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Chinese Journal of Reparative and Reconstructive Surgery logoLink to Chinese Journal of Reparative and Reconstructive Surgery
. 2026 Feb;40(2):315–320. [Article in Chinese] doi: 10.7507/1002-1892.202508009

膝关节骨关节炎疼痛原因研究进展

Research progress on the causes of pain in knee osteoarthritis

Ning WEI 1, Zhanle ZHENG 1,*
PMCID: PMC12948517  PMID: 41730743

Abstract

Objective

To review the research progress related to pain in knee osteoarthritis (KOA).

Methods

A systematic review of relevant research literature at home and abroad in recent years was conducted to analyze the roles played by multi-dimensional factors such as demographics, imaging, serology, bone metabolism, biomechanics, neurological factors, and macrophages in the occurrence and development of KOA pain. The mechanisms of pain induction were expounded and the research directions were prospectively proposed.

Results

The occurrence of KOA pain is a complex process interwoven with multiple factors. Demographic factors such as gender, age, and body weight are closely related to its occurrence and pain degree. Structural changes shown by imaging examinations (such as MRI, ultrasound, and X-ray films) can be used to assess the level of pain. A variety of inflammatory factors released by intra-articular inflammation directly participate in the initiation of pain. Bone metabolic factors can also induce pain by influencing changes in bone density. Biomechanical factors are involved in the pain process by altering the concentrated distribution of joint stress. The various mediators released by the local inflammatory response of the joint trigger hyperalgesia and peripheral nerve sensitization through damage receptors, promoting the conduction and amplification of pain signals. The bidirectional interaction between nerves and joints further intensifies the pain. In addition, the expression of certain ion channels, the mediation and release of pain signals by macrophages and osteoclasts, provide a theoretical direction for in-depth exploration of the microscopic mechanism of KOA pain.

Conclusion

Future research needs to integrate multiple regulatory mechanisms such as biomechanics, inflammation and neural regulation, systematically explore key intervention targets, in order to deepen the understanding of the pain mechanism of KOA and promote the formation of more comprehensive and precise pain diagnosis and treatment plans.

Keywords: Knee osteoarthritis, pain, cause of illness, inflammation, neural regulation, biomechanics


膝关节疼痛是骨科临床常见症状之一,在膝关节骨关节炎(knee osteoarthritis,KOA)患者中最为突出,严重影响患者生活质量[1]。KOA是一种关节软骨逐渐退化与功能丧失的退行性关节疾病,疼痛机制复杂,涉及生物力学、炎症反应、神经调节、代谢异常等多方面交互作用[2-3]。近年来,随着分子生物学和神经科学的发展,对KOA疼痛机制的认识已从传统的机械压迫和炎症刺激扩展到神经-免疫-代谢等多种因素综合网络的系统调控[4]。本文将围绕人口统计学、影像学、血清学、骨代谢、生物力学、神经因素及巨噬细胞在KOA疼痛发生发展中的作用机制进行系统阐述,并整合最新研究进展,特别是“肠-关节轴”、神经可塑性及离子通道调控等新兴领域的发现,旨在为KOA疼痛机制研究提供参考。

1. 人口统计学因素

人口统计学特征是KOA疼痛风险评估的基础,多项流行病学研究证实年龄、性别、体质量等因素与KOA疼痛发病率和严重程度显著相关[5]。

年龄是KOA最显著的风险因素之一[6]。随着年龄增长,由于长期暴露于多种风险因素以及关节结构功能逐渐退变,KOA疼痛发病率也随之升高[7]。与男性相比,女性更易患KOA且临床症状更严重[8]。围绝经期女性雌激素水平波动性下降,在此期间KOA发生率较高[9]。Zhao等[10]研究发现雌激素可通过调控细胞衰老与凋亡相关信号通路及蛋白表达水平,抑制TNF-α、IL-1β等炎症因子释放,进而缓解炎症反应所引发的疼痛。此外,相较于正常体质量人群,肥胖人群出现特发性膝关节疼痛及相关功能障碍可能性更高[11]。因为过多的脂肪组织会压迫承重关节,并在组织和关节内产生炎症环境[12]。目前,有研究显示低度全身炎症是肥胖的标志,表现为IL-1β、IL-6、TNF-α和C反应蛋白等炎症因子升高,可能与KOA发生和疼痛进展有关[13-16]。除此之外,脂肪组织分泌的多种生物活性物质(如脂联素、瘦素等)在炎症调控中也发挥重要作用[17]。近期研究显示,病理性升高的瘦素水平可能通过激活特定的细胞信号通路,触发软骨细胞外基质异常分解代谢,从而加速关节软骨退变进程[15-17]。

2. 影像学因素

影像检查是评估膝关节结构改变与疼痛关系的重要手段,如MRI、超声和X线片等,从不同角度揭示KOA与疼痛的关系[18]。其中,MRI已广泛用于KOA疼痛机制的影像学研究。Hill等[19]通过对比多组数据发现,存在临床症状的KOA患者与无症状患者及健康人群相比,关节腔内异常液体积聚的MRI信号强度与疼痛程度成显著正相关。进一步研究发现,KOA疼痛患者髌上囊区域异常液体积聚检出率显著升高(P<0.05),该影像学特征与疼痛发生存在显著相关性,提示髌上积液可能作为预测KOA疼痛进展的重要标志[20]。此外,超声成像技术可有效识别膝关节多种软组织异常,如滑膜增生、关节积液、腘窝囊肿等,为评估关节病理改变提供更多信息[21]。该技术具备无创性、操作便捷优点及临床推广价值,对关节内病变(如半月板损伤)及周围软组织异常的检出灵敏度显著优于常规体格检查[19]。值得注意的是,X线片作为基础筛查手段,KOA典型征象为关节间隙狭窄。组织学研究表明,软骨变薄与软骨细胞凋亡、软骨下骨硬化、软骨下囊肿形成及骨赘增生等退行性改变密切相关[12]。Zhao等[21]基于X线片与MRI的半定量评分系统发现,软骨体积损失和滑膜炎症分级是预测KOA患者疼痛程度的重要影像学指标。

3. 关节内炎症反应——血清学因素

血清学标志物通过反映关节内炎症程度、软骨代谢以及全身代谢情况,为KOA疼痛机制研究提供重要依据。传统炎症因子如前列腺素E2(prostaglandin E2,PGE2)、IL-6、TNF-α等通过激活伤害感受器直接参与疼痛信号传导[22],而近年来“肠-关节轴”的发现拓展了血清学因素研究范畴[23-24]。

对于KOA疼痛患者,传统炎症因子对疼痛发生发挥重要作用。例如,PGE2和缓激肽可直接作用于伤害感受器,使其对机械和热刺激更敏感,从而降低疼痛阈值[25]。Arendt-Nielsen等[26]研究发现疼痛生物标志物压力-疼痛阈值、疼痛总时间与患者观察24 h内最大疼痛强度显著相关。Stannus等[22]报道血清中超敏C反应蛋白、TNF-α及IL-6浓度波动与5年内膝关节疼痛程度变化相关。

最新研究发现,肠道菌群失调引起的胆汁酸代谢紊乱也与KOA的发生发展相关[27]。例如,血液中甘氨熊去氧胆酸作为一种具有抗炎作用的次级胆汁酸,与KOA发生及其严重程度成显著负相关,提示胆汁酸代谢异常可能通过“肠-关节轴”影响关节炎症和疼痛程度[28]。此外,肠道菌群代谢产生的短链脂肪酸(如丁酸盐)可通过GPR43受体调节巨噬细胞极化,影响关节炎症状态[29]。这一发现提示通过调节肠道菌群和胆汁酸代谢可能成为KOA疼痛治疗的新靶点。

4. 骨代谢因素

骨代谢失衡在KOA疼痛中扮演重要角色,涉及骨密度变化等多方面。骨密度异常可表现为软骨下骨硬化和骨质疏松,软骨下骨硬化区域的骨矿物质密度升高可导致应力传导异常,继发炎症反应引发疼痛[30]。有研究在KOA患者受损软骨细胞内检测到高浓度脂联素,该因子在KOA疼痛发展进程中同时发挥分解代谢与合成代谢的作用[31]。脂联素一方面上调金属蛋白酶组织抑制剂2的表达,抑制基质金属蛋白酶13(matrix metallopeptidase 13,MMP-13)的活性,发挥软骨保护作用;另一方面则促进IL-6、MMP-3、MMP-9等炎症介质的分泌,提升一氧化氮水平,导致细胞凋亡和细胞外基质的降解[32-33]。

5. 生物力学因素

生物力学异常是KOA疼痛加重的重要因素,可通过改变关节负荷分布、软骨应力改变影响疼痛信号产生[30,34-35]。关节负荷异常主要表现为下肢力线不良和关节不稳,力线异常(如内翻或外翻)会导致关节软骨磨损、半月板损伤、韧带张力失衡等问题[34,36]。KOA患者如膝内翻畸形,可导致内侧间室负荷增加至总负荷的 60%~80%[36]。此外,Chang等[37]研究发现KOA处于进展阶段的患者,其脚趾外展程度小于未进展患者。Martínez-Moreno等[38]发现KOA软骨弹性模量降低导致应力分布不均,局部应力集中会诱发软骨损伤和疼痛;同时软骨基质中蛋白多糖丢失可增加组织渗透性,使炎症介质更易到达软骨下骨,激活伤害感受器。

6. 神经因素

神经因素在KOA疼痛过程中起关键作用,涉及伤害感受器敏化、神经可塑性改变和神经-关节交互调控等复杂机制。近年研究揭示了背根神经节(dorsal root ganglia,DRG)和钠离子通道在疼痛信号传导中的重要调控作用。

6.1. 伤害感受器敏化机制

关节内伤害感受器敏化是疼痛阈值降低和痛觉过敏的基础。炎症介质与伤害感受器上的特异性受体结合,通过细胞内信号通路改变离子通道特性,是敏化过程的核心环节[39]。NGF-TrkA信号通路是研究最深入的敏化机制。NGF由滑膜细胞、软骨细胞和巨噬细胞分泌,与伤害感受器上Trk1转化酪氨酸激酶蛋白受体结合后,通过PI3K/Akt和MAPK通路上调电压门控钠离子通道1.7(voltage-gated Na+ channels 1.7,Nav1.7)、Nav1.8等表达,降低动作电位产生阈值[40-41]。高阈值机械敏感离子通道在疼痛期间会被致敏,响应施加在其末端的有害机械刺激,从而使其转化为电信号[42]。

6.2. 神经敏化与神经可塑性变化

KOA患者常出现关节内感觉神经末梢的敏化和解剖学上的神经可塑性变化。KOA早期关节软骨和滑膜的炎症刺激可导致感觉神经末梢对机械和化学刺激的敏感性增加,即神经敏化[43-44]。这一过程涉及多种机制:炎症介质如PGE2、缓激肽和NGF等,可与伤害感受器上的相应受体结合,导致离子通道特性改变,使伤害感受器更易被激活[25]。例如,PGE2通过激活感觉神经末梢的EP1受体,使钠离子通道Nav1.7等的活性增强,导致动作电位阈值降低,痛觉信号更容易产生[25,41]。此外,炎症还可导致NGF水平上调,后者促进感觉神经末梢的出芽和分支增加,从而扩大了神经末梢的感受区域,使得微小刺激也能引发强烈疼痛反应[45]。

随着疾病进展,关节内感觉神经末梢在解剖结构上也发生了显著的可塑性变化,表现为关节内神经纤维异常增生和分布改变。有研究在动物模型中发现,Piezo2通道及NGF-TrkA信号通路在KOA机械致敏过程中发挥重要作用,即NGF逆行运输至DRG;它能促进辣椒素敏感伤害感受器(transient receptor potential vanilloid 1,TRPV1)释放神经肽,进而引起水肿性改变;通过向Piezo2小鼠膝关节注射弗氏完全佐剂能减少膝关节痛觉过敏[41,43]。有研究表明KOA患者的关节内感觉神经纤维数量增加,分布范围扩大,甚至出现神经纤维侵入软骨和软骨下骨等正常无神经区域的现象[46]。这种神经侵入和增生被认为是神经可塑性表现之一,可导致关节对机械刺激的过度敏感和痛觉过敏[45,47-48]。相关动物模型研究进一步支持了这一观点,在大鼠KOA模型中可见感觉神经纤维在关节内异常增生和分布改变,与关节疼痛加重相关[46]。

总之,关节内伤害感受器的敏化和解剖学上的神经可塑性变化共同作用,使得KOA患者对疼痛更敏感,疼痛阈值降低,从而加剧了疼痛发生和持续。

6.3. 神经-关节相互作用与DRG变化

在KOA患者中,不仅关节内神经会发生变化,周围神经系统也参与了疼痛信号的调节[44]。感觉神经元的细胞体位于DRG,DRG在KOA疼痛机制中扮演了重要角色。一方面,关节内的炎症和机械刺激可通过传入神经将信号传导至DRG神经元,引起神经元兴奋性增加和分子变化;另一方面,DRG神经元也可通过释放神经肽和细胞因子等,反过来影响关节组织的状态,形成“神经-关节相互作用”环路[49]。

研究表明,KOA状态下DRG内神经元发生了显著变化,例如神经元膜电位特性改变,动作电位产生和传导增强,导致感觉信号放大。此外,DRG神经元中多种离子通道(如Nav1.8、Nav1.9等)和受体(如TRPV1等)的表达和功能也发生改变,使神经元对伤害性刺激更加敏感[41,43]。这些变化可导致DRG神经元的自发性放电增加,即使在没有外界刺激情况下也产生异常痛觉信号,从而导致慢性疼痛的发生。

同时,DRG神经元与关节组织之间的相互作用也值得关注。感觉神经末梢释放的神经肽(如P物质、降钙素基因相关肽等)和神经营养因子(如NGF)可作用于滑膜成纤维细胞、免疫细胞和成骨细胞/破骨细胞等,调节这些细胞的功能和炎症反应[49-50]。另一方面,滑膜细胞产生的炎症介质又可以反过来作用于DRG神经元,进一步增强其兴奋性[50-51]。

6.4. 特殊感觉神经元及离子通道

外周感觉神经元表达的Nav是动作电位产生和传导的分子基础,其中Nav1.7、Nav1.8和Nav1.9在膝关节疼痛中研究最为深入[52]。基因研究显示,Nav1.7功能获得性突变可导致遗传性红斑肢痛症,表现为剧烈的痛觉过敏;而功能缺失性突变则导致先天性无痛症[53]。在KOA患者中,DRG神经元的Nav1.7表达上调,且滑膜Nav1.7水平与疼痛程度成正相关[54]。值得注意的是,软骨细胞也表达功能性Nav1.7,其激活可促进MMP-13分泌和Ⅱ型胶原降解,直接参与软骨损伤过程[55-56]。Nav1.8和Nav1.9主要参与动作电位的传导和维持。Nav1.8在DRG神经元中特异性表达,其阻断可显著减少KOA模型的疼痛程度及频率[57]。Nav1.9作为持续钠电流的主要贡献者,可降低神经元激活阈值,在炎症状态下其表达上调与痛觉过敏密切相关[52]。

综上述,相关的通道调节剂具有广阔临床应用前景,例如Prim-O-葡萄糖酰咪金可以介导lncRNA XIST调控Nav1.7,延缓软骨退化,有望作为一种有效的治疗骨关节炎方式[55]。McCollum等[58]通过小鼠骨关节炎疼痛模型评估发现了他莫昔芬类似物N-去甲基他莫昔芬具有持久疗效,为相关药物的研发提供了思路。

7. 巨噬细胞

巨噬细胞作为关节内主要免疫细胞,通过极化表型转换、炎症因子分泌和吞噬功能参与膝关节疼痛的调控,其功能失衡是炎症持续和疼痛加剧的重要原因。

巨噬细胞极化分为经典激活的M1型和替代激活的M2型,两者在疼痛中的作用截然相反[59]。M1型巨噬细胞分泌IL-1β、TNF-α和诱导型一氧化氮合酶,促进炎症和神经敏化;M2型则分泌IL-10、TGF-β和精氨酸酶-1,具有抗炎和组织修复作用[60-61]。动物实验显示,选择性清除M1型巨噬细胞可降低NGF水平,显著改善疼痛行为[62]。Park等[63]研究发现骨关节炎与破骨细胞相关受体水平升高相关,Aso等[64]研究同样发现骨软骨通道中NGF表达和破骨细胞密度增加是与KOA疼痛相关的关键特征。

此外,软骨下骨中的巨噬细胞和破骨细胞通过解偶联的破骨细胞/成骨细胞活性和增加伤害感受信号,参与骨重塑和疼痛。组织学分析显示晚期KOA大鼠模型的膝关节骨髓损伤严重、滑膜炎和软骨损伤,巨噬细胞增加,IF-1β、NGF及一氧化氮合酶1、2高表达,促使膝关节慢性疼痛的产生[65-66]。

8. 结论

KOA疼痛是一个多因素、多层面复杂过程,涉及多种机制。生物力学因素通过改变关节的应力分布和神经敏感性,直接参与疼痛的产生;关节内炎症反应释放多种介质,直接或间接引起痛觉过敏和神经敏化;周围神经在KOA中发生了显著的可塑性变化,使得疼痛信号的传导和放大增强;神经-关节的双向相互作用进一步加剧了疼痛的发生频率和程度;而特殊感觉神经元及其离子通道(如Nav1.7)则在分子层面揭示了疼痛机制。近年来的研究还发现了“肠-关节轴”等新的机制,为深入理解KOA疼痛复杂性提供了新视角。未来研究需要综合考虑上述多种因素,寻找有效的疼痛干预靶点,以开发更全面的KOA疼痛治疗策略。

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作者贡献声明 魏宁:文献检索及总结、文章撰写;郑占乐:综述构思及观点形成、文章审阅

Funding Statement

河北省自然科学基金资助项目(H2025206536);河北省医学科学研究项目(20260404)

Hebei Natural Science Foundation (H2025206536); Medical Science Research Project of Hebei Province (20260404)

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Articles from Chinese Journal of Reparative and Reconstructive Surgery are provided here courtesy of Sichuan University

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