Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Military Psychology logoLink to Military Psychology
. 2025 Apr 8;38(2):163–176. doi: 10.1080/08995605.2025.2479895

“Once a Soldier, always a Soldier” until you’re not: The effect of identity loss on mental health and well-being following military discharge

Cameron Grant a,b,✉,2, Lydia Woodyatt a, Henry Bowen a,b, Jonathan Lane c,2
PMCID: PMC12934152  PMID: 40197102

ABSTRACT

An report from the Australian Royal Commission on Veteran Suicide has suggested that transition-related losses (loss of purpose, identity, and culture) adversely affect veteran mental illness and suicide risk. Subjective Loss of Self Theory posits that significant life transitions can cause a range of changes to group memberships, relationships, and roles and consequently can disrupt our sense of identity. To the extent that these disruptions lead to a subjective feeling of a loss as to who one was (past self) or will become (future self) can create a vulnerability to mental health and well-being challenges. Across two studies involving American (n = 179) and Australian veterans (n − 379), both subjective loss of past and future self were associated with worse mental health and well-being, with loss of future self being the stronger predictor. Additionally, a negative discharge experience directly predicted worse mental health and well-being and increased subjective loss of past and future self. However, Study 2 demonstrated that the effects of negative discharge experiences were fully or partially mediated by the perception that these experiences amounted to military institutional betrayal. Collectively, these results indicate that military discharge can result in identity disruption via a perceived lost sense of self, increasing vulnerability to mental health and well-being challenges. Additionally, negative discharge experiences (especially when perceived as institutional betrayal) can exacerbate these sense of self losses and mental health and wellbeing vulnerability, both directly through the experience of betrayal, and indirectly through the resultant increased losses of past and future self.

KEYWORDS: Veteran; identity; transition; discharge; mental health, well-being

What is the public significance of this article?—The Subjective Loss of Self Scale provides a means to measure identity loss in military veterans and reveals that veteran mental health and wellbeing is affected by both disconnection from their past military self and uncertainty about their future civilian self. The quality of the discharge experience – and whether veterans perceive it as institutional betrayal may additionally either protect against or amplify these identity-related losses and directly impact mental health and wellbeing. This research highlights a need to investigate beyond individual level factors to examine the processes, procedures and experiences that contribute to negative discharge experiences, institutional betrayal, and identity loss to better understand the context within which transition–related losses occur.

Introduction

Life transitions are significant events that mark the changing of one’s life trajectory, making a clear break from the past into a different future (Haslam et al., 2021). Everybody experiences life transitions, from starting or finishing university, working full-time, retiring, getting married, or enlisting and discharging from the military. Transitions require adjustment to a new or different way of life and can challenge the individual to reevaluate their identity: who they are, how they should behave, what they should believe, and who they will become (Haslam et al., 2021). Accordingly, transitions can make individuals vulnerable to mental health and well-being challenges (Haslam et al., 2021). For veterans, transitioning from the military often represents a cultural and career transition, requiring substantial adjustment and making them vulnerable to mental health and well-being difficulties (Albertson, 2019; Coll et al., 2011; Lane & Wallace, 2020). Many veterans report initial difficulties transitioning from the military, with some facing long-term reintegration and identity related challenges (Grimell, 2024). Recent research suggests this transition involves not just practical adjustments but a complex process of “reculturation” – requiring veterans to navigate between military and civilian cultural identities while rebuilding their sense of self (Joseph et al., 2023). This cultural transition can create unique stressors beyond traditional adjustment challenges, as veterans must reconcile deeply ingrained military values and behavioral patterns with civilian norms (Sachdev & Dixit, 2024).These challenges are present across different countries and types of military service and are often attributed to losses of identity, culture, community, and sense of purpose, creating poor psychosocial outcomes and increased suicide risk (Albertson, 2019; Binks & Cambridge, 2017; Flack & Kite, 2021; Romaniuk & Kidd, 2018; Sadler et al., 2021). Thus, it is important to understand how group-level and identity losses resulting from military-discharge affect veteran mental health and well-being. Using a social identity perspective, this research investigated the effect of military discharge on a subjective loss of oneself (past and future) and its relationship to veterans’ mental health and well-being and tested the Subjective Loss of Self Scale for its utility in assessing veteran vulnerability through transition.

Broadly, the social identity perspective proposes that a person’s sense of self is made up of multiple group memberships and that people categorize themselves as part of these groups (Tajfel et al., 1979; Turner, 1985). The various social, cultural, and ideological groups (or roles) that people identify with inform their sense of self and are a basis from which people extract esteem (Tajfel et al., 1979; Turner, 1985). Having multiple social identities is beneficial for mental health, well-being, and functioning as they provide people with practical and psychological resources, such as belonging, social support, security, and a degree of certainty regarding one’s place in the world. Additionally, social identities inform people’s beliefs, goals, and values and shape social norms that influence human behavior (Butler et al., 2018; Haslam et al., 2021; Hogg, 2007; Wenzel & Woodyatt, 2024). Transitions, however, often require people to let go of, surrender, or significantly transform their group memberships and associated identities, potentially cutting off the practical and psychological resources associated with those groups and identities (Bridges, 1986; Haslam et al., 2021; Thomassen, 2009). Accordingly, transitions can create uncertainty about a person’s sense of self and lead to actual or perceived support deficits, affecting their mental health and well-being (Haslam et al., 2021; Iyer et al., 2009; Steffens et al., 2016).

Although not all transitions and subsequent changes to group memberships are bad, changes and identity losses during transitions are often associated with mental health and well-being difficulties (Haslam et al., 2021). Recent research suggests that mental health and well-being vulnerability created by group-level losses (of which there can be many types) during significant life transitions can be most meaningfully and easily gauged by assessing how the losses translate to a loss of one’s sense of self (DeSilva, 2022). Subjective Loss of Self theory is rooted in the concept of transition liminality, which states that during transitions, individuals may exist in a liminal space between who they were pre-transition and who they will become post-transition and the degree to which they become stuck in that between state represents a period of vulnerability to mental health decline (DeSilva, 2022). Loss of past self broadly relates to loss of who one was before the transition, which may relate to a broad range of subjective factors like friendships, work roles, access to resources, shared values or other aspects of service that informed one’s personal values. A loss of future self broadly relates to an individual’s lack of sense of who they will become in the future.

To use the analogy of swinging across monkey bars, if one imagines one’s past identity and the strength of connection to that identity, is like the first “grip” that supports transition swing until the new sense of future identity “grip” is established, vulnerability occurs when one is left with nothing to hang onto, metaphorically. Initially, in a transition, a subjective feeling of having lost who one was can be associated with poorer mental health and well-being, as the previous identities and groups support the person moving into the transition (DeSilva, 2022; Szakolczai, 2017). However, as the transition continues, the strongest predictor of well-being over time is an emerging sense of a “future self.”

To return to the analogy, imagine a person in a transition is like someone crossing from one monkey bar to another. The past sense of self (informed by the multiple groups of which one is a part) provides the person with the support, practical and psychological resources, and identity they need. As they begin to swing, some of these may be lost. The degree to which they can maintain some aspect of contact with that past self is a buffer until such a time as they can grasp onto the next bar, a future sense of self. This future sense of self may have components of the past taken with the person and be made up of the arrangement of other groups, roles, and values that inform the person’s identity. However, individuals who experience a transition where they lose a sense of their previous self (pre-transition) and may not be able to establish an emerging sense of future self (post-transition), may feel “stuck in transition,” being unable to move forward and experiencing poorer mental health and well-being (DeSilva, 2022). We argue that transition-related losses will relate to a loss of one’s subjective sense of self which will in turn relate to poorer mental health and well-being when discharged from the military.

The negative effect of these losses of self may be reduced to the extent that people transitioning have other social identities (as opposed to few) outside of the military. During transitions, additional social identities can broaden an individual’s self-concept and disperse resources across a wider network, buffering against uncertainties by minimizing the impact of any single domain of loss (DeSilva, 2022; Haslam et al., 2021; Iyer et al., 2009; Steffens et al., 2016). Consequently, multiple group identities can buffer against mental health and well-being challenges and protect a person during a transition, facilitating adjustment (Haslam et al., 2021; Steffens et al., 2016).

However, military inculturation processes and the duration and intensity of training and relocation of the member (and often their family) result in restriction of (non-occupational) social connections and influences (Lane & Wallace, 2020; Lunasco et al., 2010). Consequently, for military members, many (if not all) of their social identities are connected to the military – their jobs, relationships, hobbies, and even their families (Lane & Wallace, 2020; Lunasco et al., 2010). For example, in the Australian Army, an electrical technician recruit undergoes three months of recruit training and an additional 22 months (approximately) of employment training (Electrical Technician Jobs in the Army, Defence Jobs Australia, 2023). Often, during this time, members live on a military base, socializing, eating, and training with other military members. Thus, military social groups and identities are forged while civilian groups and identities are eroded due to the demanding nature of service (Lane & Wallace, 2020). Further, ongoing military service, training, and deployments often necessitate members be away from their civilian friends and family for extended periods of time, accentuating the centralization of the military identity (Klein & Bastian, 2023; Lancaster et al., 2018). We argue that the centralization of military identity and the subsequent concentration of a member’s psychological and practical resources within that identity make members particularly vulnerable to significant group and identity-based losses upon discharge.

The centralization of the military identity and eroding of nonmilitary identities mean that some veterans report extreme cultural differences such that while they can co-exist with civilians, they never truly feel part of civilian life, thereby feeling disconnected from both the military and civilian identities (Albertson, 2019; Binks & Cambridge, 2017). Accordingly, once discharged, some veterans may have trouble, refuse, or are unable to let go of their military identity or gain a civilian identity. Thus, they may be more likely to experience being “stuck in transition” as they are cut off from their previous selves and unable to form new, nonmilitary identities. According to the Subjective Loss of Self Theory, this simultaneous loss of past and future self would result in a visceral subjective loss of self, explaining transition-related mental health and well-being challenges in some transitioned veterans.

In a study of American veterans from the Afghanistan and Iraq wars who experienced transition difficulties, 27% identified feelings of disconnection between their past, present, and future selves (Mitchell et al., 2020). For example, veterans described themselves as “cut off” from their past selves, “trapped in the past,” or “missing their past selves and being unable to find a path forward” (Mitchell et al., 2020). This identity disruption was associated with greater transition difficulty, PTSD symptoms, and lower life satisfaction and social support (Mitchell et al., 2020). Further, in a separate qualitative study involving veterans who participated in addiction treatment services and had contact with the criminal justice system, participants identified a need to reconcile their transition-related identity losses before being able to focus on the present and future sense of belonging (Albertson, 2019).

Despite the many commonalities and conformity in military service, members’ military experiences are unique, and heterogeneity exists in unique experiences and subcultures, for example, type of service (Army, Navy, Air Force, etc.), corps, job role, rank, posting, and operational deployments. Thus, it stands to reason that not all veterans will experience a subjective loss of self. Indeed, veterans with military roles equivalent to civilian jobs (e.g., electrician, logistics) report less military identification and a smoother discharge, whereas those without civilian job equivalents (e.g., artillery, infantry) often have a more centralized military identity and face greater transition difficulties (Binks & Cambridge, 2017; Flack & Kite, 2021). Subjective Loss of Self theory would account for these findings in that veterans with no civilian job role equivalent may experience a greater subjective loss of past self, leading to worse mental health and well-being challenges. Thus, while all military members must negotiate a transition to the civilian world, not all will experience a level of subjective loss of self that leads to a decline in mental health and well-being. However, being able to measure who among veterans experiences a subjective loss of self and when this occurs would be vital for identifying those who may be vulnerable to mental health decline.

Discharge experience

Military discharge represents a critical period of vulnerability for veterans, marked by heightened stress, increased risk of mental illness, and suicidality (Mobbs & Bonanno, 2018). Recent research indicates this transition extends beyond occupational change to encompass a fundamental shift in cultural identity and social belonging, where stronger military identity attachment is associated with increased suicide risk and maladaptive behaviors (E. Edwards et al., 2024; Markowitz et al., 2023). While considerable research has explored individual factors influencing transition outcomes – such as the loss of identity, purpose, and belonging (Grimell, 2024; Romaniuk & Kidd, 2018; Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide, 2024; Thompson et al., 2017) – there has been limited quantitative investigation into how institutional factors during the discharge process shape these outcomes.

The Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide (2024) highlights that many veterans perceive their discharge experiences as unfair and procedurally unjust. Although we have some understanding of how personal characteristics, help-seeking behaviors, coping strategies, and transition supports impact veterans’ ability to successfully transition (Sachdev & Dixit, 2024), far less attention has been given to how the discharge process itself – including administrative systems, support services, and institutional treatment – affects veterans’ sense of self and well-being during this challenging period.

Therefore, investigating the quality of discharge experiences is vital to understanding how institutional practices either contribute to or alleviate the individual-level challenges associated with military transition. This perspective is needed to clarify how systemic factors influence losses of identity and subsequent overall mental health and well-being and identify institutional interventions that could improve outcomes. Understanding veterans’ experiences of discharge may provide crucial insight into their subjective sense of loss – both of who they were and who they hope to become – during this pivotal phase of transition.

Study 1 overview

Using a cross-sectional design, study 1 investigates the relationship between negative discharge experience, subjective loss of past self, subjective loss of future self, and mental health and well-being outcomes. Our study utilizes the dual continua approach to mental health and well-being, measuring the simultaneous importance of both mental ill-health and various facets of positive well-being. The dual-dimension approach recognizes that the absence of mental illness does not necessarily equate to the presence of well-being, and vice versa (Colombo et al., 2020; Keyes, 2005).

Hypotheses

The hypotheses for the current study were as follows (see Figure 1): (H1) greater negative military discharge experience will be associated with greater subjective loss of self – past and future. (H2) Subjective loss of self – past will be positively associated with mental illness symptoms: depression, anxiety, and stress and (H3) negatively associated with well-being variables: life satisfaction, resilience, and friendship. (H4) Subjective loss of self – future will be positively associated with mental illness symptoms and (H5) negatively associated with well-being measures.

Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Open in a new tab

Model of predicted hypothesis.

Solid lines represent positive relationships. Dotted lines represent negative relationships.

Methods

Participants

171 participants accessed the study via Mechanical Turk (Mturk), of which 171 completed the Qualtrics survey. Eligibility required participants to have served in the military but to no longer be serving in the military in any capacity. Participants were American veterans who were predominately noncommissioned (commissioned n = 16), middle-aged (M = 44 years, SD = 13.9, range 22–79 years), and male veterans (male n = 130, female n = 40, non-binary n = 1). Veterans serviced in the Army (n = 62), Air Force (n = 50), Navy (n = 46) and Marines (n = 13). Most veterans had not been operationally deployed (n = 103) during their length of service (M = 7.2, SD = 5.5 years) before discharging (honorably n = 147, general discharge under honorable conditions n = 12, other/medical/entry separation n = 12). There was a wide range in time since discharge among participants (M = 17.87, SD = 14.06, Range 0 – 56 years).

Ethics

These studies were approved by the Flinders University Human Research Ethics Committee (Study 1 project number HEL4980, Study 2 HEL6696). All relevant information regarding the study and the right to withdraw was provided to the participants before they digitally consented to participate in the study. Participants were de-identified, and support hotlines and service information were provided in case of discomfort or distress.

Materials and method

Subjective loss of self scale

The Subjective Loss of Self Scale examines how a significant life transition affects an individual’s identity and sense of self. It has two sub-scales that examine the individual’s sense of strength of self-pre-transition – loss of past self (study 1 α = .73, study 2 α = .76) and post-transition – loss of future self (study 1 α = .89, study 2 α = .91).

Negative discharge experience and discharge type

To explore how a veteran’s discharge experience may be associated with subjective loss of self and mental health and well-being, participants were asked to rate ‘Overall, how would you rate your experience transitioning out of the military (0 – very negative − 4 very positive). Finally, participants were asked what military discharge they received.

Outcome measures

Mental health continuum-short form (MHC-SF)

The Mental Health Continuum Short-Form (study 1 α = .92, study 2 α = .95) is a 14-item measure that allows the calculation of a generic well-being score as well as sub-scores for emotional, psychological, and social well-being. Sample items include “In the past month; how often did you feel that people are basically good?” and “In the past month, how often did you feel happy.” Participants respond strongly disagree 1–7 strongly agree.

Brief resilience scale

The Brief Resilience Scale (study 1 α = .93, not used in study 2) is a short 6-item scale that assesses the individual’s perceived ability to bounce back or recover from stress. Sample items include “I tend to bounce back quickly after tough times” and “I tend to take a long time to get over set-backs in my life”. Participants respond strongly disagree 1–6 strongly agree.

Satisfaction with life scale

The SWLS (study 1 α = .92, study 2 α = .92) is a short 5-item instrument designed to measure global cognitive judgments of satisfaction with one’s life. Sample items include “In most ways, my life is close to ideal” and “I am satisfied with my life”. Participants respond strongly disagree 1–7 strongly agree.

Friendship scale

The Friendship Scale (study 1 α = .90, study 2 α = .89) is a short 6-item instrument designed to assess an individual’s social networks and their satisfaction with the networks. Sample items include “During the past four weeks, it has been easy to relate to others” and “During the past four weeks, I felt alone and friendless.” Participants respond by ‘almost always” 1 to “not at all” 5.

Depression anxiety and stress scale 21 (DASS-21)

The DASS 21 (study 1 α = .95, study 2 α = .95) is a 21-item scale designed to assess depression, anxiety, and stress. Sample items include “I found it hard to wind down” and “I felt I had nothing to look forward to.” Participants respond with “did not apply to me at all” 0 – “applied to me very much, or most of the time” 3.

Procedure

Participants were recruited via Mturk, an online crowdsourcing marketplace where people are paid to participate in research. Participants were paid $3 USD to complete the online Qualtrics survey. Participants first completed screening criteria followed by demographic, military service, and discharge questions before completing the Subjective Loss of Self scale and outcome measures. Attention checks were distributed randomly throughout the survey questionnaires; participants were prompted to select a particular response embedded in three different questionnaires for example “Please select Never for this response.” Participants who failed more than one of the three attention checks were excluded from the study. The current sample included three participants who failed one attention check but were retained. In total, 209 participants accessed the survey, 200 began it and 190 completed it. Exclusions included ejection from survey at screening due to still serving (n = 20), failed attention checks (n = 3), completed the survey in less then 4 minutes (n = 7).

Data analysis

Analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS 28.0 and AMOS 28.0. First, descriptive statistics and zero-order correlations were calculated to examine relationships between study variables. Then, structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test the hypothesized relationships in Study 1, and the mediation hypotheses in Study 2. Model fit was assessed using multiple indices: chi-square/degrees of freedom ratio (χ2/df), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR). Effect sizes were evaluated using standardized regression coefficients (β) and R2 values, with β values of approximately .10, .30, and .50 representing small, medium, and large effects, respectively (Cohen, 1988).

Results

A correlational analysis was run to investigate the relationship between subjective loss of self measures and outcome variables (see Table 1). Time since discharge was included, given the significant variability among participants. Time since discharge was negatively associated with negative discharge experience and mental illness variables and positively associated with friendship. Higher subjective loss of self past and future were associated with increased mental illness symptoms and decreased well-being. Negative discharge experience significantly predicted increased subjective loss of self (past and future) and mental illness symptoms and decreased wellbeing.

Table 1.

Correlations between time since discharge and factors in the theoretical model.

  1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
1. Time Since Discharge 1                  
2. Negative Discharge Experience −.17* 1                
3. SLS Past −.10 .31** 1              
4. SLS Future −.14 .21** .30** 1            
5. Depression −.20* .37** .36** .38** 1          
6. Anxiety −.16* .28** .28** .21** .71** 1        
7. Stress −.21** .33** .34** .34** .85** .75** 1      
8. Mental Health .14 −.27** −.26** −.48** −.66** −.39** −.58** 1    
9. Life Satisfaction −.03 −.36** −.24** −.50** −.62** −.33** −.52** .70** 1  
10. Resilience .08 −.23** −.24** −.28** −.58** −.51** −.59** .56** .47** 1
11. Friendship .17* −.37** −.32** −.36** −.71** −.53** −.63** .69** .62** .47**
Open in a new tab

Correlation is significant at the < .05* level (2-tailed), correlation is significant at the < .01** level (2-tailed).

Model development and results

As descriptive statistics demonstrated significant correlations between negative discharge experience and all outcome variables, we tested a model that specified direct effects of discharge experience on all outcomes, as well as indirect effects through subjective loss of self (past and future), as originally hypothesized. The direct paths from negative discharge experience to outcomes were included to account for potential effects not mediated through subjective loss of self. All paths are illustrated in Figure 2, with non-significant relationships shown in gray (Statistics reported in Table 2).

Figure 2.

Figure 2.

Open in a new tab

Structural equation modeling, study 1.

Solid Lines represent positive relationships; dotted lines represent negative relationships; gray lines represent non-statistically significant relationships.

Table 2.

Standardized regression weights for structural equation modeling, study 1.

      β P
Negative Discharge Experience on SLS        
 Negative Discharge Experience ➔ SLS Past .214 .004
 Negative Discharge Experience ➔ SLS Future .211 .005
SLS Past on outcome variables        
 Subjective loss of past self ➔ Depression .210 .003
 Subjective loss of past self ➔ Anxiety .178 .019
 Subjective loss of past self ➔ Stress .234 .001
 Subjective loss of past self ➔ Mental health −.052 .460
 Subjective loss of past self ➔ Life Satisfaction −.072 .281
 Subjective loss of past self ➔ Resilience −.107 .165
 Subjective loss of past self ➔ Friendship −.175 .014
SLS Future on outcome variables        
 Subjective loss of future self ➔ Depression .252 ***
 Subjective loss of future self ➔ Anxiety .113 .139
 Subjective loss of future self ➔ Stress .214 .003
 Subjective loss of future self ➔ Mental health −.427 ***
 Subjective loss of future self ➔ Life Satisfaction −.426 ***
 Subjective loss of future self ➔ Resilience −.213 .006
 Subjective loss of future self ➔ Friendship −.249 ***
Negative Discharge Experience on DVs        
 Negative Discharge Experience ➔ Depression .272 ***
 Negative Discharge Experience ➔ Anxiety .219 .003
 Negative Discharge Experience ➔ Stress .231 ***
 Negative Discharge Experience ➔ Mental health −.170 .013
 Negative Discharge Experience ➔ Life Satisfaction −.255 ***
 Negative Discharge Experience ➔ Resilience −.158 .034
 Negative Discharge Experience ➔ Friendship −.281 ***
Open in a new tab

Greater negative discharge experience was significantly associated with both greater SLS past and future (showing small-to-medium effects), supporting hypothesis 1. Subjective loss of self-past showed varying relationships with outcomes: positive associations with mental illness symptoms (depression, anxiety, and stress; demonstrating small-to-medium effects) supporting hypothesis 2, and a negative relationship with friendship (showing a small effect), while relationships with other well-being variables were weaker. Subjective loss of self-future demonstrated a different pattern of relationships, showing positive associations with depression and stress (small-to-medium effects), a weaker relationship with anxiety, and negative associations with all well-being variables (displaying medium-to-large effects), partially supporting hypotheses 4 and 5.

Explanatory power within the model demonstrated significant variances: large to medium-large effect sizes for life satisfaction (R2 = .308), mental health (R2 = .239), depression (R2 = .225), and friendship (R2 = .211), and a medium effect size for stress (R2 = .185). Smaller effect sizes were observed for anxiety (R2 = .104), resilience (R2 = .087), subjective loss of self-past (R2 = .046) and subjective loss of self-future (R2 = .044).

Discussion

Study 1 aimed to explore how discharge from the military may create losses in the subjective sense of self, increasing risk of veterans experiencing mental health and well-being challenges as they navigate the transition to the civilian world. Subjective loss of self-past was positively associated with mental illness symptoms, depression, anxiety, and stress and was negatively associated with friendship. Subjective loss of self-future was a broader predictor and was positively associated with increased depression and stress and was negatively associated with mental health, life satisfaction, and friendship. These patterns of results are consistent with studies that have utilized Subjective Loss of Self Theory in civilian populations who were undergoing significant life transitions and support the notion that military discharge-related identity-based losses may create vulnerability to mental health and well-being challenges during transition (DeSilva, 2022). Further, these results are broadly consistent with research regarding the negative psychosocial impacts of military-discharge-related identity losses. Including, a sense of social alienation and disconnection (Sachdev & Dixit, 2024), immediate and long-term self-concept difficulties (Grimell, 2024; Mitchell et al., 2020), poor mental health and well-being, and mental illness symptoms (Mitchell et al., 2020). Our findings on the relationship between identity loss and mental health outcomes support emerging evidence that how veterans navigate this cultural and identity transition significantly impacts their psychological wellbeing and suicide risk (E. Edwards et al., 2024; E. R. Edwards et al., 2024; Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide, 2024).

Negative discharge experience was the strongest predictor and was directly and indirectly (through increased subjective loss of self-past and future) negatively related to mental health and well-being. In Study 2, we aimed to replicate these findings with a different sample of veterans and further explored institutional betrayal as a possible mechanism by which military discharge may shape identity loss and mental health and wellbeing difficulties (Albertson, 2019; Holliday & Monteith, 2019; McCormack & Riley, 2016; Monteith et al., 2016; Smith & Freyd, 2014).

Study 2

The aim of study two was to replicate study 1 with a different sample of Veterans. Second, we wanted to explore the possible mechanism of change from a negative discharge experience to loss of self. It is possible that veterans who experience a negative discharge perceive this experience as betrayal or rejection by the military that is incongruent with their sacrifice and commitment to military service, thereby amplifying losses of past and future self (Smith & Freyd, 2014). For example, in a study by McCormack and Riley (2016), police officers who were involuntarily discharged reported a profound sense of betrayal and loss of their younger past selves, who had so excitedly devoted themselves to an organization that had now rejected them. This betrayal persisted over time, as the ongoing negative consequences of the medical discharge extended into their civilian lives and the anticipated support from the organization failed to materialize (McCormack & Riley, 2016). Similarly, veteran negative discharge experiences may create a perception of institutional betrayal – harm caused by an institution to its dependents through its actions, failure to prevent harm, or inadequate responses to harm (Smith & Freyd, 2014).

Institutional betrayal may exacerbate the negative effects of traumatic experiences, such as military discharge. For example, for female military members who suffered sexual assault, the experience of institutional betrayal was a stronger predictor of elevated PTSD rates, depression, and suicide attempts compared to the assault itself (Monteith et al., 2016). Thus, veterans who experience a negative and potentially traumatic discharge may experience feelings of institutional betrayal, resulting in mental health and well-being challenges directly via the actual event(s) and indirectly through increased losses of self (Albertson, 2019; Holliday & Monteith, 2019; McCormack & Riley, 2016). Study 2 sought to test this hypothesis by developing a measure of discharge-related institutional betrayal and testing whether this mediated the effects of negative discharge experiences on subjective loss of self and mental health and well-being outcomes.

Hypotheses

The hypotheses for the current study were as follows; it was predicted that negative discharge experience would be positively associated with institutional betrayal (H1) and that institutional betrayal would mediate the relationship between negative discharge experience and subjective loss of self-past (H2), subjective loss of self-future (H3), mental health (H4,) and well-being (H5) variables. It was also predicted that subjective loss of self-past would be positively associated with all mental illness symptoms (H6) and negatively associated with all mental health and well-being measures (H7). Similarly, it was predicted that subjective loss of self-future would be positively associated with all mental illness symptoms (H8) and negatively associated with all mental health and well-being measures (H9).

Methods

Participants

Participants were 379 Australian military veterans who were predominately noncommissioned (noncommissioned n = 209, Other ranks n = 124 and commissioned n = 46), older (M = 57 years, SD = 13.1, range 25–81 years), and male veterans (male n = 332, female n = 46, did not describe n = 1). Veterans served in the Army (n = 209), Navy (n = 97), and Air Force (n = 72); one participant preferred not to say (n = 1). Most veterans had not been operationally deployed (n = 233) during their length of service (M = 14.7, SD = 10.3 years) before discharging (general discharge n = 220, medical discharge n = 108, retirement n = 32 and administrative discharge n = 19). There was a wide range in time since discharge among participants (M = 23.40, SD = 14.90, range 0 – 58 years).

Materials

Materials were identical to those used in study 1, except for the removal of the Brief Resilience Scale to reduce survey response duration.

Institutional betrayal scale – military discharge

The Institutional Betrayal Scale – Military Discharge (α = .95), was created by adapting questions from the Institutional Betrayal Questionnaire – Health, used to capture institutional betrayal in healthcare settings and examine their relationship with outcomes such as trauma, stress, and dissatisfaction (Smith, 2016). Prefaced by During my military discharge, the military institution (my unit/chain of command/section) … ”, items included“ … did not take steps to facilitate a positive discharge experience,” “ … created an environment where negative discharge experiences seem more likely to occur than not” and “ … created an environment where you no longer felt like a valued member of the team.”

Procedure

ncentivized by a $5 donation to a veteran charity of choice, participants were recruited online via Facebook and Instagram to complete an online survey on Qualtrics. CAPTCHa authentication and Qualtrics bot detection services, alongside five qualitative written responses to Australian military culturally specific questions, were utilized to screen out potential fraudulent non-human respondents. Attention checks were utilized as per study 1. The current sample included eight participants who failed one attention check but were retained.

In total, 606 participants accessed the survey, 515 began it and 393 completed it. Exclusions included ejected from survey at screening due to still serving (n = 7), failed attention checks (n = 6) and completed survey in less than 4 minutes (n = 1). Qualtrics identified 13 respondents as potential bots, but examination of their data, voluntary qualitative responses, and correct written responses to culturally specific Australian military questions confirmed these participants were human. In total, 379 participants were included for analysis.

Results

A correlational analysis was run to investigate the relationship between subjective loss of self measures and outcome variables (see Table 3). Time since discharge was again included, given the significant variability among participants. Time since Discharge was negatively associated with depression and all well-being variables but not subjective loss of self-past or future. Higher subjective loss of self-past and Future were associated with increased mental illness symptoms and decreased well-being.

Table 3.

Correlations between time since discharge and factors in the theoretical model.

  1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
1. Time Since Discharge 1                  
2. Negative Discharge Experience .07 1                
3. Institutional Betrayal −.03 .64** 1              
4. SLS Past −.09 .23** .27** 1            
5. SLS Future .03 −.40** −.36** −.38** 1          
6. Depression −.10* .31** .37** .38** −.59** 1        
7. Anxiety −.06 .25** .32** .32** −.34** .68** 1      
8. Stress −.20** .33** .45** .41** −.45** .73** .73** 1    
9. Mental Health .14** −.36** −.40** −.37** .63** −.79** −.51** −.64** 1  
10. Life Satisfaction .11* −.35** −.38** −.32** .61** −.75** −.48** −.59** .79** 1
11. Friendship .15** −.33** −.41** −.38** .68** −.77** −.534** −.63** .80** .74**
Open in a new tab

Correlation is significant at the <.05* level (2-tailed), and correlation is significant at the < .01** level (2-tailed).

Structural equational modeling was used to test the mediation hypotheses. The final full model is illustrated in Figure 3 , with statistics reported in Table 4. The model fit was assessed using three common indices, indicating an overall excellent fit: χ2 (6) = 3.2, p = .788, χ2/df ratio = .527, CFI = 1, RMSEA = .000, SRMR = .0045.

Figure 3.

Figure 3.

Open in a new tab

Structural equation modeling of the mediation hypotheses.

**Indicates significance at the p < .001 level. *Indicates significance at the p = .005 level.

Table 4.

Standardized regression weights for structural equation modeling, study 2.

      β P
Negative Discharge Experience on IB and SLS
 Negative Discharge Experience ➔ Institutional Betrayal .638 ***
 Negative Discharge Experience ➔ SLS Past .089 .165
 Negative Discharge Experience ➔ SLS Future .293 ***
Institutional Betrayal on SLS
 Institutional Betrayal ➔ SLS Past .218 ***
 Institutional Betrayal ➔ SLS Future .173 .004
SLS Past Outcome Variables
 Subjective loss of past self ➔ Depression .160 ***
 Subjective loss of past self ➔ Anxiety .194 ***
 Subjective loss of past self ➔ Stress .227 ***
 Subjective loss of past self ➔ Mental Health −.115 .006
 Subjective loss of past self ➔ Life Satisfaction −.073 .095
 Subjective loss of past self ➔ Friendship −.138 .001
SLS Future Outcome Variables
 Subjective loss of future self ➔ Depression .471 ***
 Subjective loss of future self ➔ Anxiety .198 ***
 Subjective loss of future self ➔ Stress .257 ***
 Subjective loss of future self ➔ Mental Health −.524 ***
 Subjective loss of future self ➔ Life Satisfaction −.512 ***
 Subjective loss of future self ➔ Friendship −.493 ***
Institutional Betrayal on Outcome Variables
 Institutional Betrayal ➔ Depression .152 ***
 Institutional Betrayal ➔ Anxiety .191 ***
 Institutional Betrayal ➔ Stress .290 ***
 Institutional Betrayal ➔ Mental Health −.178 ***
 Institutional Betrayal ➔ Life Satisfaction −.180 ***
 Institutional Betrayal ➔ Friendship −.198 ***
Open in a new tab

***Correlation is significant at the < .001 level (2-tailed).

Negative discharge experience was significantly positively associated with discharge-related institutional betrayal, showing a large effect and supporting hypothesis 1. Initially, negative discharge experiences predicted greater subjective loss of self-past (with a medium effect) and subjective loss of self-future (with a large effect). However, as predicted in hypotheses 2 and 3, the inclusion of discharge-related institutional betrayal revealed mediation effects. Institutional betrayal fully mediated the relationship between negative discharge experience and subjective loss of self-past, with small-to-medium effects. For future self, institutional betrayal partially mediated the relationship, with the direct effect of negative discharge experience remaining medium-sized (see Figure 4).

Figure 4.

Figure 4.

Open in a new tab

Study 2 complete structural equation modelling.

Solid Lines represent positive relationships; dotted lines represent negative relationships. Gray Lines represent non-significant relationships.

Discharge-related institutional betrayal fully mediated the relationships between negative discharge experience and all mental health and well-being outcomes, supporting hypotheses 4 and 5 (See Appendix). Subjective loss of self-past was significantly positively associated with all mental illness symptoms (with small-to-medium effects), supporting hypothesis 6, and significantly negatively associated with friendship and mental health (small effects) but not life satisfaction, partially supporting hypothesis 7. Subjective loss of self-future demonstrated stronger relationships, being significantly positively associated with all mental illness symptoms (medium-to-large effects for depression, small-to-medium effects for anxiety and stress) and significantly negatively associated with all well-being variables (with large effects), supporting hypotheses 8 and 9, respectively.

Discussion

This study sought to replicate and expand on the results of Study 1 to firstly test the Subjective Loss of Self Scale’s external validity in a different military population and secondly, to test if institutional betrayal would mediate the effects of negative discharge experiences on subjective loss of self and mental health and well-being outcomes. This study’s results are coherent with study 1: subjective loss of self-past had a greater association with mental illness symptoms and subjective loss of self-future again emerged as the stronger and broader predictor.

In terms of how negative discharge experience related to a loss of self, we found that the perception of institutional betrayal mediated the effect of discharge experience on the loss of past and future self, speaking to the potential importance of discharge processes and experiences in setting up military personnel for transition.

Interestingly, while negative discharge experiences and institutional betrayal both significantly affected loss of future self, once we controlled for institutional betrayal in the test of mediation, only institutional betrayal had a significant effect on subjective loss of self-past. Considering that the Australian military necessitates values such as courage, respect, and integrity, expecting that all members will value others, treat them with dignity, and always do the right thing, as necessary for group membership, the interpreted betrayal may represent a distinct violation of these previously shared values. Thus, this betrayal may rupture their attachment to the military, leading to feelings of disconnection with the veteran’s past military self, explaining the full mediation (Freyd & Birrell, 2013). Indeed, institutional betrayal has been associated with increased detachment to the perpetrating institution (Rosenthal et al., 2017). However, in explaining the partial mediation, even though institutional betrayal had a negative impact on shaping a new future identity, other features of a negative (or positive) discharge experience seemingly have their own independent effect (over and above institutional betrayal) on shaping one’s future self. While this research does not speak to what those additional aspects are, this might include things like support to find employment and a new sense of purpose, housing and new social networks outside of the military, or even the provision of mentoring or peer support to navigate the next steps toward one’s future identity (Hundt et al., 2015; Thompson et al., 2017).

Regarding the negative effect of institutional betrayal on mental health and well-being, a large body of studies, identified by a recent scoping review, have found that institutional betrayal is associated with betrayal trauma, rumination, PTSD symptoms, anxiety and depression, though none of these studies were longitudinal or causal (Christl et al., 2024).

General discussion

The current studies validate the suitability of Subjective Loss of Self Theory in investigating military discharge-related identity losses. The Subjective Loss of Self Scale’s internal consistency and results across two veteran samples support its applicability among different veteran populations and align with findings of previous research on life transitions in civilians. These are the first studies to demonstrate that measuring the subjective loss of self (past and future) may effectively gauge the risk of transition difficulty and mental health decline in military populations. These results are preliminary and correlational and, thus, do not allow confirmation of causality and would be strengthened by longitudinal studies. The Subjective Loss of Self Scale could be used in conjunction with existing scales, such as the Readiness for Military Transition Scale (MT-Ready) introduced by Romaniuk et al. (2023). The MT-Ready scale evaluates veteran adjustment domains, including future focus, optimism, anger, perceived failure, civilian connection, and social support, showing predictive validity for depression, anxiety, PTSD symptoms, and psychological adjustment and quality of life post-discharge (Romaniuk et al., 2023). However, the Readiness for Military Transition Scale does not measure identity loss, a crucial component of service and transition (Flack & Kite, 2021; Hart & Lancaster, 2019; Klein & Bastian, 2023; Mobbs & Bonanno, 2018; Romaniuk et al., 2023). Integrating the Subjective Loss of Self Scale could address this gap, providing a more comprehensive assessment of veterans’ transition readiness.

Importantly, the additional lens provided by Subjective Loss of Self Theory offers new means to investigate identity loss and discharge-related factors. In Study 2 this approach showed that the perception of betrayal from the military institution during the discharge process may be a more influential factor than the negative discharge experience itself in creating identity disruptions and mental health vulnerabilities. Future research should explore the nature of how discharge can create a sense of institutional betrayal (and how this may vary by discharge types, for example, medical or involuntary discharge).

Limitations

A key limitation of these studies is their cross-sectional design. While our mediation analyses in Study 2 suggest that institutional betrayal mediates the relationship between negative discharge experiences and both identity loss and mental health outcomes, the cross-sectional nature of our data means we cannot make strong causal inferences about these relationships. Future research using longitudinal designs would be valuable to establish the temporal sequence of these effects and to better understand how/when identity loss and institutional betrayal unfold over time during the discharge and transition processes.

Conclusion

Broadly this research suggests that discharge and transition is not simply a matter of procedures, but one of organizational justice and ultimately identity. Considering the Australian Royal Commission on Defence and Veteran Suicide’s recognition of identity loss as an important factor in transition, Subjective Loss of Self Theory represents an important advance. These studies support the utility of Subjective Loss of Self Theory and measurement in understanding transition and the importance of exploring the impact of military discharge on veterans’ identity, mental health, and well-being.

The findings contribute to the growing body of literature recognizing the significance of identity and transition-related psychological losses in shaping mental health outcomes (Albertson, 2019; Romaniuk & Kidd, 2018; Sachdev & Dixit, 2024; Sadler et al., 2021). Via the Subjective Loss of Self Theory Scale, we have quantitatively demonstrated that military discharge is associated with identity-related losses, characterized by feelings of loss and detachment from their past selves and uncertainty about their future selves and who they will become post-discharge, which is, in turn, associated with poorer mental health and well-being. Further, we found that the quality of the discharge experience may be a crucial factor that can either buffer against or make veterans vulnerable to transition-related identity losses and mental health and well-being challenges.

Appendix A.

Table A1.

Standardized regression weights of the final model.

      Without Mediator
 With IB as Mediator
      β p β p
Institutional Betrayal on Outcome Variables    
 Negative Discharge Experience → Depression −.087 .052 .005 .937
 Negative Discharge Experience → Anxiety −.122 .019 −.014 .809
 Negative Discharge Experience → Stress −.169 *** −.017 .740
 Negative Discharge Experience → Mental Health .126 .003 −.029 .582
 Negative Discharge Experience → Life Satisfaction .132 .003 .044 .397
 Negative Discharge Experience → Friendship .100 .023 .005 .937
Open in a new tab

*** Correlation is significant at the < .001 level (2-tailed). IB = Discharge Related Institutional Betrayal.

Funding Statement

The work was supported by the Hospital Research Foundation.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Data sharing

Data not available due to ethical restrictions.

References

  1. Albertson, K. (2019). Relational legacies impacting on veteran transition from military to civilian life: Trajectories of acquisition, loss, and reformulation of a sense of belonging. Illness, Crisis & Loss, 27(4), 255–273. 10.1177/1054137319834773 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  2. Binks, E., & Cambridge, S. (2017). The transition experiences of British military veterans. Political Psychology, 39(1), 125–142. 10.1111/pops.12399 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  3. Bridges, W. (1986). Managing organizational transitions. Organizational Dynamics, 15(1), 24–33. 10.1016/0090-2616(86)90023-9 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  4. Butler, T. L., McKimmie, B. M., & Haslam, S. A. (2018). The approach-avoidance dilemma at the heart of group-based support: Evidence that group identification increases willingness to seek support at the same time that identity-based support threat reduces it. European Journal of Social Psychology, 49(1), 31–46. 10.1002/ejsp.2384 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  5. Christl, M.-E., Pham, K.-C. T., Rosenthal, A., & DePrince, A. P. (2024). When institutions harm those who depend on them: A scoping review of institutional betrayal. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 25(4), 2797–2813. 10.1177/15248380241226627 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Routledge. [Google Scholar]
  7. Coll, J. E., Weiss, E. L., & Yarvis, J. S. (2011). No one leaves unchanged: Insights for civilian mental health care professionals into the military experience and culture. Social Work in Health Care, 50(7), 487–500. 10.1080/00981389.2010.528727 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Colombo, D., Fernández-Álvarez, J., Suso-Ribera, C., Cipresso, P., García-Palacios, A., Riva, G., & Botella, C. (2020). Biased affective forecasting: A potential mechanism that enhances resilience and well-being. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1333. 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01333 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. DeSilva, S. (2022). Lost in transition: The impact of identity on psychological well-being during periods of significant life change. Flinders University. [Google Scholar]
  10. Edwards, E., Osterberg, T., Coolidge, B., Greene, A. L., Epshteyn, G., Gorman, D., Ruiz, D., & El-Meouchy, P. (2024). Military experiences, connection to military identity, and time since military discharge as predictors of United States veteran suicide risk. Military Psychology, 36(5), 465–478. 10.1080/08995605.2023.2209006 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Edwards, E. R., Smith-Isabell, N., Epshteyn, G., Greene, A. L., Gorman, D., Hubay, D., Losieniecki, R., Appelt, C., Osterberg, T., & Walker, M. (2024). Veteran suicide thoughts and attempts during the transition from military service to civilian life: Qualitative insights. Death Studies, 1–13. 10.1080/07481187.2024.2414283 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Electrical Technician Jobs in the Army, Defence Jobs Australia . (2023). Retrieved March 30, 2023, from https://www.defencejobs.gov.au/jobs/army/electrical-technician
  13. Flack, M., & Kite, L. (2021). Transition from military to civilian: Identity, social connectedness, and veteran wellbeing. PLOS ONE, 16(12), e0261634. 10.1371/journal.pone.0261634 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Freyd, J., & Birrell, P. (2013). Blind to betrayal: Why we fool ourselves we aren’t being fooled. Turner Publishing Company. [Google Scholar]
  15. Grimell, J. (2024). You can take a person out of the military, but you can’t take the military out of the person: Findings from a ten-year identity study on transition from military to civilian life. Frontiers in Sociology, 9, 1406710. 10.3389/fsoc.2024.1406710 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Hart, R., & Lancaster, S. L. (2019). Identity fusion in US military members. Armed Forces & Society, 45(1), 45–58. 10.1177/0095327x17737021 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  17. Haslam, C., Haslam, S. A., Jetten, J., Cruwys, T., & Steffens, N. K. (2021). Life change, social identity, and health. Annual Review of Psychology, 72(1), 635–661. 10.1146/annurev-psych-060120-111721 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Hogg, M. A. (2007). Uncertainty-identity theory. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 69–126. 10.1016/S0065-2601(06)39002-8 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  19. Holliday, R., & Monteith, L. L. (2019). Seeking help for the health sequelae of military sexual trauma: A theory-driven model of the role of institutional betrayal. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 20(3), 340–356. 10.1080/15299732.2019.1571888 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Hundt, N. E., Robinson, A., Arney, J., Stanley, M. A., & Cully, J. A. (2015). Veterans’ perspectives on benefits and drawbacks of peer support for posttraumatic stress disorder. Military Medicine, 180(8), 851–856. 10.7205/MILMED-D-14-00536 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Iyer, A., Jetten, J., Tsivrikos, D., Postmes, T., & Haslam, S. A. (2009). The more (and the more compatible) the merrier: Multiple group memberships and identity compatibility as predictors of adjustment after life transitions. British Journal of Social Psychology, 48(4), 707–733. 10.1348/014466608X397628 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Joseph, J. S., Smith-Macdonald, L., Filice, M. C., & Smith, M. S. (2023). Reculturation: A new perspective on military-civilian transition stress. Military Psychology, 35(3), 193–203. 10.1080/08995605.2022.2094175 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Keyes, C. L. (2005). Mental illness and/or mental health? Investigating axioms of the complete state model of health. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 73(3), 539–548. 10.1037/0022-006X.73.3.539 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Klein, J. W., & Bastian, B. (2023). The fusion-secure base hypothesis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 27(2), 107–127. 10.1177/10888683221100883 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Lancaster, S. L., Kintzle, S., & Castro, C. A. (2018). Validation of the warrior identity scale in the Chicagoland veterans study. Identity, 18(1), 34–43. 10.1080/15283488.2017.1410157 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  26. Lane, J., & Wallace, D. (2020). Australian military and veteran’s mental health care part 1: An introduction to cultural essentials for clinicians. Australasian Psychiatry, 28(3), 267–269. 10.1177/1039856220901470 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Lunasco, T. K., Goodwin, E. A., Ozanian, A. J., & Loflin, E. M. (2010). One shot-one kill: A culturally sensitive program for the warrior culture. Military Medicine, 175(7), 509–513. 10.7205/milmed-d-09-00182 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Markowitz, F. E., Kintzle, S., & Castro, C. A. (2023). Military-to-civilian transition strains and risky behavior among post-9/11 veterans. Military Psychology, 35(1), 38–49. 10.1080/08995605.2022.2065177 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. McCormack, L., & Riley, L. (2016). Medical discharge from the “family,” moral injury, and a diagnosis of PTSD: Is psychological growth possible in the aftermath of policing trauma? Traumatology, 22(1), 19. 10.1037/trm0000059 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  30. Mitchell, L. L., Frazier, P. A., & Sayer, N. A. (2020). Identity disruption and its association with mental health among veterans with reintegration difficulty. Developmental Psychology, 56(11), 2152. 10.1037/dev0001106 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Mobbs, M. C., & Bonanno, G. A. (2018). Beyond war and PTSD: The crucial role of transition stress in the lives of military veterans. Clinical Psychology Review, 59, 137–144. 10.1016/j.cpr.2017.11.007 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Monteith, L. L., Bahraini, N. H., Matarazzo, B. B., Soberay, K. A., & Smith, C. P. (2016). Perceptions of institutional betrayal predict suicidal self-directed violence among veterans exposed to military sexual trauma. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 72(7), 743–755. 10.1002/jclp.22292 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Romaniuk, M., Fisher, G., Sunderland, M., & Batterham, P. J. (2023). Development and psychometric evaluation of the mental readiness for military transition scale (MT-Ready). BMC Psychiatry, 23(1), 575. 10.1186/s12888-023-05032-z [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Romaniuk, M., & Kidd, C. (2018). The psychological adjustment experience of reintegration following discharge from military service: A systemic review. Journal of Military and Veterans Health, 26(2), 60–73. [Google Scholar]
  35. Rosenthal, M., Smith, C. P., & Freyd, J. J. (2017). Behind closed doors: University employees as stakeholders in campus sexual violence. Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, 9(4), 290–304. 10.1108/JACPR-02-2017-0272 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  36. Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide . (2024). C.o. Australia. https://www.defencejobs.gov.au/jobs/army/electrical-technician/ [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Sachdev, S., & Dixit, S. (2024). Military to civilian cultural transition experiences of retired military personnel: A systematic meta-synthesis. Military Psychology, 36(6), 579–592. 10.1080/08995605.2023.2237835 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Sadler, N., Van Hooff, M., Bryant, R. A., Lawrence-Wood, E., Baur, J., & McFarlane, A. (2021). Suicide and suicidality in contemporary serving and ex-serving Australian defence force personnel. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 55(5), 463–475. 10.1177/0004867421998751 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Smith, C. P. (2016). First, do no harm: Institutional betrayal in healthcare. University of Oregon. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Smith, C. P., & Freyd, J. J. (2014). Institutional betrayal. The American Psychologist, 69(6), 575–587. 10.1037/a0037564 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Steffens, N. K., Cruwys, T., Haslam, C., Jetten, J., & Haslam, S. A. (2016). Social group memberships in retirement are associated with reduced risk of premature death: Evidence from a longitudinal cohort study. BMJ Open, 6(2), e010164. 10.1136/bmjopen-2015-010164 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Szakolczai, A. (2017). Permanent (trickster) liminality: The reasons of the heart and of the mind. Theory & Psychology, 27(2), 231–248. 10.1177/0959354317694095 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  43. Tajfel, H., Turner, J. C., Austin, W. G., & Worchel, S. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. Organizational Identity: A Reader, 56(65), 9780203505984–9780203505916. [Google Scholar]
  44. Thomassen, B. (2009). The uses and meaning of liminality. International Political Anthropology, 2(1), 5–28. [Google Scholar]
  45. Thompson, J. M., Lockhart, W., Roach, M. B., Atuel, H., Bélanger, S., Black, T., Castro, C. A., Cooper, A., Cox, D. W., & de Boer, C. (2017). Veterans’ identities and well-being in transition to civilian life-a resource for policy analysts, program designers, service providers and researchers: Report of the veterans’ identities research theme working group. Veterans Affairs Canada Charlottetown (PE). [Google Scholar]
  46. Turner, J. C. (1985). Social categorization and the self-concept: A social cognitive theory of group behavior.
  47. Wenzel, M., & Woodyatt, L. (2024). The power and pitfalls of social norms. Annual Review of Psychology. 10.1146/annurev-psych-020124-120310 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Military Psychology are provided here courtesy of Division of Military Psychology of the American Psychological Association and Taylor & Francis

RESOURCES