used to alleviate itchy rashes caused by insect and animal bites	Dermal	Poisoning and Toxicological Disorders	TJS0129
					32.50	Le	Fresh	Fresh leaves are ground thoroughly and mixed with water from washed rice (rice water). The paste is applied directly to the scalp as a topical treatment	Traditionally used to alleviate fever and heat-related symptoms	Oral	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders
					25.00	Le	Fresh	Fresh leaves are chewed, the juice is swallowed, and the fibrous residue is expelled, ensuring a mild preparation for medicinal use	The plant is traditionally used to relieve a sore throat	Oral	Respiratory Disorders
Acanthaceae	Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.) Kurz	ทองพันชั่ง (Thongphanchang)	He	Wi	55.00	Rt	Fresh	Fresh plant material is ground into a fine paste and macerated in locally distilled alcohol for one week. The resulting alcoholic extract is used topically on the affected area	The plant is traditionally used to treat ringworm, tinea versicolor, and itchy rashes	Oral	Integumentary Disorders	TJS0086
					45.00	Le	Dry	The leaves are sun-dried and then boiled in water to obtain a decoction, which is consumed for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to alleviate fever and heat-related symptoms	Oral	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders
Acanthaceae	Thunbergia laurifolia Lindl.	รางจืด (Rangchuet)	Cl	Cu	52.50	St	Dry	The shoots are sun-dried and then boiled in water to obtain a decoction, which is consumed for medicinal purposes	The plant is traditionally used as an antidote to relieve poisoning or drug intoxication	Oral	Poisoning and Toxicological Disorders	TJS0097
					47.50	Wp	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to alleviate fever and heat-related symptoms	Oral	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders
Amaranthaceae	Achyranthes aspera L.	หญ้าพันงู (Yaphanngu)	He	Wi	57.50	If	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	The plant is traditionally used as an expectorant	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders	TJS0107
					42.50	Rt	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	The plant is traditionally used to promote menstrual flow and relieve irregular menstruation	Oral	Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Urinary Disorders
Amaryllidaceae	Allium cepa L.	หอมแดง (Homdaeng)	He	Cu	37.50	Bu	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	The plant is used to treat bloating and indigestion	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders	TJS0110
					32.50	Bu	Fresh	The fresh plant material is pounded, wrapped in a thin white cloth, and placed on the pillow at the head of the bed	The plant is used to relieve symptoms of the common cold, including sneezing and nasal congestion	Nasal	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders
					30.00	Bu	Fresh	Fresh leaves are crushed into a fine paste, and the preparation is either applied topically to the affected area	The plant is traditionally used to alleviate itchy rashes caused by insect and animal bites	Dermal	Poisoning and Toxicological Disorders
Amaryllidaceae	Crinum asiaticum L.	พลับพลึง (Phlapphlueng)	He	Cu	52.50	Le	Fresh	Heated leaves are wrapped around the head to relieve a headache	The plant is used to relieve a headache	Dermal	Neurological Disorders	TJS0132
					47.50	Le	Fresh	Fresh leaves are softened by steaming over a fire and then wrapped around the affected area to relieve pain and inflammation	The plant is used to alleviate pain, reduce swelling and inflammation, and treat bruises, sprains, and muscle strain	Dermal	Musculoskeletal and Joint Disorders
Annonaceae	Annona squamosa L.	น้อยหน่า (Noina)	Tr	Cu	67.50	Ft	Dry	The plant material is boiled in water to obtain a decoction, which is consumed for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used for the treatment of herpes and related skin infections	Oral	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders	TJS0116
					32.50	De	Fresh	The fresh material is squeezed to extract the juice, which is then applied to the affected area	Traditionally used to treat ringworm, tinea versicolor, and itchy rashes	Dermal	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders
Apiaceae	Angelica dahurica (Hoffm.) Benth. & Hook.f. ex Franch. & Sav.	โกฐสอ (Kotso)	He	Cu	70.00	Rt	Dry	The roots are sun-dried, boiled in water, and the liquid is filtered for oral consumption	The plant is traditionally used to treat rhinitis and sinusitis	Oral	Respiratory Disorders	TJS0115
					30.00	Rt	Dry	Dried roots are ground into a powder, mixed with vinegar, and applied or polluted in the affected area	Traditionally used for the treatment of skin injuries, including burns from fire and scalds from hot water	Dermal	Integumentary Disorders
Apiaceae	Apium graveolens L.	ขึ้นฉ่าย (Khuenchai)	He	Cu	47.50	Le	Fresh	The fresh plant material is eaten raw	Traditionally used to stimulate appetite and enhance food intake	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders	TJS0117
					25.00	Le	Fresh	The plant material is blended to prepare a beverage for consumption	Traditionally used to aid sleep and induce a sense of relaxation and comfort	Oral	Neurological Disorders
					27.50	Le	Fresh	The plant material is blended to prepare a beverage for consumption	Traditionally used to alleviate symptoms of asthma and support respiratory health	Oral	Respiratory Disorders
Apiaceae	Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.	บัวบก (Buabok)	He	Cu	45.00	Le	Fresh	The plant material is blended to prepare a beverage for consumption	Traditionally used to reduce internal heat and promote healing of bruises	Oral	Musculoskeletal and Joint Disorders	TJS0125
					40.00	Le	Fresh	Fresh leaves are crushed and applied to relieve insect stings, or fresh leaves are used as a poultice on open wounds	Traditionally used to alleviate symptoms from insect stings and to promote healing of wounds	Dermal	Integumentary Disorders
					15.00	Le	Fresh	The plant material is boiled in liquor to extract its active components, and the resulting decoction is used topically or orally depending on the application	Traditionally used to alleviate bruising and promote healing of contusions	Dermal	Musculoskeletal and Joint Disorders
Apocynaceae	Cryptolepis buchananii R.Br. ex Roem. & Schult.	เถาเอ็นอ่อน (Thaoenon)	Cl	Wi	50.00	St	Dry	The dried vine is finely powdered and mixed with liquor before being orally administered to alleviate internal pain and improve circulation	The plant is traditionally used to treat bruises	Oral	Musculoskeletal and Joint Disorders	TJS0133
					50.00	St	Dry	The dried vine is soaked in liquor and used as a remedy to alleviate muscle pain and body fatigue	The plant is traditionally used to relieve muscle pain and body aches	Oral	Musculoskeletal and Joint Disorders
Araceae	Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicolson	บุก (Buk)	He	Wi	52.50	Tb	Dry	The material is dried, ground into a fine powder, and infused in water for oral consumption	Traditionally used to promote weight loss and reduce body fat	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders	TJS0113
					47.50	Tb	Dry	The material is dried, ground into a fine powder, and infused in water for oral consumption	Traditionally consumed to help regulate blood glucose levels	Oral	Cardiovascular Disorders
Arecaceae	Cocos nucifera L.	มะพร้าว (Maphrao)	Tr	Cu	72.50	Ft	Fresh	The fresh liquid contained within the fruit is consumed directly	Traditionally used to detoxify the body and eliminate accumulated toxins, promoting internal cleansing and overall well-being	Oral	Poisoning and Toxicological Disorders	TJS0131
					27.50	Ft	Fresh	The fresh liquid contained within the fruit is consumed directly	Traditionally used to relieve cough symptoms	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders
Asparagaceae	Dracaena angustifolia (Medik.) Roxb.	จันทร์แดง (Chandaeng)	Sh	Cu	55.00	St	Dry	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to alleviate fever and heat-related symptoms	Oral	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders	TJS0140
					45.00	St	Dry	The plant material is ground with water to form a paste, which is then applied topically to the affected area	Traditionally used to treat bruises and promote wound healing	Dermal	Integumentary Disorders
Asphodelaceae	Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f.	ว่านหางจระเข้ (Wanhangchorakhe)	He	Cu	75.00	Le	Fresh	The leaf is peeled and thoroughly cleaned to remove the mucilage, after which the clear gel is applied directly to the wound	Traditionally used to treat bruises and promote wound healing	Dermal	Integumentary Disorders	TJS0111
					25.00	Le	Fresh	Fresh leaves are peeled, the mucilage is thoroughly cleaned, and the clear gel is blended into a beverage	Traditionally used to relieve joint pain and alleviate symptoms associated with arthritis	Oral	Musculoskeletal and Joint Disorders
Asteraceae	Ageratum conyzoides L.	สาบแร้ง (Sap Raeng)	He	Wi	77.50	St	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to alleviate fever and heat-related symptoms	Oral	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders	TJS0108
					22.50	Wp	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used as a uterotonic to regulate menstruation and support female reproductive health	Oral	Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Urinary Disorders
Asteraceae	Artemisia annua L.	โกฐจุฬาลัมพา (Kot Chulalampha)	He	Cu	52.50	Wp	Dry	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to alleviate fever and heat-related symptoms	Oral	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders	TJS0119
					47.50	Wp	Dry	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to relieve cough	Oral	Respiratory Disorders
Asteraceae	Atractylodes lancea (Thunb.) DC.	โกฐเขมา (Kot Khamao)	He	Cu	72.50	Tb	Dry	The rhizome is briefly soaked in water to soften it, then sliced into thick pieces and dried under the sun	Traditionally used to treat digestive disorders, including abdominal discomfort, bloating, vomiting, loss of appetite, and diarrhea	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders	TJS0120
					27.50	Tb	Dry	Traditionally used by inhaling the smoke produced from burning the plant	Traditionally used to reduce stress and promote relaxation	Nasal	Neurological Disorders
Asteraceae	Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King & H.Rob.	สาบเสือ (Sapsuea)	He	Wi	50.00	St	Dry	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to treat digestive disorders, including abdominal discomfort, bloating, vomiting, loss of appetite, and diarrhea	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders	TJS0126
					25.00	Le	Fresh	Fresh leaves are crushed and applied as a poultice to the affected area	Traditionally used as a hemostatic agent to stop bleeding, promote blood clotting, and aid in the healing of fresh or suppurating wounds	Dermal	Integumentary Disorders
					25.00	Le	Fresh	Fresh leaves are crushed and regularly applied as a hair treatment or mask	Traditionally used to prevent or reduce graying of hair and to promote hair darkening and thickness	Dermal	Integumentary Disorders
Asteraceae	Elephantopus scaber L.	โด่ไม่รู้ล้ม (Domairulom)	He	Wi	75.00	Le	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to treat digestive disorders, including abdominal discomfort, bloating, vomiting, loss of appetite, and diarrhea	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders	TJS0141
					25.00	Le	Fresh	Fresh leaves are crushed and applied as a poultice to the affected area	Traditionally used to treat various skin diseases and applied to wounds	Dermal	Integumentary Disorders
Bignoniaceae	Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz	เพกา (Pheka)	Tr	Cu	55.00	De	Dry	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to treat digestive disorders, including abdominal discomfort, bloating, vomiting, loss of appetite, and diarrhea	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders	TJS0081
					45.00	Ft	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	The plant is used to alleviate pain, reduce swelling and inflammation, and treat bruises, sprains, and muscle strain	Dermal	Musculoskeletal and Joint Disorders
Combretaceae	Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.	สมอพิเภก (Samophiphek)	Tr	Wi	75.00	Bk	Dry	The plant material is decocted in water and mixed with salt, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used as a diuretic	Oral	Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Urinary Disorders	TJS0095
					17.50	Ft	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used as a laxative or purgative	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders
					7.50	Le	Fresh	Fresh leaves are crushed and applied as a poultice to the affected area	Traditionally used to treat various skin diseases and applied to wounds	Dermal	Integumentary Disorders
Combretaceae	Terminalia chebula Retz.	สมอไทย (Samothai)	Tr	Wi	55.00	Ft	Fresh	Unripe fruits are eaten fresh	Traditionally used as a laxative or purgative	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders	TJS0096
					45.00	Ft	Fresh	Unripe fruits are eaten fresh	Traditionally used as an expectorant to dissolve and expel phlegm	Oral	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders
Costaceae	Hellenia speciosa (J.Koenig) S.R.Dutta	เอื้องหมายนา (Ueangmaina)	He	Wi	50.00	Zm	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used as an anthelmintic to expel intestinal worms	Oral	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders	TJS0144
					50.00	Zm	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to reduce fever and relieve cough symptoms	Oral	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders
Cucurbitaceae	Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt	ตำลึง (Tamlueng)	Cl	Cu	72.50	Le	Fresh	The leaves are used as an ingredient in cooking	Traditionally used to strengthen bones and teeth	Oral	Musculoskeletal and Joint Disorders	TJS0130
					27.50	Le	Fresh	The leaves are used as an ingredient in cooking	Traditionally used to promote lactation and support breast milk production	Oral	Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Urinary Disorders
Cucurbitaceae	Momordica charantia L.	มะระขี้นก (Marakhinok)	Cl	Cu	37.50	Ft	Fresh	Unripe fruits are eaten fresh	Traditionally used to relieve internal heat and quench thirst	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders	TJS0148
					37.50	Ft	Dry	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used as an aphrodisiac to enhance sexual desire and performance	Oral	Reproductive Disorders
					25.00	Le	Fresh	Fresh leaves are crushed and applied as a poultice to the affected area	Traditionally used to treat wounds, including dog bites	Dermal	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders
Cucurbitaceae	Trichosanthes costata Blume	กระดอม (Kradom)	Cl	Wi	50.00	Ft	Dry	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to treat fever among local communities	Oral	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders	TJS0101
					50.00	De	Dry	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used as an antidote to detoxify the body from ingested poisons	Oral	Poisoning and Toxicological Disorders
Dioscoreaceae	Tacca leontopetaloides (L.) Kuntze	ท้าวยายม่อม (Thaoyaimom)	He	Wi	40.00	Rt	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	The plant is traditionally used to treat fever among local communities	Oral	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders	TJS0093
					37.50	Rt	Fresh	Traditionally, the root is heated, wrapped in a cloth, and applied as a warm compress to the affected area.	Traditionally used to treat insect bites and alleviate symptoms of rashes and skin irritation	Dermal	Integumentary Disorders
					22.50	Zm	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to stimulate appetite and alleviate fatigue	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders
Euphorbiaceae	Mallotus repandus (Rottler) Müll.Arg.	โคคลาน (Khokhlan)	Cl	Cu	72.50	St	Dry	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to relieve body aches, relax stiff tendons, and alleviate back and waist pain	Oral	Musculoskeletal and Joint Disorders	TJS0147
					27.50	St	Dry	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used as a diuretic to promote urination	Oral	Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Urinary Disorders
Euphorbiaceae	Trigonostemon reidioides (Kurz) Craib	โลดทะนงแดง (Lotthanongdaeng)	Sh	Wi	75.00	Rt	Fresh	The plant is ground with water and consumed as a remedy for poisoning, spider bites, and toxic reactions	Traditionally used as an antidote to treat food poisoning, spider bites, and intoxication by inducing vomiting and neutralizing toxins	Oral	Poisoning and Toxicological Disorders	TJS0102
					25.00	Rt	Fresh	The plant is ground with water and consumed as a remedy for poisoning, spider bites, and toxic reactions	Traditionally used to treat acne, melasma, and bruises	Dermal	Integumentary Disorders
Fabaceae	Albizia myriophylla Benth.	ชะเอมไทย (Chaemthai)	Tr	Wi	47.50	St	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to treat throat disorders, relieve flatulence, and stop bleeding gums	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders	TJS0109
					27.50	Rt	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to soothe the throat, relieve thirst, and act as a mild laxative	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders
					25.00	Rt	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to relieve cough and expel phlegm	Oral	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders
Fabaceae	Biancaea sappan (L.) Tod.	ฝาง (Fang)	Tr	Cu	45.00	St	Dry	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to alleviate fever and heat-related symptoms	Oral	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders	TJS0123
					30.00	St	Dry	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used as a uterotonic to regulate menstruation and support female reproductive health	Oral	Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Urinary Disorders
					25.00	St	Fresh	Traditionally, the plant is ground into a powder and mixed with alcohol for medicinal use	Traditionally used to reduce swelling, alleviate pain from bruises, and treat consumption and internal bruising	Oral	Musculoskeletal and Joint Disorders
Fabaceae	Senna siamea (Lam.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby	ขี้เหล็ก (Khilek)	Tr	Wi	40.00	If	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used as an anthelmintic to expel intestinal worms	Oral	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders	TJS0088
					32.50	Rt	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to alleviate fever and heat-related symptoms	Oral	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders
					15.00	St	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used as a laxative to relieve constipation	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders
					12.50	Le	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to alleviate insomnia and promote restful sleep	Oral	Neurological Disorders
Fabaceae	Senna tora (L.) Roxb.	ชุมเห็ดไทย (Chumhetthai)	Sh	Wi	37.50	De	Fresh	The material is roasted until dark, ground into a powder, and brewed in hot water for consumption	Traditionally used to alleviate insomnia and promote restful sleep	Oral	Neurological Disorders	TJS0089
					37.50	De	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used as a diuretic to promote urination	Oral	Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Urinary Disorders
					25.00	Le	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used as a laxative to relieve constipation	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders
Hypoxidaceae	Curculigo latifolia Dryand. ex W.T.Aiton	ว่านสากเหล็ก (Wansaklek)	He	Wi	47.50	Le	Dry	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to relieve cough and soothe sore throat	Oral	Respiratory Disorders	TJS0134
					27.50	Rt	Dry	The roots are sun-dried, thinly sliced, and soaked in alcohol for medicinal use	Traditionally used to treat uterine inflammation, uterine prolapse, menstrual pain, aid postpartum uterine recovery, and address uterine abnormalities	Oral	Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Urinary Disorders
					25.00	Rt	Dry	The roots are sun-dried, ground into a powder, mixed with a small amount of water, and applied topically to the face	Traditionally used to treat acne, melasma, and dark spots	Dermal	Integumentary Disorders
Iridaceae	Sisyrinchium palmifolium L.	ว่านหอมแดง (Wanhomdaeng)	He	Cu	75.00	Bu	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to relieve flatulence and expel gas from the stomach and intestines	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders	TJS0090
					25.00	Bu	Fresh	The sap extracted from the underground tuber is traditionally applied topically to the skin	Traditionally used to treat wounds and relieve irritation caused by insect bites or stings	Dermal	Integumentary Disorders
Lamiaceae	Ocimum × africanum Lour.	โหระพา (Horapha)	He	Cu	37.50	Rt	Dry	Dried material is burned into ash and then applied topically to the wound	Traditionally used to treat chronic wounds and purulent (infected) sores	Dermal	Integumentary Disorders	TJS0079
					32.50	De	Fresh	Fresh seeds are soaked in cold water until swollen, then mixed with syrup and served with ice for consumption	Traditionally used as a laxative to relieve constipation	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders
					30.00	Le	Fresh	Leaves are consumed fresh or used as an ingredient in traditional dishes	Traditionally used to treat menstrual irregularities and support female reproductive health	Oral	Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Urinary Disorders
Lamiaceae	Ocimum tenuiflorum L.	กะเพรา (Kaphrao)	He	Cu	47.50	Le	Fresh	Leaves are consumed fresh or used as an ingredient in traditional dishes	Traditionally used to warm the body and prevent symptoms of the common cold	Oral	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders	TJS0080
					37.50	Le	Fresh	Leaves are consumed fresh or used as an ingredient in traditional dishes	Traditionally used to relieve pain and expel wind from the body	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders
					15.00	Le	Fresh	Leaves are consumed fresh or used as an ingredient in traditional dishes	Traditionally used to treat gastric ulcers and promote healing of stomach lining injuries	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders
Lauraceae	Cinnamomum verum J.Presl	อบเชย (Opchoei)	Tr	Cu	57.50	Bk	Dry	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to improve digestion, treat diarrhea, and regulate abnormal small intestine function	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders	TJS0127
					25.00	Bk	Dry	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to relieve cough and treat common cold or flu symptoms	Oral	Respiratory Disorders
					17.50	Bk	Dry	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to treat menstrual irregularities and support female reproductive health	Oral	Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Urinary Disorders
Loganiaceae	Strychnos dalzellii C.B.Clarke	กำลังเสือโคร่ง (Kamlangsueakhrong)	Tr	Cu	40.00	St	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to restore strength and boost vitality	Oral	Musculoskeletal and Joint Disorders	TJS0092
					35.00	Bk	Fresh	The material is sliced into thin pieces, charred over fire, and the resulting charcoal powder is applied to decayed teeth	Traditionally used to relieve toothache	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders
					25.00	Bk	Dry	The bark is sun-dried and used for inhalation	Traditionally used to strengthen tendons and support musculoskeletal health	Nasal	Musculoskeletal and Joint Disorders
Meliaceae	Azadirachta indica A.Juss.	ผักสะเดา (Phaksadao)	Tr	Cu	42.50	Bk	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to treat gastric ulcers and promote healing of stomach lining injuries	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders	TJS0121
					37.50	If	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used as an anthelmintic to expel intestinal worms	Oral	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders
					20.00	Rt	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to treat various skin disorders	Oral	Integumentary Disorders
Menispermaceae	Tiliacora triandra (Colebr.) Diels	ย่านาง (Yanang)	Cl	Wi	55.00	Rt	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to warm the body and prevent symptoms of the common cold	Oral	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders	TJS0098
					32.50	Rt	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used as an antidote to treat poisoning, fever, and alcohol intoxication, as well as to neutralize toxic reactions	Oral	Poisoning and Toxicological Disorders
					12.50	Le	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to alleviate fever and heat-related symptoms	Oral	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders
Menispermaceae	Tinospora baenzigeri Forman	ชิงช้าชาลี (Chingchachali)	Cl	Wi	47.50	St	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to treat fever, including typhoid, high fever, and malaria	Oral	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders	TJS0099
					27.50	If	Dry	The flowers are sundried and brewed in hot water for consumption	Traditionally used to relieve bloating, indigestion, and expel intestinal gas	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders
					25.00	Le	Fresh	The leaves are pounded and applied as poultice to the affected area	Traditionally used to relieve pain associated with wounds	Dermal	Integumentary Disorders
Menispermaceae	Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Hook.f. & Thomson	บอระเพ็ด (Boraphet)	Cl	Wi	62.50	St	Fresh	The plant is pounded, a small amount of water is added, and the juice is extracted for use	Traditionally used to stimulate appetite and improve food intake	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders	TJS0100
					37.50	Wp	Fresh	All parts of the plant (vine, leaves, roots) are finely ground, wrapped in a thin cloth, and applied as a compress to the affected area	Traditionally used as a poultice to reduce pus, alleviate swelling and pain, or aid in stopping bleeding from wounds	Dermal	Integumentary Disorders
Moraceae	Ficus hispida L.f.	มะเดื่อปล้อง (Madueaplong)	Tr	Wi	80.00	Ft	Fresh	Ripe fruits are consumed directly, or unripe fruits are boiled in water and consumed as a decoction	Traditionally used to relieve dysentery and alleviate stomach pain	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders	TJS0143
					20.00	Le	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to alleviate fever and heat-related symptoms	Oral	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders
Musaceae	Musa acuminata Colla	กล้วย (Kluai)	He	Cu	50.00	Ft	Fresh	Ripe fruits are consumed directly	Traditionally used to relieve bloating, indigestion, and expel intestinal gas	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders	TJS0149
					50.00	Le	Fresh	Fresh leaves are crushed and applied directly to the wound	Traditionally used to treat dog bite wounds and to stop bleeding	Dermal	Integumentary Disorders
Myristicaceae	Myristica fragrans Houtt.	ลูกจันทร์ (Lukchan)	Tr	Cu	52.50	De	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to relieve bloating, indigestion, and expel intestinal gas	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders	TJS0150
					47.50	De	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to relieve pain and stiffness in tendons and muscles, including hands and feet, and to alleviate numbness	Oral	Musculoskeletal and Joint Disorders
Nelumbonaceae	Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.	บัวหลวง (Bualuang)	He	Cu	77.50	If	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to promote urination and support urinary health	Oral	Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Urinary Disorders	TJS0078
					22.50	De	Fresh	Ripe are consumed directly	Traditionally used to restore strength and enhance physical vitality	Oral	Musculoskeletal and Joint Disorders
Pandanaceae	Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb. ex Lindl.	เตยหอม (Toeihom)	He	Cu	67.50	Le	Fresh	The leaves are pounded and applied as a poultice to the skin	Traditionally used to treat various skin disorders	Dermal	Integumentary Disorders	TJS0082
					40.00	Le	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to promote urination and support urinary health	Oral	Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Urinary Disorders
Phyllanthaceae	Phyllanthus emblica L.	มะขามป้อม (Makhampom)	Sh	Wi	35.00	Ft	Fresh	Ripe are consumed directly	Traditionally used to relieve cough, sore throat, and throat dryness	Oral	Respiratory Disorders	TJS0083
					35.00	Ft	Fresh	Ripe are consumed directly	Traditionally used to treat dysentery and diarrhea	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders
					30.00	Ft	Fresh	Ripe are consumed directly	Traditionally used to promote urination and support urinary health	Oral	Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Urinary Disorders
Piperaceae	Piper interruptum Opiz	เถาสะค้าน (Thaosakhan)	Cl	Cu	55.00	St	Dry	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to relieve flatulence, abdominal tightness, and colic pain	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders	TJS0084
					45.00	St	Dry	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used as a tonic to balance the body’s elements and correct imbalances associated with the wind element (“Lom”) in traditional medicine	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders
Piperaceae	Piper nigrum L.	พริกไทย (Phrikthai)	Cl	Cu	82.50	Ft	Dry	Seeds are ground into a fine powder and applied to the navel, covered with a plaster, and left in place for 7–10 days before changing	Traditionally used to treat chronic prostatitis and relieve inflammation of the prostate gland	Dermal	Reproductive Disorders	TJS0085
					17.50	Ft	Fresh	The seeds are used as an ingredient in cooking	Traditionally used to relieve bloating, indigestion, and expel intestinal gas	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders
Poaceae	Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf	ตะไคร้ (Takhrai)	He	Cu	30.00	St	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used as a tonic to strengthen the body’s elements and stimulate appetite	Oral	Musculoskeletal and Joint Disorders	TJS0138
					27.50	St	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used in ethnomedicine for the treatment of asthma and to alleviate respiratory discomfort	Oral	Respiratory Disorders
					22.50	Le	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to alleviate fever and heat-related symptoms	Oral	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders
					20.00	Le	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used in ethnomedicine for the treatment of hypertension (high blood pressure)	Oral	Cardiovascular Disorders
Poaceae	Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch.	หญ้าคา (Yakha)	He	Wi	40.00	Rt	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used in ethnomedicine for the treatment of asthma and to alleviate respiratory discomfort	Oral	Respiratory Disorders	TJS0145
					30.00	If	Dry	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used in ethnomedicine to treat nosebleeds and reduce the frequency or severity of nasal bleeding	Oral	Cardiovascular Disorders
					30.00	Le	Fresh	The plant is boiled in water and used for bathing to relieve itching, hives, and skin rashes	Traditionally used in ethnomedicine to alleviate urticaria (hives) and relieve itching or skin rashes	Dermal	Integumentary Disorders
Poaceae	Saccharum officinarum L.	อ้อยแดง (Oidaeng)	He	Cu	55.00	St	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used as a blood purifier and remedy for diabetes management	Dermal	Cardiovascular Disorders	TJS0087
					25.00	St	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to promote urination and support urinary health	Oral	Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Urinary Disorders
					20.00	St	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used as a tonic to strengthen the body’s elements and stimulate appetite	Oral	Musculoskeletal and Joint Disorders
Rhamnaceae	Ziziphus oenopolia (L.) Mill.	เล็บเหยี่ยว (Lepyiao)	Sh	Wi	57.50	Rt	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used as a blood purifier and remedy for diabetes management	Dermal	Cardiovascular Disorders	TJS0106
					32.50	Bk	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to promote urination and support urinary health	Oral	Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Urinary Disorders
					10.00	Ft	Fresh	Ripe are consumed directly	Traditionally used as a natural laxative to relieve constipation	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders
Rubiaceae	Tarenna hoaensis Pit.	จันทร์ขาว (Chankhao)	Tr	Wi	50.00	St	Dry	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to nourish and support the nervous system	Oral	Neurological Disorders	TJS0094
					37.50	St	Dry	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to expel intestinal parasites	Oral	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders
					12.50	St	Dry	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to alleviate fever and heat-related symptoms	Oral	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders
Rutaceae	Citrus hystrix DC.	มะกรูด (Makrut)	Sh	Cu	52.50	Ft	Fresh	Traditionally, the juice extracted from the fruit is used for hair washing or incorporated as an ingredient in shampoo	Traditionally used to wash hair for the treatment of dandruff and scalp disorders, promoting clean and healthy hair	Dermal	Integumentary Disorders	TJS0128
					47.50	Ft	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used as a natural laxative to relieve constipation	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders
Simaroubaceae	Eurycoma longifolia Jack	ปลาไหลเผือก (Plalaiphueak)	Sh	Wi	47.50	Rt	Dry	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to alleviate fever and heat-related symptoms	Oral	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders	TJS0142
					30.00	Bk	Dry	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used in ethnomedicine to treat stomach disorders and support digestive health	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders
					22.50	Rt	Dry	Traditionally, the plant is ground into a fine powder and mixed with rice water (the starchy liquid obtained from soaking or rinsing uncooked rice) for medicinal use	Traditionally used in ethnomedicine to alleviate asthma and improve respiratory function	Oral	Respiratory Disorders
Smilacaceae	Smilax blumei A.DC.	กำลังควายถึก (Kamlangkhwaithuek)	Cl	Wi	65.00	Tb	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used as a tonic to boost strength and vitality	Oral	Musculoskeletal and Joint Disorders	TJS0091
					35.00	Bk	Fresh	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used as a blood tonic to promote overall vitality and balance bodily humors	Oral	Cardiovascular Disorders
Solanaceae	Datura metel L.	ลำโพงกาสลัก (Lamphongkasalak)	He	Cu	67.50	Le	Fresh	Traditionally, fresh leaves are crushed into a paste and applied topically to the skin or wounds	Traditionally used to treat skin diseases such as ringworm and tinea versicolor, and to heal chronic wounds	Dermal	Integumentary Disorders	TJS0139
					32.50	Le	Fresh	Traditionally, fresh leaves are crushed into a paste and applied topically to the skin or wounds	Traditionally used to treat animal bites, abscesses, and alleviate pain and swelling	Dermal	Poisoning and Toxicological Disorders
Thymelaeaceae	Aquilaria crassna Pierre ex Lecomte	กฤษณา (Kritsana)	Tr	Wi	87.50	St	Dry	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to nourish the blood and heart, promoting cardiovascular wellness and a sense of heart comfort	Oral	Cardiovascular Disorders	TJS0118
					12.50	St	Dry	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to alleviate vomiting and diarrhea	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders
Zingiberaceae	Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd.	ข่า (Kha)	He	Cu	52.50	Zm	Fresh	Rhizome are consumed fresh or used as an ingredient in traditional dishes	Traditionally used to stimulate appetite and improve food intake	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders	TJS0112
					47.50	Zm	Fresh	Rhizome are consumed fresh or used as an ingredient in traditional dishes	Traditionally used to treat bronchitis and support respiratory health	Oral	Respiratory Disorders
Zingiberaceae	Boesenbergia rotunda (L.) Mansf.	กระชาย (Krachai)	He	Cu	45.00	Zm	Fresh	Rhizome are consumed fresh or used as an ingredient in traditional dishes	Traditionally used to relieve abdominal pain, bloating, and indigestion	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders	TJS0124
					32.50	Zm	Fresh	Rhizome are consumed fresh or used as an ingredient in traditional dishes	Traditionally used as an aphrodisiac and to treat sexual dysfunction	Oral	Reproductive Disorders
					22.50	Zm	Fresh	Rhizome are consumed fresh or used as an ingredient in traditional dishes	Traditionally used as a diuretic and to treat urinary disorders	Oral	Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Urinary Disorders
Zingiberaceae	Curcuma aromatica Salisb.	ขมิ้นอ้อย (Khaminoi)	He	Cu	55.00	Zm	Dry	Crushed into powder and mixed with lime water	Traditionally used to treat diarrhea	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders	TJS0135
					45.00	Zm	Fresh	Fresh leaves are crushed and applied as a poultice to the affected area	Traditionally used to relieve swelling, bruising, and pain	Dermal	Musculoskeletal and Joint Disorders
Zingiberaceae	Curcuma comosa Roxb.	ว่านชักมดลูก (Wanchakmotluk)	He	Cu	72.50	Zm	Fresh	Rhizome are consumed fresh or used as an ingredient in traditional dishes	Traditionally used to help the uterus return to its normal position postpartum	Oral	Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Urinary Disorders	TJS0136
					27.50	Zm	Fresh	Crushed and mixed with liquor for oral administration	Traditionally used to relieve menstrual pain	Oral	Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Urinary Disorders
Zingiberaceae	Curcuma longa L.	ขมิ้นชัน (Khaminchan)	He	Cu	55.00	Zm	Dry	The powdered material is mixed with honey and formed into small bolus pills	Traditionally used to treat diarrhea	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders	TJS0137
					12.50	Zm	Dry	The powdered material is mixed with honey and formed into small bolus pills	Traditionally used to relieve bloating and abdominal discomfort	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders
					7.50	Zm	Dry	The powdered material and apply to skin	Traditionally used to nourish and improve the skin	Dermal	Integumentary Disorders
Zingiberaceae	Kaempferia marginata Carey ex Roscoe	เปราะ (Pro)	He	Wi	80.00	Zm	Fresh	Rhizome are consumed fresh or used as an ingredient in traditional dishes	Traditionally used to alleviate fever and heat-related symptoms	Oral	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders	TJS0146
					20.00	Zm	Fresh	Rhizome are consumed fresh or used as an ingredient in traditional dishes	Traditionally used to relieve intestinal gas	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders
Zingiberaceae	Wurfbainia vera (Blackw.) Škorničk. & A.D.Poulsen	กระวาน (Krawan)	He	Cu	62.50	Ft	Dry	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to alleviate bloating and abdominal fullness, relieve intestinal gas, and reduce epigastric discomfort	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders	TJS0103
					37.50	Ft	Dry	The plant material is decocted in water, and the resulting filtrate is used for medicinal purposes	Traditionally used to expel phlegm and relieve respiratory congestion	Oral	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders
Zingiberaceae	Zingiber montanum (J.Koenig) Link ex A.Dietr.	ว่านไพล (Wanphlai)	He	Cu	50.00	Zm	Dry	Traditionally prepared by drying the plant, grinding it into a powder, and infusing it in hot water for consumption	Traditionally used to alleviate bloating and abdominal fullness, relieve intestinal gas, and reduce epigastric discomfort	Oral	Gastrointestinal Disorders	TJS0104
					50.00	Zm	Fresh	The fresh material is crushed, and the extracted juice is applied topically to the affected area	Traditionally used to treat sprains, bruises, and swollen or twisted ankles	Dermal	Musculoskeletal and Joint Disorders
Zingiberaceae	Zingiber officinale Roscoe	ขิง (Khing)	He	Cu	27.50	Zm	Fresh	The rhizome is thinly sliced and either boiled in water for drinking or consumed fresh.	Traditionally used to relieve headache and migraine symptoms.	Oral	Neurological Disorders	TJS0105
					27.50	Zm	Fresh	The rhizome is thinly sliced and either boiled in water for drinking or consumed fresh.	Traditionally used to restore strength and promote recovery in postpartum women.	Oral	Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Urinary disorders
					25.00	Zm	Fresh	The fresh tuber is juiced and mixed with honey before consumption.	The plant is traditionally used to treat fever among local communities	Oral	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders
					20.00	Zm	Fresh	The fresh tuber is juiced and mixed with honey before consumption.	Traditionally used as an anthelmintic to expel intestinal parasites, including roundworms.	Oral	Infection, Parasitic and Immune Disorders

LF (life forms): Cl (climber), He (herb), Sh (shrub), (Tr tree). RS (resource): Cu (cultivated), Wi (wild). %FL (fidelity level). UP (used parts); Bk (bark), Bu (bulb), De (seed), Ft (fruit), If (inflorescence), Le (leaf), Rt (root), St (shoot), Tb (tuber), Wp (whole plant), Zm (rhizome). CoP (Condition of plants used). RoA (RoA Route of Administration). TC (therapeutic categories)

Fig. 2.

Family-wise diversity of medicinal plants recorded in Dan Sub-district, Kap Choeng District, Surin Province, Thailand, showing the number of species represented in each plant family

Life forms of medicinal plants in Dan Sub-district

The ethnomedicinal flora documented in Dan Sub-district comprised four main life forms: herbs, trees, climbers, and shrubs (Fig. 3). Herbs were the most frequently represented, with 37 species (50.68%), followed by trees (15 species; 20.55%), climbers (12 species; 16.44%), and shrubs (9 species; 12.33%). The dominance of herbaceous species highlights their accessibility and widespread distribution in the study area, making them an important resource for local traditional medicine.

Fig. 3.

Life form of medicinal plant species found in the study area

Resources of medicinal plants in Dan Sub-district

The ethnomedicinal plants recorded in Dan Sub-district originated from both cultivated and wild sources (Table 3). Cultivated species accounted for 43 species (58.90%), while wild species comprised 30 species (41.10%). The higher proportion of cultivated plants indicates the importance of home gardens and agricultural landscapes as key reservoirs of medicinal plant diversity in the study area.

Table 3.

Informant consensus factor by categories in Dan Sub-district, Kap Choeng District, Surin Province, Thailand

Therapeutic categories	Number of use report (Nur)	Number of Taxa (Nt)	ICF
Reproductive disorders	61	3	0.967
Cardiovascular disorders	133	7	0.955
Infection, parasitic and immune disorders	580	28	0.953
Musculoskeletal and joint disorders	317	16	0.953
Poisoning and toxicological disorders	169	9	0.952
Gastrointestinal disorders	783	42	0.948
Respiratory disorders	166	11	0.939
Obstetrics, gynaecology and urinary disorders	277	18	0.938
Integumentary disorders	334	22	0.937
Neurological disorders	93	7	0.935

Used parts of medicinal plants in Dan Sub-district

The analysis of plant parts utilized in this study revealed that leaves were the most commonly used, accounting for 24.02% of all reported uses. Shoots followed with 16.20%, while rhizomes contributed 12.85%. Fruits and roots were each utilized in 12.29% of cases. Bark and seeds were less frequently used, representing 5.59% and 5.04%, respectively. Inflorescences accounted for 3.35%, and bulbs, tubers, and whole plants were the least used parts, each contributing 2.79% to the total (Fig. 4). This distribution indicates a clear preference for aerial vegetative parts, particularly leaves and shoots, in the ethnobotanical practices of the studied community.

Fig. 4.

Used parts of medicinal plant species found in the study area

Routes of administration of medicinal plants in Dan Sub-district

The route of administration of ethnomedicinal plant remedies provides insight into how local communities utilize medicinal plants to treat various ailments. In the present study, the recorded plant species were primarily administered orally (78.21%), followed by dermal application (20.11%) and nasal use (1.68%) (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5.

Routes of administration of medicinal plant species found in the study area

Ethnomedicinal uses and informant consensus factor (ICF)

The informant consensus factor (ICF) was calculated to quantify agreement among informants regarding ethnomedicinal plant use across ten therapeutic categories (Table 3). ICF values ranged narrowly from 0.935 to 0.967, indicating generally high levels of consensus across all ailment categories.

The reproductive disorders exhibited the highest ICF value (0.967), despite being represented by only three taxa, indicating a strong convergence of use-reports on a limited number of species. High ICF values (> 0.95) were also recorded for cardiovascular disorders (0.955), infection, parasite and immune system disorders (0.953), musculoskeletal and joint disorders (0.953), and poisoning and toxicology (0.952). Together, these categories accounted for 1,260 use-reports, representing 56.8% of all recorded medicinal applications.

The gastrointestinal system contributed the highest number of use-reports (783) and taxa (42), while maintaining a high ICF value (0.948). In contrast, the neurological disorders (0.935) and integumentary disorders (0.937) showed comparatively lower ICF values, reflecting a broader distribution of taxa relative to the number of use-reports.

Fidelity level (%FL) of medicinal plants in Dan Sub-district

The fidelity level (FL) values of the 73 recorded medicinal plant species ranged from 7.50% to 87.50% (Table 2). Most species (68.5%) exhibited FL values below 50%, whereas a small subset showed high FL values (> 80%), indicating strong species-specific consensus.

Aquilaria crassna recorded the highest FL value (87.50%) and was associated with cardiovascular disorders. Piper nigrum showed an FL value of 82.50% and was linked to urogenital disorders. Ficus hispida and Kaempferia marginata each exhibited FL values of 80.00%, associated with gastrointestinal and febrile conditions, respectively. These high-FL species were primarily associated with therapeutic categories that also exhibited high ICF values.

Comparative of medicinal plants from Dan Sub-district and surrounding regions

Jaccard’s similarity index (JI) values comparing medicinal plant species documented in Dan Sub-district with surrounding regions ranged from 0.094 to 0.764 (Table 4). The highest similarity was observed between Dan Sub-district and Roi Et Province (JI = 0.764, 76.4%), followed by Kap Choeng Sub-district within the same district (JI = 0.695, 69.5%). These comparisons exhibited high floristic similarity (> 65%), reflecting shared ethnomedicinal knowledge and comparable ecological conditions.

Table 4.

Jaccard’s similarity index comparing the current study with surrounding regions

Study area	Species number (a or b)	Common species (c)	Jaccard index	Similarity (%)	References
Dan Sub-district, Kap Choeng District, Surin Province	73	-	-	-	Present study
Roi Et Province	162	23	0.764	76.4	[41]
Kap Choeng Sub-district, Kap Choeng District, Surin Province	89	34	0.695	69.5	[16]
Roi Et Province (2)	68	4	0.496	49.6	[42]
Sisaket and Ubon and Ratchathani Provinces	53	14	0.473	47.3	[17]
Borabue District, Maha Sarakham Province	46	11	0.426	42.6	[43]
Kae Dam District, Maha Sarakham Province	38	10	0.376	37.6	[44]
Pho Chai District, Roi Et Province	317	37	0.105	10.50	[45]
Akat Amnuai District, Sakon Nakhon Province	78	13	0.094	9.42	[46]

Moderate similarity values were recorded for Roi Et Province (2) (JI = 0.496, 49.6%), Sisaket–Ubon Ratchathani Provinces (JI = 0.473, 47.3%), and Borabue District, Maha Sarakham Province (JI = 0.426, 42.6%). In contrast, lower similarity values were observed for Kae Dam District, Maha Sarakham Province (JI = 0.376, 37.6%).

The lowest similarity levels were found in Pho Chai District, Roi Et Province (JI = 0.105, 10.5%) and Akat Amnuai District, Sakon Nakhon Province (JI = 0.094, 9.42%). Overall, similarity values demonstrated a declining trend with increasing geographical distance and ecological heterogeneity from the study area, suggesting localized ethnomedicinal practices and plant availability.

Comparison with a previous ethnobotanical survey in Kap Choeng Sub-district revealed that 39 medicinal plant species documented in the present study had not been previously reported for the area (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6.

Number of plant species common in Dan Sub-district and Kap Choeng Sub-district (Jaccard Index)

Discussion

Ethnomedicinal plant diversity and cultural drivers in a Thai–Cambodian borderland

The ethnomedicinal plant diversity recorded in Dan Sub-district is broadly consistent with province-level studies from other regions of Thailand, contributing to the national context in which more than 2,000 medicinal plant species have been documented [47]. Rather than emphasizing species richness alone, this study advances a borderland perspective, demonstrating how ethnomedicinal systems are shaped by ecological marginality, cultural hybridity, and adaptive knowledge exchange.

Although confirmation of novel taxa or uses requires detailed comparison with national inventories [46], the border location of Dan Sub-district suggests a tendency toward locally specific applications and therapeutic emphases, rather than entirely new records. This underscores the importance of fine-scale ethnobotanical studies in underrepresented regions, where localized adaptation may be obscured in large-scale surveys.

Family-level patterns align with regional trends, particularly the prominence of Zingiberaceae and Fabaceae, which are widely valued for their therapeutic versatility and ease of cultivation [48, 49]. The strong representation of Zingiberaceae contrasts with patterns reported from coastal or southern Thailand, where other families may dominate [50]. These differences likely reflect local ecological conditions, especially home-garden systems favourable to gingers, as well as culturally embedded preferences for treating digestive, febrile, and postpartum ailments within household-based care systems [51].

Species composition and use patterns reflect the interaction between ecological availability and cultural practice within an Isan cultural landscape shaped by Lao-Isan medical knowledge and household-based plant management [13, 14]. Cross-border exchange with Cambodian communities may further contribute to therapeutic convergence and divergence, influencing plant selection and preparation methods and reinforcing the role of cultural dynamics alongside environmental factors [52].

From a conservation perspective, reliance on plants sourced from community forests, agricultural margins, and home gardens highlights vulnerability to habitat change. This mixed sourcing strategy reflects an adaptive ethnomedicinal system but also exposes culturally salient species to cumulative pressure. Strategies emphasizing in situ conservation, community seed banks, and on-farm cultivation are therefore critical [53]. Ethnomedicinal knowledge also remains central to primary healthcare, particularly in areas with limited access to formal medical services. Integrating validated traditional remedies into community health initiatives, while carefully monitoring risks associated with cross-border circulation of plant materials and knowledge, is essential for safeguarding both biological and cultural diversity [54].

Life-form composition and cultural selection of medicinal plants in a borderland context

Herbaceous species dominate the medicinal flora of Dan Sub-district, consistent with studies from Maha Sarakham and Roi Et Provinces [41, 51]. This pattern reflects an adaptive strategy favouring rapid regeneration, ease of access, and low harvesting impact in a dynamic landscape. Such dominance may be interpreted as an expression of biocultural resilience, balancing therapeutic needs with ecological sustainability. While most herbs are widely used across Thailand, certain climbers and woody taxa exhibit locally specific applications. For example, Tinospora cordifolia is primarily used for appetite stimulation and wound care in Dan Sub-district, contrasting with broader medicinal uses reported elsewhere in Thailand [55].

The lower representation of trees and shrubs reflects both ecological and practical considerations. Harvesting bark, roots, or heartwood poses higher risks to plant survival, leading healers to favour herbaceous alternatives with comparable efficacy [56, 57]. These patterns emphasize the need for conservation strategies that integrate cultural preferences with regeneration capacity [58].

Life-form composition reflects the interaction of Isan cultural traditions, borderland exchange, and ecological sustainability. Reliance on herbs supports continuous access to healthcare resources, while selective use of woody taxa raises conservation concerns. Maintaining this balance through culturally informed management enhances both ecological resilience and community health security [59, 60].

Cultivated and wild medicinal plants: home gardens as pillars of sustainability

The predominance of cultivated species demonstrates that home gardens and agricultural systems function as key repositories of medicinal plant diversity in Dan Sub-district. These community-managed systems effectively support in situ conservation by ensuring year-round availability of frequently used species while reducing pressure on wild populations [61]. Home gardens thus operate as hybrid spaces where conservation, healthcare, and cultural transmission intersect.

Similar cultivation-based strategies are widely reported across Asia, where medicinal plants are integrated into home gardens to promote self-sufficiency, biodiversity conservation, and resilience in traditional medicine systems [62, 63]. Studies from Bhutan, China, Thailand, Malaysia, and India further confirm the role of home gardens in domesticating formerly wild species and facilitating intergenerational knowledge transmission [64–68].

Despite this dominance, wild medicinal plants remain important, particularly for treating chronic or severe conditions. The coexistence of cultivated and wild resources enhances system resilience, reflecting adaptive management strategies that balance accessibility with conservation concerns. Such plural sourcing strategies are characteristic of flexible ethnomedicinal systems responding to environmental and socio-economic change [69].

Plant parts used and implications for sustainable harvesting

Leaves are the most frequently used plant parts due to their accessibility, renewability, and minimal harvesting impact [70]. This preference reflects an implicit conservation ethic embedded within everyday ethnomedicinal practice. In contrast, underground organs such as roots and rhizomes are used less frequently because of their greater risk to plant survival [71]. Fruits, seeds, and inflorescences are harvested selectively according to season and therapeutic need.

Such practices align with ethnomedicinal strategies reported across tropical and subtropical regions, where sustainable harvesting balances therapeutic effectiveness with long-term resource conservation [72].

Routes of administration and therapeutic preferences in ethnomedicine

Oral administration is the dominant route of medicinal plant use, highlighting ingestion as the primary therapeutic approach. This has implications for pharmacological validation, particularly regarding dosage and toxicity assessment. Dermal application is commonly used for wounds and inflammatory conditions, while nasal administration is rare and limited to respiratory ailments [73].

These patterns are consistent with studies from Thailand and neighbouring regions, where oral and topical applications predominate [74, 75]. Understanding culturally preferred administration routes provides an essential framework for guiding pharmacological evaluation and safe integration of traditional remedies.

Consensus patterns and cultural significance of ethnomedicinal knowledge

High ICF values across most therapeutic categories indicate strong shared knowledge within the community, suggesting culturally reinforced reliability of frequently cited remedies. High consensus for gastrointestinal, infectious, musculoskeletal, and cardiovascular disorders reflects their prevalence and cultural importance, characteristic of well-established traditional healthcare systems.

Exceptionally high consensus for reproductive disorders, despite involving few taxa, may indicate selective specialization in culturally sensitive health contexts. Similar patterns have been reported in Maha Sarakham Province, while lower consensus elsewhere highlights regional variation shaped by ecology and cultural transmission [14, 76].

Lower ICF values for neurological and integumentary disorders likely reflect adaptive experimentation rather than knowledge loss. Collectively, these patterns demonstrate a cohesive and resilient ethnomedicinal system, providing a strong basis for pharmacological prioritization and conservation planning.

Cultural preference and therapeutic specificity of high-FL species

High FL values indicate strong agreement on species–ailment associations. Species such as Aquilaria crassna, Piper nigrum, Ficus hispida, and Kaempferia marginata show close alignment between quantitative indices and culturally embedded healing practices, suggesting high perceived efficacy within the community [66].

High-FL species are often associated with ailment categories that also show high ICF values, reinforcing their cultural and epidemiological relevance [77, 78]. However, frequent use and selective harvesting may increase vulnerability, particularly for slow-growing wild species such as Aquilaria crassna. In contrast, cultivated or renewable-part species pose lower ecological risk despite high cultural value [79–81]. These findings support prioritizing high-FL species in conservation planning, with strategies tailored to cultivation potential, harvesting intensity, and regeneration capacity.

Regional similarity and local adaptation of ethnomedicinal knowledge

High Jaccard similarity with nearby areas, especially Roi Et Province and Kap Choeng Sub-district, reflects shared ecology, cultural continuity, and active knowledge exchange [82]. Lower similarity with distant regions highlights increasing differentiation driven by environmental and cultural factors [83, 84]. The documentation of 39 previously unreported species underscores the localized and dynamic nature of ethnomedicinal knowledge. This pattern illustrates how regional continuity coexists with local innovation, emphasizing the value of community-specific documentation [85].

Ethnobotanical perspectives on the conservation of medicinal plants

Informants reported increasing threats to medicinal plant resources from habitat loss, overharvesting, and recurrent burning. Species perceived as declining often coincide with culturally important taxa, indicating compounded pressure from intensive use and environmental disturbance [86, 87]. Local conservation strategies include home-garden cultivation, selective harvesting, and seasonal restrictions, which reduce reliance on wild populations and sustain knowledge transmission [88]. Comparable practices across South and Southeast Asia highlight the effectiveness of community-based conservation grounded in traditional ecological knowledge [89–91].

Integrating these practices with formal conservation frameworks—such as community seed banks, sustainable harvesting training, and participatory monitoring—can enhance long-term resilience. Policy recognition of community-managed conservation areas is therefore essential for protecting ethnomedicinal resources in changing rural landscapes [92].

Socio-economic implications and livelihood relevance

Ethnomedicinal practices in Dan Sub-district function primarily as a subsistence-based healthcare system, with limited commercial trade. Nonetheless, reliance on local medicinal plants reduces healthcare costs, enhances self-reliance, and strengthens community resilience. Sustainable cultivation and harvesting practices further support long-term resource availability. Future research incorporating economic valuation and livelihood analysis would clarify the broader socio-economic significance of these systems.

Limitation of the study

Despite providing valuable insights into the ethnomedicinal diversity and traditional knowledge of Dan Sub-district, this study has several limitations. First, the research was confined to a single sub-district and may not fully represent ethnomedicinal practices across Kap Choeng District or Surin Province. Differences in plant availability, cultural practices, and healthcare preferences elsewhere could influence species use, consensus, and conservation patterns. However, focusing on a clearly defined locality allows in-depth documentation of place-based knowledge critical for understanding fine-scale cultural and ecological adaptation.

Second, the study relied primarily on interviews with local informants, which may be influenced by recall bias, personal preference, or selective knowledge sharing. Although informants varied in age and gender, some species or uses—particularly those that are rare, seasonal, or culturally sensitive—may have been underreported. Such limitations are common in ethnobotanical research and underscore the value of combining interview-based data with long-term observation and participatory approaches.

Third, quantitative indices such as FL and ICF measure cultural importance and consensus but do not capture medicinal efficacy, pharmacological potential, or synergistic effects of multi-species remedies. High FL or ICF values should therefore be interpreted as indicators of cultural significance rather than direct evidence of therapeutic effectiveness. Further phytochemical and pharmacological studies are necessary to validate the bioactivity of high-FL species.

Finally, ecological data on population density, habitat condition, and long-term abundance trends were not systematically collected. Consequently, conservation assessments rely largely on informant perception rather than empirical ecological measurements. Integrating ethnobotanical surveys with quantitative ecological monitoring would strengthen future conservation planning.

Despite these limitations, the study provides a robust foundation for documenting ethnomedicinal knowledge, identifying culturally significant species, and informing conservation priorities. Expanding geographic coverage, incorporating ecological assessments, and integrating laboratory validation will further enhance the scientific and conservation value of traditional medicinal plant knowledge.

Novelty of the study

This study provides the first comprehensive ethnobotanical documentation of medicinal plant use in Dan Sub-district, Kap Choeng District, Surin Province, a Thai–Cambodian borderland. It records 73 medicinal plant species, including 39 species newly reported for the district, thereby expanding the regional ethnomedicinal inventory of northeastern Thailand. The research highlights the influence of cross-border cultural exchange on local therapeutic practices, evidenced by locally distinctive uses of widely known taxa such as Tinospora cordifolia and selected Zingiberaceae species. By integrating multiple quantitative indices (ICF, FL, and Jaccard similarity), the study identifies culturally salient and high-consensus species with implications for pharmacological validation and conservation prioritization. Furthermore, the documentation of a predominantly cultivation-based medicinal system underscores the role of home gardens in sustaining ethnomedicinal knowledge in borderland agroecosystems. Collectively, this study fills a critical geographic and cultural data gap and demonstrates how borderland contexts shape adaptive, resilient ethnomedicinal systems in Thailand.

Conclusions

This study documented a total of 73 ethnomedicinal plant species, belonging to 65 genera and 41 families, in Dan Sub-district, Kap Choeng District, Surin Province, highlighting a rich repository of traditional knowledge and plant diversity. Herbs were the dominant life form, and leaves were the most commonly used plant part, reflecting accessibility, ease of harvesting, and sustainable utilization practices. The high-fidelity levels (FL) and informant consensus factors (ICF) observed for key species, such as Aquilaria crassna, Ficus hispida, and Piper nigrum underscore their cultural and therapeutic significance, particularly for cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, and reproductive health. Comparative analysis revealed substantial similarity with nearby regions, while also identifying locally distinctive species and uses that contribute to the uniqueness of ethnomedicinal knowledge in this Thai–Cambodian borderland. These findings demonstrate how cross-border cultural interaction and local ecological conditions jointly shape adaptive and resilient ethnomedicinal systems.

Despite the richness of medicinal plant resources, the study identified increasing threats from habitat degradation, overharvesting, and environmental pressures. This underscores the need for targeted conservation policies that recognize high-use and high-consensus species as priority taxa for management and protection. Traditional practices, including home garden cultivation, selective harvesting, and adherence to customary ecological norms, play a critical role in sustaining local plant populations. Strengthening these practices through formal policy support—such as recognition of community-managed conservation areas, establishment of community seed banks, and participatory monitoring involving local healers—can enhance long-term ecological sustainability. At the community level, the continued reliance on ethnomedicinal plants highlights their importance for primary healthcare, particularly in rural border areas with limited access to formal medical services. Integrating validated traditional knowledge into community health education, alongside pharmacological and toxicological evaluation of high-FL species, could improve safe and effective healthcare delivery.

This study provides a robust baseline for future pharmacological research, conservation planning, and policy development. By linking quantitative ethnobotanical evidence with community-based management and policy-relevant strategies, the findings contribute to safeguarding ethnomedicinal resources while supporting cultural continuity and health security in borderland agroecosystems.

Author contributions

Conceptualization, methodology, validation, and writing—review and editing were contributed P.S., S.S., B.H., W.S., K.C., A.J., P.S. (Phiphat Sonthongphithak) and T.J.; software, formal analysis, data curation, writing original draft preparation, visualization, and project administration were performed by T.J.; investigation and resources were carried out by S.S. and T.J.; supervision was done by S.S.; funding acquisition was responsible for S.S. All authors reviewed the final manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by Mahasarakham University, Thailand.

Data availability

The original contributions presented in this study are contained within the article. Any further inquiries may be directed to the corresponding author.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Formal ethics approval was not required for this study according to institutional regulations at the time of data collection. All fieldwork, including market surveys and interviews, was conducted exclusively by the Thai authors, who are native speakers and well-acquainted with the local cultural context. Prior informed verbal consent was obtained from all participants after the study’s objectives, methodology, and voluntary participation were clearly explained in the local language. No personal or sensitive data were collected, and participants were informed of their right to withdraw at any stage. All research activities adhered to the ethical standards outlined in the International Society of Ethnobiology (ISE) Code of Ethics and complied with the Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.