The Current Landscape and Future Prospects of Vaccine Manufacturing in Africa: Challenges, Innovations, and Opportunities: A Narrative Review

ABSTRACT

Background and Aims

Africa has significant challenges in meeting its vaccination needs, including inadequate manufacturing capacity, infrastructure deficiencies, a scarcity of experienced personnel, regulatory hurdles, restricted access to technology and intellectual property. This review evaluates African vaccine manufacturing capacity, region‐specific limitations, and highlights significant innovations and policy alternatives to promote vaccine autonomy and equitable public health results.

Methods

A comprehensive narrative evaluation of the literature was done. We obtained prior papers from WHO publications, CDC publications, Google Scholar, Elsevier, PubMed, and EBSCOhost. The assessment examines the current status and future prospects of vaccine manufacturing in Africa, emphasizing obstacles, innovations, and possibilities.

Results

Africa's vaccine manufacturing capacity is constrained by limited production infrastructure, a shortage of skilled personnel, and inadequate technical resources. These challenges are compounded by financial constraints, heavy reliance on donor support, and restricted access to technology transfer. In remote regions, regulatory fragmentation and weak cold chain infrastructure further hinder vaccine distribution. Promising innovations such as mRNA platforms, heat‐stable formulations, and microarray patches offer potential breakthroughs, but progress in scaling up manufacturing remains slow despite international partnerships and funding support. To achieve vaccine self‐sufficiency, Africa must strengthen its research ecosystem, build a skilled workforce, and expand domestic manufacturing capabilities.

Conclusion

Africa's vaccine manufacturing capacity is at an important phase, requiring coordinated efforts to overcome long‐standing barriers. Investment in local vaccine facilities, skilled personnel development, and strong regulatory framework are essential. Strengthening international partnerships while fostering local innovations will lead to self‐reliance. Emphasis on One Health approaches can enhance disease surveillance and control. Adequate funding and political will are indispensable for sustained progress.

Abbreviations

ADB

African Development Bank

AI

artificial intelligence

BCG

Bacillus Calmette‐Guerin

BMGF

Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation

CDC

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

CEPI

Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations

COVID‐19

Coronavirus Disease 2019

CoV‐2

Coronavirus 2

DT

diphtheria and tetanus

DTP

diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis

EDA

Egyptian Drug Authority

EDCTP

European Developing Countries Clinical Trials Partnership

EVD

ebola virus disease

FIC

Fogarty International Center

GAVI

Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization

Hib

hemophilus influenzae type b

HIV

human immunodeficiency virus

HPV

human papillomavirus

IA2030

Immunization Agenda 2030

IPD

Institut Pasteur de Dakar

IPV

inactivated polio vaccine

LMICs

low‐ and middle‐income countries

ML3

maturity level 3

MMR

measles, mumps, and rubella

mRNA

messenger RNA

NAFDAC

National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control

NEPAD

New Partnership for Africa's Development

OCV

oral cholera vaccine

OPV

oral polio vaccine

PATH

Program for Appropriate Technology in Health

PAVM

Partnerships for African Vaccine Manufacturing

PVSD

passive vaccine storage device

R&D

research and development

SARS‐

severe acute respiratory syndrome

SDGs

sustainable development goals

UHC

Universal Health Coverage

UNICEF

United Nations Children's Fund

VaxSen

vaccine manufacturing facility in Senegal

VIPS

vaccine innovation prioritization strategy

WHO

World Health Organization

1. Introduction

Vaccination is a prophylactic intervention that safeguards the populace against certain infectious diseases and diminishes their transmissibility. The procedure entails the administration of antigenic substances derived from a pathogen into the organism, thereby eliciting immunological responses, including the production of antibodies, memory cells, and other components, without inducing the illness itself [1, 2]. Mass vaccination initiatives have effectively managed several infectious illnesses, including smallpox, polio, and measles [3], yet Africa continues to bear a disproportionate burden of vaccine‐preventable diseases due to systemic, infrastructural, and economic challenges.

Rather than focusing on the general advantages of vaccination, this review critically examines the vaccine manufacturing landscape in Africa, emphasizing region‐specific barriers, ongoing innovations, and strategic opportunities to foster self‐reliance and resilience in immunization efforts.

For clarity, this paper defines vaccine development as the entire process from early‐stage research and clinical trials through regulatory approval and manufacturing. However, the central focus of this review is on Africa's vaccine manufacturing capacity ‐ specifically the infrastructure, partnerships, funding, and policy frameworks related to industrial‐scale production. The term vaccine manufacturing is therefore used consistently throughout to reflect this emphasis.

In contrast to global success stories, diseases such as Ebola, malaria, tetanus, yellow fever, meningococcal meningitis, and pertussis remain endemic in many African nations, reflecting persistent gaps in vaccine access and coverage. The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that annually, at least 30 million children in Africa under the age of five contract vaccine preventable infections. More than half a million of those youngsters perish from these conditions due to inadequate access to immunization services across the continent [4, 5].

Africa has considerable obstacles to fulfilling its immunization requirements, such as limited manufacturing capacity, infrastructural gaps, shortage of skilled workforce, regulatory challenges, limited access to technology and intellectual property, and funding and investment. Notwithstanding the insights gained during the COVID‐19 pandemic, the local manufacture of vaccines continues to pose a significant challenge in several African nations. This has led to the importation of the bulk of the vaccinations used in Africa. Africa constitutes just 3% of global pharmaceutical manufacturing, with imports comprising between 70% and 90% of medicines utilized on the continent, depending on the region. Africa's existing dependence on imported vaccinations has several drawbacks, including delays and interruptions in the supply chain. Additional factors include the elevated expenses of imports and the incapacity to protect the public during illness outbreaks [6]. The domestic manufacturing of vaccines may thereby fortify the response to public health crises and improve national healthcare provision. The significance of vaccination research in improving manufacturing capacity cannot be overstated. Research and development (R&D) are essential at every stage of vaccine manufacture [7]. The manufacturing of vaccines in Africa is markedly insufficient. While possessing the greatest death rate from infectious illnesses, Africa contributes less than one percent (about 12 million doses) to the global vaccination supply [7].

This review explores the current state of vaccine manufacturing in Africa, analyzes region‐specific challenges, and highlights key innovations and policy opportunities to accelerate progress toward vaccine independence and equitable public health outcomes across the continent.

2. Methods

This study utilized a thorough narrative literature analysis to examine the current status, challenges, innovations, and future possibilities of vaccine manufacturing in Africa. The review aimed to consolidate evidence from peer‐reviewed academic articles and credible institutional reports. A diverse array of sources was analyzed, including scholarly publications, government documents, and gray literature, to furnish a comprehensive picture of the vaccination ecology on the African continent.

The literature review was performed across multiple prominent databases and platforms, including PubMed, Google Scholar, Elsevier, EBSCOhost, and the institutional repositories of the World Health Organisation (WHO), the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization (GAVI), and the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI). Search terms encompassed combinations of keywords including “vaccine development in Africa,” “African vaccine manufacturing,” “mRNA technology in Africa,” “vaccine infrastructure,” “cold chain logistics,” “GAVI support,” and “Partnerships for African Vaccine Manufacturing.” Boolean operators were employed as necessary to augment the search breadth and accuracy.

The literature selection period extended from 2010 to 2024, prioritizing works published from 2020 onwards to capture advancements shaped by the COVID‐19 pandemic and shifting public health objectives. Only sources published in English were deemed eligible for inclusion. The inclusion criteria emphasized research and publications focusing on vaccine development, manufacturing capacity, regulatory frameworks, funding mechanisms, public health infrastructure, or innovation within the African environment. Articles devoid of empirical evidence, preprints missing institutional endorsement, and opinion articles without corroborating data were excluded from the review.

To maintain consistency and rigor, two independent reviewers evaluated the literature for relevance and methodological quality. Discrepancies in viewpoints were reconciled through consensus. Data pertinent to each source encompassed publication year, geographic emphasis, thematic substance, and principal conclusions.

Table 1 was created to improve transparency and enable replication by showcasing the most significant and pertinent papers included in the review. This table delineates essential information including author(s), year of publication, source, and significant discoveries or findings pertinent to vaccine development in Africa.

Table 1.

Summary of reviewed literature.

S/N	Author(s)/Organization	Year	Title/Report	Source	Key contributions
1	Makenga et al.	2019	Vaccine Production in Africa: A Feasible Business Model	Frontiers in Public Health	Identified gaps in manufacturing capacity and proposed sustainable business models for local vaccine production.
2	WHO	2020	Vaccine‐Preventable Diseases: Monitoring System Global Summary	WHO	Provided immunization profiles and cold chain infrastructure assessments for African nations.
3	CEPI & Gates Foundation	2022	Technology Transfer to Aspen Pharmacare	CEPI press release	Enabled local vaccine production in South Africa by transferring mRNA vaccine technology.
4	Africa CDC	2022	Consortium for COVID‐19 Vaccine Trials (CONCVACT)	AU/Africa CDC	Promoted cross‐border vaccine clinical trials and capacity‐building.
5	Chiamaka PO	2024	Innovative Health Financing in Africa	Health Policy & Planning	Analyzed Africa's donor dependency in vaccine financing and proposed self‐financing pathways.
6	UNICEF/WHO	2018	Business Case for Immunization Activities in Africa	UNICEF/WHO	Outlined investment needs and returns in vaccine infrastructure and routine immunization.
7	Ndebele et al.	2014	Research Ethics Capacity in Sub‐Saharan Africa	J Empir Res Hum Res Ethics	Assessed training investments and gaps in health research ethics relevant to vaccine development.
8	Osei et al.	2024	Vaccine Pricing & Production Capacity in Africa	Global Health Journal	Explored pooled procurement limits and argued for stronger local production to reduce price dependency.

2.1. Challenges in Vaccine Manufacturing in Africa

Healthcare delivery in Africa is difficult, particularly with immunizations and supplies. Local vaccine production capability is a key impediment to universal access, especially given the SARS‐CoV‐2 pandemic. Lack of cholera immunizations worsens the epidemic in Southern Africa, particularly Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi, and Mozambique [8, 9]. The WHO reports that yellow fever outbreaks have spread from West Africa to Central Africa in 2024 [10]. In its March 2024 Weekly Event‐Based Surveillance Report, the Africa CDC recorded 5,427 dengue fever cases in Ethiopia, Mali, and Mauritius. These illnesses worsen Ebola virus disease (EVD), Lassa fever, TB, and malaria, which burden the continent's healthcare systems [11, 12].

Africa relied on donor‐driven finance for vaccine acquisition before the COVID‐19 pandemic [13]. GAVI finance has helped Africa's vaccine budget shortage by providing 65% of GAVI's total payment to 40 of 57 eligible nations. GAVI has improved access to key vaccines, but recipient countries are slowly transitioning to self‐financing, which has led to complacency [14, 15]. Sub‐Saharan Africa lacks cold chain storage facilities, hindering vaccine production and distribution. According to a WHO research [16], poor cold chain storage and transportation infrastructure hinders immunization delivery to remote places where they are needed.

Without real‐time data‐efficient supply chain management, Africa struggles with vaccine manufacturing and distribution [17], legal and legislative barriers, and vaccination approval and quality control [18]. Market access and demand realization are major obstacles to vaccine manufacture. Most African vaccine producers have strong relationships to local governments and markets, but they struggle to penetrate regional and worldwide markets for success. Access to vaccine technology and IP is a major obstacle to vaccine manufacture in Africa. African vaccine makers cannot copy technology without specific license agreements since most vaccine manufacturing procedures are patented or trade secrets. This has led to dependence on high‐income country technology holders, who may be unwilling to disclose private information owing to financial interests.

African vaccine hesitancy is another obstacle to vaccine development owing to a lack of information that vaccinations are the most effective public health therapies and have considerably reduced infectious disease burden, morbidity, and mortality. Although immunization is important for public health, historical, structural, and other systemic factors make people hesitant to be vaccinated [19]. Africa struggles to become self‐sufficient in vaccine manufacturing due to vaccine development challenges. Figure 1 illustrates these key barriers and highlights the multifaceted nature of the problem, these challenges include limited manufacturing capacity, inadequate infrastructure, lack of skilled workforce, political and policy instability, technology transfer barriers, regulatory hurdles, financial constraints, donor dependency, and issues related to cold chain storage.

Figure 1.

Challenges in vaccine manufacturing in Africa.

2.2. Innovations Transforming Vaccine Manufacturing in Africa

Notwithstanding substantial advancements in immunization coverage during the last decade, including the development and distribution of efficacious new vaccinations, considerable disparities in coverage persist [20]. In 2018, the Vaccine Innovation Prioritization Strategy (VIPS), which included the Gavi Secretariat, World Health Organization (WHO), Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF), United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), and PATH, was initiated to identify priority vaccine‐product innovations that effectively address country needs and possess the highest potential to surmount immunization barriers [21, 22], thereby enhancing vaccine coverage and equity [23]. Microarray patches (MAPs), heat‐stable and controlled‐temperature chain (CTC) liquid vaccine formulations, and bar codes on primary packaging are the three highest priority advances. Although, the VIPS approach and collaboration have produced a clear agenda for prioritizing vaccine‐product innovations, this project will not be sufficient to ensure their development for use in settings with limited resources. The objective of VIPS is to accelerate the development and subsequent adoption of three prioritized vaccine‐product innovations, aiming to ensure equal access to and enhanced efficacy of vaccinations in low‐and middle‐income countries (LMICs).

In 2021, Gavi the Vaccine Alliance began its subsequent strategy phase (Gavi 5.0) to ‘leave no one behind in immunization’, emphasizing unreached and under‐immunized children, with equity as the foundational concept and innovation in immunization as a core strategic pillar [23]. The newly established ten‐year WHO immunization Agenda 2030 (IA2030) emphasizes the need for innovative strategies and delivery techniques to attain comprehensive life‐course immunization for all individuals [24].

Recent advancements in mRNA immune regulation, stabilization, purification, and transport have positioned mRNA at the forefront of nucleic acid therapeutic research. Especially for pandemic preparation, the fast adoption of mRNA vaccines to combat the COVID‐19 epidemic highlights the potential of this technology above more conventional techniques like recombinant viruses. Recombinant viruses are being investigated in vaccination development as they are very efficient in delivering therapeutic sequences for expression in target cells [25, 26]. A key component of Africa's vaccine development strategy is understanding the existing landscape of local vaccine producers. Table 2 provides an overview of vaccine manufacturers across different African countries, detailing their research and development capabilities, drug substance production, fill and finish capacity, and reliance on vaccine imports. This data is crucial in identifying gaps and potential areas for investment in Africa vaccine manufacturing industry.

Table 2.

Human vaccine manufacturers and their production capacities in Africa.

Country	Manufacturer	Vaccines	Research and development	Drug substance	Fill and finish	Import	References
South Africa	Afrigen	Covid‐19	✔	✔	✔
		Hepatitis B	✔
		Rift valley fever	✔
		Tuberculosis	✔
	Aspen biovac	Covid‐19			✔		[27, 28]
		BCG	✔			✔
		GBS	✔
		Hepatitis B				✔
		Hexavalent			✔
		OCV	✔
		OPV				✔
		Pneumococcal			✔
		Measles				✔
Egypt	Vascera	BCG				✔
		Cholera			✔
		Covid‐19			✔
		DT			✔
		DTP			✔
		Hib				✔
		Hepatitis A/B/A + B				✔
		HPV				✔
		Influenza				✔	[29]
		IPV				✔
		Meningitis				✔
		MMR				✔
		OPV				✔
		Pentavalent				✔
		Pneumococcal				✔
		Rabies				✔
		Rotavirus				✔
		Tetanus			✔
		Typhoid			✔
		Varicella				✔
		Yellow fever				✔
Morocco	Institut pasteur du maroc	GCB				✔
		Influenza				✔
		Rabies				✔
		Tetanus				✔	[30]
		Typhoid				✔
		Yellow fever				✔
Nigeria	Innovative biotech	Covid‐19	✔
		Ebola	✔
		Lassa fever	✔
		HIV	✔				[31]
		HPV	✔
		Yellow fever	✔
Algeria	Institut pasteur d'Algérie	Rabies		✔	✔		[32, 33]
	Saidal	Covid‐19			✔
Ethiopia	Ethiopian public health institute (EPHI)	Rabies		✔	✔		[34]
Tunisia	Institut pasteur de tunis	BCG		✔	✔		[32]
Senegal	Institut pasteur de dakar (IPD)	Yellow fever		✔	✔		[35]
Uganda	Dei biopharma	COVID‐19	✔
		Chickenpox	✔
		Diphtheria	✔
		Influenza	✔				[36]
		Hepatitis A	✔
		Rabies	✔
		MMR	✔
		Rotavirus	✔
		Yellow fever	✔
		Smallpox	✔
Kenya	Biovax	COVID‐19	✔				[37]
Rwanda	bioNTech	Malaria	✔
		Tuberculosis	✔				[38]
		HIV	✔
Tanzania	Unsigned vaccine patent agreement
Botswana	Botswana baylor children clinic/pula corbevax	COVID‐19		✔			[39]

Table 2 illustrates the existence of multiple vaccine manufacturers around the continent; yet, a thorough examination uncovers substantial deficiencies in manufacturing capability. Only a few facilities, including Afrigen in South Africa and VACSERA in Egypt, exhibit engagement in all essential phases of the vaccine manufacturing pipeline, specifically research and development, drug substance manufacture, and fill‐and‐finish activities. Conversely, numerous other facilities, such as those in Algeria, Ethiopia, and Tunisia, are restricted to fill‐and‐finish operations or the manufacturing of specific vaccinations, including rabies or BCG [28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35]. Furthermore, some nations, including Kenya and Botswana, continue to rely on partnership‐oriented initiatives or preliminary development accords, signifying an absence of proven sovereign capability [37, 39]. This unequal distribution highlights a more extensive structural problem: the lack of comprehensive vaccine manufacturing ecosystems over much of sub‐Saharan Africa. To meet the African Union's objective of fulfilling 60% of the continent's vaccination requirements by 2040 [40], immediate strategic investment is essential in upstream manufacturing infrastructure, workforce development, and regulatory frameworks to address existing disparities and guarantee equitable vaccine access across the region.

Figure 2 illustrates the human vaccine manufacturing hubs in Africa, with the nations engaged in vaccine production including South Africa, Egypt, Morocco, Nigeria, Algeria, Ethiopia, Tunisia, Senegal, Uganda, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Botswana. The vaccines produced are listed in Table 2.

Figure 2.

Human vaccine manufacturing hubs in Africa.

2.3. Vaccine Development Stages

The development of vaccines is a meticulous, multi‐stage process requiring substantial scientific, regulatory, and logistical collaboration. The process generally comprises five principal stages: exploratory, pre‐clinical, clinical development, regulatory review and approval, and, ultimately, manufacturing and post‐market surveillance [7].

The exploratory phase emphasizes fundamental laboratory investigations to discover potential antigens that could elicit an immunological response. This phase necessitates robust foundational biomedical research skills, which are presently constrained in numerous African nations. The pre‐clinical phase entails the evaluation of vaccine candidates through in vitro assays and animal models to assess safety and immunogenicity. Although institutions like the Institut Pasteur de Dakar in Senegal and research centers in South Africa and Nigeria are diligently enhancing their platforms [28, 31, 35], numerous other African nations are deficient in laboratory infrastructure, skilled personnel, and financial resources necessary for extensive pre‐clinical research [6].

Clinical development consists of three steps. Phase I trials evaluate safety and dose in a limited group of participants, Phase II broadens the sample size to investigate efficacy and adverse effects, and Phase III encompasses extensive population testing to validate vaccination effectiveness. Africa's involvement in clinical trials has increased, particularly following the COVID‐19 pandemic. The Africa CDC's Consortium for COVID‐19 Vaccine Trials (CONCVACT) was created to organize and facilitate multi‐center vaccine research throughout the continent. Nigerian pharmaceutical company Innovative Biotech and Ugandan company Dei Biopharma are increasingly participating in trial operations [31, 36]. Nonetheless, ethical monitoring, trial governance, and sustainable finance continue to pose significant challenges.

Upon the completion of clinical studies, regulatory agencies evaluate the evidence to authorize vaccines for utilization. The majority of African national regulatory authorities are inadequately funded. Only a few number, including Egypt's EDA and Nigeria's NAFDAC, have attained WHO maturity level 3, permitting them to autonomously approve medical items in alignment with international norms [41]. The recently formed African Medicines Agency (AMA) is anticipated to be crucial in standardizing regulatory regimes throughout the continent and expediting review processes.

The concluding phase includes production and post‐market monitoring. Africa presently encounters its most significant structural deficiencies here. The continent accounts for only 1% of worldwide vaccine production. Significant advancements have occurred in several nations. Biovac in South Africa engages in clinical studies, fill‐and‐finish operations, and restricted drug substance manufacture for vaccines including hepatitis B and BCG [28, 29]. The Institut Pasteur de Dakar (IPD) in Senegal is prequalified by the WHO for yellow fever vaccine production and is enhancing its manufacturing capacity for improved pandemic readiness. Rwanda has collaborated with BioNTech to establish one of Africa's inaugural mRNA vaccine manufacturing facilities, which would facilitate regional mRNA production via modular container‐based systems.

These advancements illustrate that although Africa is enhancing its capabilities in all phases of vaccine development, significant deficiencies persist. Strategic investments are essential to improve early‐stage research, bolster clinical trial frameworks, synchronize regulatory procedures, and establish scalable production capacities. Enhancing Africa's role at every phase of the vaccine pipeline is crucial for promoting vaccine self‐sufficiency, regional health security, and sustained pandemic preparedness.

Figure 3 delineates the five fundamental stages in the vaccine development process. Stage 1, the exploration phase, encompasses fundamental laboratory investigations to find antigens. Stage 2, the pre‐clinical phase, employs in vitro and animal experimentation to assess safety and immunological response. Stage 3, clinical development, encompasses Phases I–III of human trials to evaluate safety, effectiveness, and dose. Stage 4 encompasses the regulatory evaluation and authorization by national or international agencies. Stage 5 encompasses extensive production and post‐market monitoring to guarantee continuous safety and efficacy. These procedures constitute the cornerstone of any effective vaccine approach.

Figure 3.

Vaccine development stages.

2.4. Vaccine Manufacturing Steps

Vaccine manufacturing involves a sequence of specialized and regulated procedures aimed at guaranteeing the safety, efficacy, and quality of the final product. It generally commences with antigen manufacturing, which entails culturing the virus or bacteria or synthetically creating the antigen via recombinant DNA technology. This is succeeded by purification, during which the antigen is isolated and processed to eliminate any undesirable byproducts or impurities. During the formulation phase, the purified antigen is amalgamated with additional components, like adjuvants, stabilizers, or preservatives, to augment its stability and immunogenicity. The vaccine is subsequently transferred into sterile containers, either vials or syringes, in a process termed fill‐and‐finish, which is essential for preserving product sterility and quality. Ultimately, each batch is subjected to stringent quality control and testing to verify its potency, purity, and safety before to market release.

The production processes necessitate rigorous compliance with Good production Practices (GMP) and supervision by regulatory bodies. In the African setting, most existing facilities, such as Biovac in South Africa and the Institut Pasteur de Dakar in Senegal, generally focus on fill‐and‐finish activities, possessing minimal upstream capability for antigen production. Initiatives such as BioNTech's mRNA synthesis plant in Rwanda indicate advancement towards comprehensive indigenous production capabilities. These advancements, bolstered by technology transfer and international collaborations, are crucial for augmenting Africa's manufacturing capacity and diminishing its dependence on overseas suppliers [6, 28, 29, 35, 38]. Figure 4 illustrates steps involved in vaccine manufacturing: antigen production, purification, formulation, fill‐and‐finish, and quality control. Each step is governed by strict regulatory standards to ensure safety and efficacy.

Figure 4.

Steps involved in vaccine manufacturing.

2.5. Strengthening Vaccine Manufacturing Capacity in Africa

Africa has initiated a coordinated effort to enhance the African CDC and national public health institutions in response to the pressing challenges presented by the COVID‐19 epidemic [42]. The continent's plan emphasizes the development of indigenous manufacturing capabilities for vaccines, medicine, and diagnostics, hence reducing dependence on foreign supplies. Initiatives include securing financing for public health workforce initiatives, cultivating respectful collaborations, and delivering extensive training in vaccine production to local scientists. Established by Africa CDC and the African Union (AU), the CDC Consortium for COVID‐19 Vaccination Clinical Trials [43] Emphasizing cooperative projects across nations, UN agencies, and stakeholders, this alliance aims to improve clinical trials for possible COVID‐19 vaccine candidates and support vaccine manufacturing capacity in Africa [40]. High‐level summits reinforced the commitment to local vaccine manufacture by helping to create the Partnerships for African Vaccine Manufacturing (PAVM) and carry out major Memorandums of Understanding with organizations like the Coalition of Epidemic Preparedness Innovations. PAVM seeks to equip African producers to autonomously create high‐quality vaccines by closing technical gaps, and advocates for regulatory harmonization with technology transfer and capacity development. PAVM is involved in fostering collaborations among governments, pharmaceutical firms, development banks, and charitable entities to finance infrastructure development, research efforts, and training programs [40].

Healthcare systems must control medical goods to give access to high‐quality immunizations, drugs, and other health‐related products. Following examination, the World Health Organization (WHO) said on March 30, 2022 that the regulatory bodies for medicinal goods in Egypt (Egyptian Drug Authority; EDA), and Nigeria (National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control; NAFDAC) reached Maturity Level 3 (ML3) [41]. The Africa CDC's strategy for vaccine production aims to manufacture 60% of the continent's vaccine needs by 2040, seen as a vital measure for enhancing health security and self‐sufficiency. This program emphasizes the need of continuous investment in local manufacturing capabilities, knowledge transfer collaborations, regulatory alignment, and infrastructure enhancement, all of which are vital for realizing this ambitious objective [44].

Although donor‐supported initiatives have been crucial in enhancing vaccine manufacturing in Africa, numerous African‐led innovations are transforming the continent's health and industrial sectors internally. For instance, South Africa's Biovac Institute has evolved from a fill‐and‐finish strategy to partial upstream production and is spearheading mRNA vaccine research through its collaboration with Afrigen. Likewise, Senegal's Institut Pasteur de Dakar is spearheading the VaxSen project, an entirely African‐led initiative focused on manufacturing WHO‐prequalified vaccines for regional use. The Rwandan government has co‐invested in the establishment of BioNTech's modular mRNA manufacturing platform, serving not just as a host but also as a key partner in developing local expertise and regulatory capacity. Nigeria's Innovative Biotech and Uganda's Dei Biopharma have independently initiated research and development, as well as manufacturing projects targeting endemic diseases such as Lassa fever, yellow fever, and rabies. These instances underscore an increasing transition towards self‐sufficient, innovation‐oriented vaccine ecosystems in Africa, aimed at addressing local requirements, fostering autonomous capacities, and diminishing long‐term reliance on external entities.

Africa should invest in workforce development and capacity building; nations should organize to have training programs for scientists and technicians involved in vaccine development and quality control [45]. The African governments should also help expand local manufacturing hubs to increase their production capacities, as is happening in Kenya, Senegal and South Africa [46]. Efficient vaccine production and distribution are critical to achieving widespread immunization coverage. Figure 5 presents a flowchart depicting the vaccine production pipeline in Africa, from research and development to distribution. It highlights key stages such as manufacturing, regulatory approval, quality control, and logistics, emphasizing the need for a streamlined approach to ensure timely delivery to communities.

Figure 5.

Flowchart of vaccine production and distribution of pipeline in Africa.

2.6. Comparative Models for Successful Vaccine Manufacturing

A comparison analysis with successful models like India's Serum Institute underscores significant lessons for Africa's vaccine production aspirations. The Serum Institute of India, the preeminent global vaccine manufacturer by volume, achieved success through robust public‐private collaborations, initial governmental investment in biotechnology, and a conducive regulatory framework that facilitated rapid scaling of both production and distribution. Its strategic focus on WHO‐prequalified vaccinations facilitated worldwide market access and ensured long‐term viability through economies of scale [28].

Conversely, numerous African firms function on a more restricted scale. Although entities such as Biovac in South Africa and VACSERA in Egypt have advanced in fill‐and‐finish and certain upstream processes, they frequently lack a comprehensive production pipeline, competitive pricing frameworks, and a resilient export infrastructure [28, 29]. Additionally, disjointed regulatory frameworks and variable procurement methods throughout the continent have hindered cross‐border vaccination commerce and industrial efficacy.

Africa's present plan, spearheaded by the Africa CDC via the Partnerships for African Vaccine Manufacturing (PAVM), aims to mitigate these constraints by fostering regulatory harmonization, facilitating technology transfer, and enhancing skills development. In contrast to India, numerous African nations continue to depend significantly on donor financing and external technology ownership, hence impeding autonomy and long‐term scalability.

Africa must improve domestic financing channels, encourage private‐sector innovation, and establish centralized manufacturing centers backed by regional pooled procurement to replicate the Serum Institute's success. These measures are crucial for realizing the African Union's objective of domestically manufacturing 60% of the continent's vaccinations by 2040 [44].

2.7. The Role of Funding and International Partnerships

Immunization is a public benefit necessitating public funding. Countries must provide access to immunization services for the whole population, regardless of work position, income, or health insurance enrollment. Vaccination against some illnesses provides communal advantages beyond the vaccinated individuals, thereby categorizing it as a public good that is optimally funded via public resources [47]. In many nations, governmental money is often allocated to support immunization for vaccinations listed in the national schedule, supplemented by external funds for the most impoverished countries [48].

The African CDC's strategy for vaccine production aims to manufacture 60% of the continent's vaccine needs by 2040, seen as a vital measure for enhancing health security and self‐sufficiency. To realize this ambitious goal, this program stresses the requirement of ongoing investment in local manufacturing capabilities, knowledge transfer partnerships, regulatory alignment, and infrastructure enhancement all of which are crucial [44]. Particularly regarding the Pharmaceutical Manufacturing capabilities and less dependency on imported drugs, the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) projects reflect.

Acknowledged for its focus on infrastructure development, skill training, and financial access for industrial companies all throughout Africa, the African Development Bank's (ADB) industrialize Africa plan [40]. Founded in 2016 amid the Ebola crisis in West Africa, the Coalition for Crisis Preparedness Innovations (CEPI) has quickly become a major player in global health architecture. Its primary emphasis on researching vaccines for illnesses common in low‐income and middle‐income countries (LMICs) transitioned to proactive involvement in facilitating the development of COVID‐19 vaccines throughout 2020‐21. In early 2020, CEPI, in collaboration with WHO and GAVI, the Vaccine Alliance, launched the COVAX mechanism for the worldwide distribution of vaccines and continues to fund vaccine development efforts in Africa [49].

In 2022, during a replenishment meeting organized by the UK, CEPI aimed to secure US$3.5 billion for CEPI 2.0, its operational agenda for 2022‐26. Donors committed $1.5 billion, spearheaded by Japan, UK, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Wellcome, USA, and Norway, they expressed their intentions to donate, which would facilitate collaboration with African institutions and finance vaccine research initiatives [49]. However, Africa should not always depend on aid or wait for donors, as aid can be easily withdrawn, as is currently occurring in the USA. Africa should move to self‐sufficiency [50]. The apparent hindrance to expansion and capacity development in African research institutions may not just stem from financial constraints, human resources, and facilities, but also from capability for maintenance and sustainability of their limited resources [51]. Securing financial support is essential for expanding Africa's vaccine production capacity. In addition to international support, several African‐led funding efforts have emerged in response to the urgent need for vaccine independence. The African Union (AU) and Africa CDC, through the Partnerships for African Vaccine Manufacturing (PAVM), have launched frameworks to coordinate investment from African governments and regional bodies to support local vaccine manufacturing capacity, including technology transfer and regulatory harmonization [40]. For example, Rwanda has committed resources and land toward hosting BioNTech's mRNA vaccine facility, demonstrating direct national investment in advanced biotechnology infrastructure [38]. Similarly, South Africa's Biovac Institute, partly funded by the South African government, has received backing to increase its fill‐and‐finish capacity and local production of several routine vaccines, including hepatitis B and BCG [28, 29]. The African Development Bank (AfDB) has also pledged US$3 billion to support vaccine manufacturing, not just through donor partnerships but also via mechanisms that include contributions from African member states and regional economic programs [52]. These efforts reflect growing political will and financial commitment within the continent to move toward health sovereignty and reduce long‐term reliance on external donors.

Recent initiatives are significantly transforming the vaccine manufacturing sector in Africa. The Regional Capability and Capacity Networks (RCCN), initiated by Africa CDC under the Partnership for African Vaccine Manufacturing (PAVM), seek to create and enhance regional biomanufacturing centers. These centers are intended to promote technological transfer, training, and regulatory alignment among member nations, allowing for a decentralized yet coordinated strategy for vaccine manufacturing [53]. The Manufacturing and Access to Vaccines Plus (MAV+) Initiative, spearheaded by Gavi and inaugurated in 2023, aims to enhance sustainable vaccine production in Africa. MAV+ aids African producers by providing financial and technical help, in addition to advocating procurement practices that establish stable demand [54]. Collectively, these activities signify a strategic transition from disjointed efforts to a more cohesive, continent‐wide strategy for vaccine self‐sufficiency. The major funding initiatives outlined in Table 3 are supporting vaccine development and manufacturing capacity across various regions in Africa. For example, Senegal's Institut Pasteur de Dakar has received support from the African Development Bank, Gavi, and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation to expand its production capabilities and establish VaxSen as a key player in West Africa's vaccine supply chain [52, 55]. In South Africa, institutions such as Biovac and Afrigen are beneficiaries of mRNA technology transfer initiatives, with backing from CEPI and the Gates Foundation [56, 57]. Rwanda is home to BioNTech's mRNA manufacturing facility, which is supported through strategic partnerships aligned with Africa CDC's manufacturing framework [40, 56]. Additionally, the Team Europe initiative and Afreximbank's Health Security Investment Plan are targeting broader regional capacity across countries like Egypt, Ghana, Nigeria, and Kenya, with a focus on regulatory harmonization and pooled procurement systems [40, 52].

Table 3.

An overview of major sources of funding for vaccine manufacturing in Africa.

S/N	Donor organization	Amount pledged	Year	Purpose	Regions/Countries supported	Refrences
1	African Development Bank (ADB)	US $3 Billion	2022	To improve vaccine production and reach AU aim of 60% of vaccines made locally by 2040.	Senegal (IPD), Ghana, Nigeria	[52]
2	GAVI, the Vaccine Alliance	US $1.8 Billion	2023	Support for pandemic readiness, catch‐up immunization, and manufacturing.	South Africa (Biovac), Senegal (VaxSen)	[55]
3	CEPI, and Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation	US $30 Million	2022	Technology transfer to Aspen Pharmacare.	South Africa	[56]
4	GAVI, the Vaccine Alliance	500,000 doses	2024	Mpox vaccine procurement.	Countries with Mpox outbreaks: DR Congo, Nigeria, CAR	[57]
5	European Union, and Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation	Not Specified	2024	GAVI summit and immunization campaigns.	Rwanda, Egypt, Ghana, Nigeria (via MAV+)	[58]
6	Chan Zuckerberg Initiative, Gates Foundation, Bloomberg	US $225 Million	2017	Resolve to Save Lives project.	Africa‐wide	[59]
7	The Fogarty International Center (FIC)	US $10 Million	2000‐2012	Research ethics capacity development.	Nigeria, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania	[51]

These regional investments align with the African Union's target to produce 60% of the continent's vaccine needs locally by 2040 and reflect a growing shift toward sustainable, African‐led manufacturing solutions. Table 3 provides an overview of major funding sources for vaccine manufacturing on the continent, including contributions from organizations such as the African Development Bank, GAVI, CEPI, and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. These investments aim to improve vaccine accessibility, support local production, and strengthen Africa's health security. The table below shows an overview of major sources of funding for vaccine development in Africa.

2.8. Engaging Private Sector and Community Leaders to Tackle Vaccine Hesitancy

Addressing vaccine hesitancy in Africa necessitates not just scientific advancement but also cultural pertinence, reliable communication, and collaborative efforts across all sectors. The commercial sector and community leaders play essential roles in fostering public trust in immunization.

The commercial sector, notably in communications, logistics, and healthcare, can facilitate the distribution of accurate vaccine information and combat misinformation, particularly through digital and mobile platforms. Telecommunications firms can disseminate vaccine reminders through SMS, while private media organizations can conduct awareness campaigns that are linguistically and culturally tailored. Throughout the COVID‐19 epidemic, pharmaceutical and logistics companies in nations such as South Africa and Nigeria were instrumental in vaccine distribution, storage, and advocacy, illustrating how the private sector may enhance public initiatives in both accessibility and credibility [17, 31].

Community leaders, including religious figures, tribal chiefs, local government officials, and traditional healers, exert significant influence on individual health behaviors. Engaging with them guarantees that communication is customized to local circumstances, fosters trust, and addresses particular issues within the community. Research indicates that immunization initiatives supported by reputable local authorities consistently yield increased participation, particularly among rural and marginalized communities [66].

Moreover, involving women's groups, youth organizations, and local NGOs strengthens grassroots mobilization and aids in dismantling social and cultural obstacles. These actors frequently possess a superior capacity compared to official institutions to detect misinformation, debunk myths, and promote behavioral change at the household level.

An integrated strategy that utilizes the organizational capabilities of the corporate sector alongside the trust networks of community leaders is essential. This collaboration amplifies outreach, fortifies local ownership, and guarantees that vaccine education is both top‐down and community‐driven, ultimately diminishing hesitancy and enhancing public health results.

2.9. Clinical and Public Health Implications

A case study in Pakistan in 2022 investigated the development, quantitative analysis, and quantitative assessment of a compartmental‐based COVID‐19 vaccination model, which shows that vaccination is clearly essential in the eradication of significant diseases. The model was meticulously examined using optimal control theory, and the COVID‐19 vaccination model was refined to provide effective control techniques to reduce infection rates. The objective was to examine outbreaks and the influence of immunization on COVID‐19 transmission and control. The model was calibrated using actual data from Pakistan on cumulative confirmed COVID‐19 cases during a specified time frame. The research indicated that vaccines are vital for eliminating major disease outbreaks [70].

The rising prevalence and magnitude of infectious disease outbreaks highlight the need for sophisticated technical solutions to improve pandemic preparation and response. Artificial Intelligence (AI) has become a pivotal instrument for real‐time infectious disease monitoring, epidemic forecasting, and the enhancement of public health strategies [71].

African governments and health agencies should prioritize providing Universal Health Coverage (UHC), which guarantees that all persons may receive excellent healthcare without financial hardship, is integral to the 2030 Agenda FOR Sustainable Development Goals. Therefore, it is essential to execute several solutions, including enhancing the health system (e.g., by developing health infrastructure and retaining healthcare personnel). and offering financial support to attain UHC in disadvantaged areas throughout the African continent. Enhancing the health infrastructure by retaining and hiring more healthcare professionals is a cost‐effective method for enhancing the health system throughout the African continent [72].

The future of vaccination campaigns requires a proactive and morally sound strategy as we address the changing public health problems. This proactive viewpoint entails adopting ethical frameworks, improving global cooperation, and using new technology to influence the future of vaccination practices [73]. To strengthen Africa's vaccine security, several policy interventions have been proposed. Table 4 summarizes key strategies, including system redesign, improved communication on vaccinations, establishment of National Immunization Technical Advisory Groups (NITAGs), expansion of local manufacturing, and the use of innovative technologies such as drone delivery networks. Implementing these measures can enhance vaccine availability and distribution across the continent.

Table 4.

Summary of policy interventions to improve vaccine security in Africa.

S/N	Policy intervention	Description	References
1	System redesign and outsourcing	Redesigning and outsourcing obsolete immunization supply chain (iSC) systems to improve vaccine delivery efficiency.	[74]
2	Strategies for communicating about vaccinations	Using targeted communication strategies to remove barriers such inadequate vaccination records and accessibility issues finally helps to increase vaccination rates.	[75]
3	National Immunization Technical Advisory Group (NITAG) establishment	Forming multidisciplinary teams of national specialists to provide evidence‐based immunological direction.	[76]
4	Enhancing production capability for vaccines	Increasing local vaccination production would help to strengthen health security and reduce dependence on outside vendors.	[77]
5	Ring vaccination scheme	Vaccinating close friends and confirmed patients’ connections helps to create a protective “ring” and stop the spread of the illness.	[78]
6	Use of drone delivery networks	Utilizing drones for vaccine delivery to isolated regions, addressing obstacles related to insufficient road infrastructure and preserving cold chain integrity.	[79]

2.10. Challenges in Research and Future Directions

Significant obstacles remain in establishing vaccine manufacturing capabilities in Africa, mostly due to the shortage of skilled personnel and inadequate public health infrastructure [80]. Furthermore, vaccination adoption may be obstructed by insufficient maternal health facilities, limited access to credible vaccine information and the immunizations themselves, as well and entrenched cultural prejudices also sustaining an interrupted cold chain from manufacturing to patient is crucial, since vaccines must be preserved at low temperatures to retain their efficacy. Enhancements to the cold chain infrastructure at medical institutions will also be essential. Insufficient collaboration with local authorities, absence of monitoring entities, inadequate temperature monitoring and documentation of vaccinations, and lack of financial resources for vaccine procurement were recognized as other challenges. The administration of vaccines outside the cold chain requires more scrutiny and control [81]. The other challenge in Africa in upscaling vaccine production is political instability, social and economic challenges that hinder policy implementation for vaccine development.

During the 2014‐2016 Ebola pandemic, Merck (Ervebo) vaccine was sent at −70°C. Arktek storage device helped save hundreds of thousands of African lives in Sierra Leonne. The Arktek passive vaccine storage device (PVSD) protects spaceships from severe temperatures. The well‐insulated PVSD can store immunizations for a month at 2°C to 8°C with ice packs, this technology can be used in poor resource settings in Africa [82]. Governments and NGOs must finance long‐term research and development for infectious and non‐communicable illness diagnoses, treatment, and vaccinations [83].

Governments have to allocate resources towards early warning systems for disease outbreaks to protect millions of Africans and individuals globally. Numerous African scientists, doctors, nurses, and other healthcare professionals have pursued education or employment abroad, necessitating financial and professional incentives to facilitate their return. Genomic sequencing, analytics, and genomics education will be crucial for identifying, tracking, and comprehending zoonotic outbreaks [84].

Finally, vaccine manufacturing requires highly skilled personnel with experience across several specialties, some of which are exclusive to certain vaccines. Expertise is often acquired at vaccine production facilities, resulting in a lack of sufficient training opportunities in most African countries. There is a significant paucity of degree programs pertaining to vaccine manufacturing, and the existing ones mostly emphasize clinical training [85]. To advance vaccine production in Africa, a structured research road map is necessary. Figure 6 illustrates a strategic plan for vaccine research and development, encompassing capacity building, technology transfer, regulatory harmonization, and long‐term sustainability goals. This road map provides a blueprint for policymakers and stakeholders to drive innovation in vaccine science on the continent.

Figure 6.

Research roadmap for Africa's vaccine future.

2.11. Future Directions and Opportunities for Growth

Mitigating Africa's knowledge deficit in vaccine manufacturing is essential for surmounting the current hurdles. Initiatives like the Partnerships for PAVM are crucial to this effort. Africa may enhance individual competencies by fortifying current programs and providing short‐ and long‐term courses in vaccinology, bio‐manufacturing, and other disciplines, emphasizing practical training. Identifying individuals with expertise in life sciences is crucial for leading vaccine design, development, and production [67].

Intellectual property rights, licensing difficulties and technical transfer constraints hamper vaccine manufacture in Africa. Accelerating clearance processes for technology transfer and simplifying legal systems might help to overcome these obstacles. Moreover, maintaining vaccination production calls for robust legal systems. Many African countries, lack thorough policies, compromising safety and efficacy guarantee. The African Medicine Agency (AMA) is responsible for marketing, authorization, inspection, market surveillance, safety monitoring, management of clinical studies, and quality control. Its operations complement and assist the duties of national regulatory bodies in their respective nations. Standardizing laws by establishing uniform norms and rules is essential for fostering a resilient regulatory framework for medical products throughout the continent [67].

The preparation and response capabilities of African nations must be enhanced to mitigate the effects of unforeseen public health catastrophes. Enhancing Africa's vaccine production capability would be a protracted and intricate endeavor necessitating collaboration across stakeholders from the governmental, corporate, and social sectors to provide a strong enabling environment [53]. African governments should initiate a systematic and coordinated research and development effort focused on vaccine discovery and manufacturing, enabling Africa to assert a worldwide influence on future vaccine pricing and mitigate the dangers and extent of price imbalance [54].

Governments must identify the optimal combination of revenue‐generating methods and reallocation towards health and primary healthcare. Governments have a crucial role in ensuring that development partners fit with governmental policies, overseeing and guaranteeing excellent service delivery in both public and private sectors, and enhancing public financial management. Donors may help nations by fostering sustainability, facilitating their ultimate shift from donor aid, and establishing the necessary structures to achieve universal health coverage and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [68]. The other option African governments can invest in is the One Health approach; the kind and intensity of interactions among people, animals, and the environment dictate the transmission of infections among these three entities. Consequently, these interactions may regulate infectious illness or promote the onset of outbreaks and epidemics, contingent upon human interaction with the environment and other animals. The One Health perspective helps one understand the origin and spread of infectious diseases and most sensible control strategies [69]. Achieving vaccine self‐sufficiency in Africa requires a holistic approach integrating manufacturing, regulation, funding, and public engagement. Figure 7 presents a conceptual framework outlining the critical components of a sustainable vaccine ecosystem, including infrastructure development, workforce training, policy reforms, and international collaboration.

Figure 7.

Conceptual framework for a self‐sufficient African vaccination system.

2.12. Vaccine Distribution and Accessibility Challenges

The delivery of vaccinations in Africa has been a complex task. Despite the worldwide need for immunization, Africa has encountered considerable obstacles in procuring and disseminating vaccines [60]. This gap underscores fundamental problems in the supply chain and logistics that have traditionally hindered vaccination delivery across the continent. Numerous nations acquire vaccinations via centralized mechanisms, such as UNICEF's programs, which guarantee quality vaccines at quality rates. Entities like GAVI provide financial assistance to get reduced prices for low‐ and middle‐income nations [61].

Vaccines need transportation under stringent cold chain conditions (+2 to +8°C), posing considerable logistical difficulties owing to insufficient infrastructure and energy constraints in several areas [62]. Solar‐powered devices have been implemented to address these difficulties [63]. The logistical challenges currently encountered in vaccine roll‐out in Africa include insufficient funding for last‐mile vaccine delivery, inadequate coordination among vaccine supply chain stakeholders, absence of cold chain infrastructure, frequent breakdowns of active cold chain equipment, difficulties in transporting vaccines to remote areas, lack of last‐mile vaccine visibility tools, and insufficient human resources [64].

The other issue affecting vaccine distribution in Africa is vaccine hesitancy, mainly due to misinformation, lack of education and traces of ambivalent research practices of some pharmaceutical companies in Africa has been a cause of vaccine hesitancy conducted in Africa [65]. Structural inequalities, geographical orientation, and socioeconomic factors all help to explain unfair vaccine distribution. Those who are marginalized especially those with limited access to healthcare facilities have challenges becoming immunized [66]. Outreach programs target underprivileged groups, provide information, clear misunderstandings, and help to reduce vaccination resistance. Mobile vaccination units and pop‐up clinics provide immunizations directly to communities, surmounting geographical obstacles and guaranteeing accessible for everybody [66]. Despite efforts to increase vaccine production, accessibility remains a major issue in many African countries. Figure 8 outlines the primary causes of vaccine distribution challenges in Africa, including inadequate cold chain infrastructure, logistical barriers, vaccine hesitancy, and funding limitations. Addressing these issues requires coordinated efforts from governments, healthcare providers, and international partners.

Figure 8.

Primary causes of vaccine distribution challenges in Africa.

3. Conclusion

Africa has achieved significant advancements in vaccine development, regional collaboration, and the formation of industrial alliances. Nonetheless, enduring obstacles such as disjointed regulatory frameworks, constrained research and development capabilities, and excessive dependence on foreign financing persist in impeding the continent's pursuit of vaccine self‐sufficiency. Confronting these difficulties necessitates immediate and synchronized efforts at both national and regional tiers.

A primary objective is policy reform to enable regulatory harmonization. Governments ought to endorse the comprehensive execution of the African Medicines Agency (AMA) and synchronize national regulatory frameworks with continental norms. Optimized approval procedures and standardized quality metrics would facilitate international vaccine production, clinical trials, and distribution, hence enhancing regional integration.

Enhancing indigenous research and development capabilities is equally essential. This entails investing in national research institutes, enhancing training in vaccinology and bio‐manufacturing, and establishing incentives to retain proficient experts. Creating regional vaccine innovation hubs in partnership with universities and the corporate sector will promote early‐stage development and facilitate sustained technological progress.

Minimizing dependence on external benefactors should be a primary goal. Governments can enhance domestic financing via instruments such as health bonds, pooled regional funds, and public‐private partnerships. Enhanced public financial management, more transparency, and targeted budget allocations for vaccine production can bolster sustainability and accountability.

The necessity for pandemic preparedness, increasing disease loads, and the demand for fair vaccine availability highlight the critical need for prompt and planned intervention. African leaders, policymakers, and researchers must take decisive action to develop resilient health systems, foster indigenous innovation, and create a robust vaccination ecosystem suited to the continent's requirements.

Through dedicated leadership and strategic investment, Africa may transition from reliance to prominence in global vaccine development. Realizing this ambition will enhance public health security and establish the continent as a significant contributor to global health equity.

Author Contributions

Olivier Uwishema: conceptualization, project administration, writing – review and designing. Courage Chandipwisa, Agness Shimilimo, Olivier Uwishema, Helen Onyeaka: data collection and assembly. Courage Chandipwisa: reviewed and edited the first draft. Courage Chandipwisa, Agness Shimilimo, Olivier Uwishema, Helen Onyeaka: manuscript writing. Helen Onyeaka: reviewed and edited the second draft. Olivier Uwishema: reviewed and edited the final draft. Courage Chandipwisa, Agness Shimilimo, Olivier Uwishema, Helen Onyeaka: final approval of manuscript. Figure 1 was designed by Courage Chandipwisa. Figure 2 was designed by Agness Shimilimo. Figure 3 was designed by Courage Chandipwisa. Figure 4 was designed by Agness Shimilimo. Figure 5 was designed by Courage Chandipwisa. Figure 6 was designed by Agness Shimilimo. Figure 7 was designed by Courage Chandipwisa. Figure 8 was designed by Courage Chandipwisa. Table 1 was created by Agness Shimilimo. Table 2 was created by Courage Chandipwisa. Table 3 was created by Agness Shimilimo. Table 4 was created by Courage Chandipwisa.

Funding

The authors received no specific funding for this work.

Ethics Statement

The authors have nothing to report.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Transparency Statement

The lead author Olivier Uwishema affirms that this manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study being reported; that no important aspects of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned (and, if relevant, registered) have been explained.

Data Availability Statement

The authors have nothing to report.