Self-Regulated Parenting: A Systematic Review of the Relations Between Effortful Control, the Big-Five, and Parenting Practices

Abstract

It is well established that parents’ own self-regulation is related to adaptive parenting practices (such as warmth and sensitivity) as well as to maladaptive ones (such as laxness and over-reactivity). However, parenting practices are not solely determined by parents’ self-regulation. We discuss how broad personality dimensions (drawn from the Big-Five model) relate to temperamental self-regulation (effortful control) and to parenting practices. Considering the limited empirical literature linking these three constructs, we present extant evidence for each of the dyadic connections between these three constructs. We then propose a comprehensive model that includes the plausible moderation/mediation role of different personality dimensions (such as conscientiousness and agreeableness) on the connection between self-regulation and parenting practices. This systematic review summarizes the extant empirical findings from 74 studies, linking effortful control, character and parenting practices. It is the first to systematically review and organize the accumulating knowledge regarding their relations. Based on the reviewed literature, a conceptual framework is proposed for predicting parenting practices, which are, in turn, a crucial concept predicting children’s behavioral and cognitive outcomes. In doing so, it provides a theoretical basis for the importance of parental character traits, specifically conscientiousness and agreeableness, as mediators between the parent’s effortful control and their actual parenting practices.

Introduction

Parenting is one of the main and most important tasks in adult life; as Tolstoy wrote in War and Peace: “Everything depends on upbringing”. While keeping in mind that the influence between parents and children is much more interactive and transactional than what is expressed in this quote (Belsky, 1984; Bridgett et al., 2015; Sameroff, 2010), vast theoretical and empirical literature supports the significance of parenting on the development of the child. The transition to parenthood involves neurophysiological, hormonal, and psychological changes that facilitate caretaking and are reflected in parenting practices (Rutherford et al., 2015). These changes make parenthood a distinct life period that requires a separate and thorough investigation. As reviewed (Power, 2013), the literature addresses parenting practices as a particular practice (such as warmth, hostility, laxness, etc.) or as parental style (such as authoritarian, authoritative or permissive). However, all of these variables do converge into two main categories: adaptive and maladaptive parenting practices, depending on their implication on the child. Hence, the current review will separate between adaptive and maladaptive practices.

Important variables that seem to affect the implementation of parenting practices are the parents’ own self-regulation and their personality traits; however, the literature in this regard is quite dispersed. In their review, Bridgett et al. (2015) offered an extensive model for the transgenerational transmission of self-regulation, but they did not fully address the possibility of moderation/mediation effects in the relation between a parent’s self-regulation and their parenting practices. Hence, the aim of this paper is to elaborate on and discuss the empirical and theoretical relations among self-regulation, personality, and parenting practices, integrating all these concepts into a comprehensive framework.

Defining Self-Regulation

Self-regulation refers to the flexible regulation of cognition, action, and emotion (Berger, 2011; Nigg, 2017; Posner & Rothbart, 2000), including conscious or unconscious efforts to control one’s inner state (Vohs & Baumeister, 2016). Self-regulation develops and consolidates mainly during childhood as neurocognitive and neuro-emotional systems develop and interact with the environment, resulting in a positive or negative developmental cascade (Nigg, 2017; Posner & Rothbart, 2000; Sapienza & Masten, 2011). Temperamental self-regulation, generally referred as effortful control (EC), is mainly composed of inhibitory control and attention shifting (Eisenberg, 2017; Rothbart & Bates, 2006; Rothbart et al., 2003). The implementation of self-regulation also involves more high-level top-down processes – such as long-term planning (Eisenberg, 2017), reasoning, and coping strategies – in the face of future or internally represented conflict (Nigg, 2017). Self-regulation maintains an inherent bidirectional connection with bottom-up processes, mainly appetitive approach (sensitivity to positive affect, excitement, and hope), avoidance level (fear, negative affect, anxiety), reflexes, learning (conditioning), and activity level. These processes both impose challenges on self-regulation and/or are moderated by it (Nigg, 2017). As can be seen, self-regulation is a complex theoretical and empirical construct. Although the understanding more high-level self-regulation mechanisms and their relation to personality and parenting is important, there is an equal (if not greater) importance to understand these relations with more temperamental, low-level, constructs, as they are the basis of self-regulation development. Hence, the current review will focus on the temperamental cognitive aspect of it, as defined by one of the main conceptual models of self-regulation, suggested by Rothbart (2011), that is, EC. Both conceptually and empirically, the main scales comprising EC are inhibitory control (IC), which is an executive function generally defined as the ability to plan and actively inhibit or delay a dominant response under instructions or in uncertain situations (Miyake et al., 2000; Rothbart, 2011), and executive attention (Putnam & Stifter, 2008; Rothbart et al., 2011). It is generally defined as a supervising system responsible for inhibition of undesired responses required for conflict monitoring, target detection and for focal attention (Petersen & Posner, 2012).

The Relevance of Parents’ Self-Regulation for Parenting Practices

A parent’s ability to self-regulate is likely to be reflected in their parenting practices and is one of the most powerful mechanisms for intergenerational transmission of self-regulation (Baker & Brooks-Gunn, 2020; Bridgett et al., 2015). Parents’ ability to control thoughts, emotions, and behaviors is important for appropriate parenting practices (Rutherford et al., 2015; Sanders et al., 2019; Sanders & Mazzucchelli, 2013; Sanders & Morawska, 2018). Well-regulated parents are likely to experience more confidence in their ability to parent and are more likely to be supportive and sensitive to their child’s needs (Distefano et al., 2018; Sanders et al., 2019; Shaffer & Obradović, 2017). Parents who regulate their negative emotions have shown better parenting practices (Jones et al., 2014; Shaffer et al., 2018). Their parenting is more sensitive and involved (Crandall et al., 2015; Lorber, 2012), yet they clearly establish their expectations for their children and encourage them to self-regulate themselves (Shaffer et al., 2018).

In contrast, research has found that a low level of parental self-regulation is related to an indulgent and permissive parenting style (i.e., providing excessive material goods, overly protective behaviors, and holding few expectations for responsible behaviors; Baumrind, 1967; Crandall et al., 2016; Cui et al., 2016) as well as to difficulties in parents mentalizing their child’s emotional state and adjusting their behavioral response to their child’s affective needs (Jones et al., 2014; Schultheis et al., 2019), which might even result in increased risk of child maltreatment (Crandall et al., 2015). The relation between difficulties with parental emotional self-regulation and parenting practices has also been found for mothers who experience posttraumatic stress symptoms (Gurtovenko & Katz, 2020). Alongside these findings, poor parental EC has been indicative of frequent engagement in dysphoric, lax, over-reactive, and ineffective parenting (Bridgett et al., 2011, 2013; Davenport et al., 2011). More specifically, lower parental inhibitory control is a significant predictor of more parental intrusiveness, anger, hostile tone of voice, and criticism of the child (Bridgett et al., 2017) and to overall ineffective parenting (Meldrum et al., 2018).

Most of the literature reviewed here is quite homogeneous regarding the race and culture of the participants (mostly Caucasian samples from a Western culture); therefore, more research with more diverse samples is needed. Still, this literature supports the notion that better parental self-regulation (i.e., a better ability to regulate bottom-up processes and more developed top-down processes) is more likely to be manifested in more adaptive parenting practices (i.e., more sensitive and involved parenting) and less maladaptive ones (e.g., indulgent, lax, over-reactive, intrusive, and hostile behavior). Yet, parental practices are not solely determined by parental self-regulation, and it is important to be mindful of additional and important aspects of the human personality that can interact with self-regulatory components (or function as mediating dimensions) affecting parental practices. For example, acceptance of others, which has been defined as cooperativeness by Cloninger and Svrakic (1997), seems to be highly relevant for parenting practices; however, and quite surprisingly, no research has been conducted exploring the relation among the three variables of cooperativeness, self-regulation, and parenting. The only personality dimension that has been mentioned in the extant literature in relation to self-regulation and parenting practices is Conscientiousness (as described in the Big-Five model of personality; Soto & John, 2017). Research suggests that there is a mediating role of Conscientiousness in the effect of self-regulation on parenting practices (Bridgett et al., 2015; Eisenberg et al., 2014). However, this relation has not been tested empirically.

Method

Research Protocol and Scope of Review

In line with the guidelines offered by Wright et al. (2007), the systematic review was directed to answer how parent’s personality characteristics moderate/mediate the relation between temperamental self-regulation and parental practices. Hence, the current paper offers a systematic review regarding the literature relating personality, self-regulation, and parenting practices. In our review, we zoom in on a broad model of personality and refer to the relevant literature detailing the relations between self-regulation, parenting practices and the Big Five model (Soto & John, 2017), which is highly discussed in the literature.

Inclusion Criteria

The inclusion criteria for the current systematic review included: (1) quantitative studies or mixed design; (2) peer-reviewed empirical manuscripts with observational or self-reported studies, in cross-sectional or longitudinal designs; (3) study participants had to be parents, either fathers or mothers, except when reviewing the relation between personality and effortful control; (4) studies that researched cognitive self-regulation (i.e., effortful control); and (5) studies that were written in English.

Exclusion Criteria

The exclusion criteria included: (1) qualitative studies; (2) electrophysiological studies; (3) non-parents samples, except for the relation between personality and self-regulation; (4) studies that researched emotion regulation and similar constructs; and (5) studies that were not written in English.

Terms and Search Engines

The extraction of studies was done up to February 2022 via four main search engines: Google Scholar, PsychNet, Sage Journals, and Science Direct. Search terms used were:

• • Effortful control: effortful-control, effortful control (without hyphen), inhibitory-control, inhibitory control (without hyphen), inhibition, executive functions, self-control, and self-regulation.

• In each study, similar (not necessarily the same) theoretical definitions for effortful control (EC) were ensured. EC is defined as the ability to inhibit a dominant response (inhibitory control) in order to perform a subdominant response (activation control), to detect errors, and to engage in planning. Another theoretical definition that was used was for inhibitory control (IC), which is an executive function generally defined as the ability to plan and actively inhibit or delay a dominant response under instructions or in uncertain situations.

• • Personality characteristics: Big-Five, Big Five (without hyphen), Extraversion, Neuroticism, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Openness to experience. Initially, the words “personality” and “personality traits” were also used, however that search was too wide and gave mostly irrelevant results.

• • Parenting practices: parenting, parental support, parental acceptance, warmth, authoritative parenting, parental control, hostility, lax parenting, over-reactive parenting, dysphoric parenting, neglect, restrictive parenting, ineffective parenting, intrusive parenting, criticism, authoritarian parenting, and permissive parenting.

Given that no empirical studies were found linking all three constructs together in the suggested empirical model, we separately present the studies on (1) self-regulation and parenting practices, (2) personality dimensions and self-regulation, and (3) personality and parenting practices. Given the systematic methodology that was set, 74 studies were reviewed (Figure 1 presents the diagram of the selection procedure); 13 about self-regulation and parenting practices, 17 about self-regulation and personality dimensions, and 44 about personality dimensions and parenting practices. Table 1 and Table 2 provide the summaries of all studies and findings reviewed. In a few cases, the relevant correlations reviewed here were not the main aim of the studies in which they were found, and the finding may have only appeared in the tables and figures of those publications. Based on the collected literature, we present a comprehensive hypothetical model combining all three variables, pointing out the gaps in the literature and the potential leads for future investigations.

Figure 1.

PRISMA flow diagram of the selection procedure.

Table 1.

Summary of the Reviewed Studies.

Authors	Method/Participant	Relevant variables and measures	Key finding
Studies related to self-regulation and parenting practices
Bridgett et al. (2011)	158 primary caregivers with 4-month-old infants	- Effortful control using the Adult Temperament Questionnaire (ATQ) short-form.	Caregiver EC makes a significant and positive contribution to more positive parenting practices.
	Longitudinal study: Five measurements (every two months of age)	- Maternal caregiving: Reported hours per day, during a typical day of playing, reading, feeding, bathing, dressing, and holding time
	92.4% Caucasian
Bridgett et al. (2013)	159 mother-infant dyads; infant’s Mage in T1 = 3.5 months	- Effortful control using the ATQ short-form.	Poorer effortful control was related to higher levels of maternal negative parenting (e.g., higher laxness, over-reactiveness and verbosity).
	Longitudinal study: Six measurements (every two months of age and the last one at 18 months of age)	- Maternal negative parenting practices: The Parenting Scale:
		o Lax
		o Over-reactive
	92.2% Caucasian	- Verbosity: Indication of ineffective verbal communication
Bridgett et al. (2017)	149 Mother-infant dyads; infant’s age at T1 = 4 months	- Inhibition using the Color-Word Interference test from the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS)	Poorer maternal inhibition was significantly related to subsequent engagement in more negative parenting practices (e.g., intrusiveness, displays of negativity, anger, hostile tone of voice, and criticism of child).
	Longitudinal study: Three measurements (every two months of age)	- Observed maternal parenting: Mothers and infants participated in a 5-min unstructured free-play task without toys
	70.9% Caucasian
Chen et al. (2021)	169 parents (145 mothers) and children (49% girls).	- Effortful control using the ATQ.	When controlling for other variables, EC predicted positively Authoritative and negatively Authoritarian parenting.
	Cross-sectional study	- Parenting styles were assessed using the authoritative and authoritarian scales of the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire (PSDQ).
	100% Chinese or Chinese American
Davenport et al. (2011)	151 mother-adolescent dyads; adolescent’s Mage = 12.48 ± .46 years	- Effortful control using the ATQ short-form.	Mothers with higher levels of EC exhibited less frequent dysphoric behavior (e.g., dysphoric, anxious, or whining affect) as well as fewer complaints and self-derogatory comments with neutral affect.
	Cross-sectional study	- Assessment of parental affective behavior during family interactions:
		o Mother-adolescent dyads completed the Pleasant Events Checklist (PEC) and the Issues Checklist (IC)
	95% self-identified as Australian from mid to high level of socioeconomic advantage	- Two 20-min interactions: An event-planning interaction (EPI) followed by a problem-solving interaction (PSI), which were coded by two coders who were blind to participant information (10 affect codes and 27 verbal codes). Based on the codes, behaviors were classified as aggressive, dysphoric, or positive
Distefano et al. (2018)	85 parents (72 mothers) and their preschool children; child’s Mage = 4.49 ± .53 years	- Inhibitory control using the Minnesota Executive Function Scale (MEFS)	A positive correlation was found between EF and autonomy-supportive parenting.
	Cross-sectional study	- Parental practice: Dyadic puzzle task to assess autonomy-supportive parenting
	70% Caucasian
Geeraerts et al. (2021)	62 toddlers and their parents (52% mothers)	- Effortful control using the ATQ	Only when there was high home chaos, low EC correlated with greater negative parenting.
	Cross-sectional study	- Parenting behavior: parent-child interaction during a clean-up task. The interaction was coded using the Dyadic Interaction Coding Manual. Parenting was coded into negative directive behavior, disengaged behavior, neutral directive behavior, autonomy supporting behavior, and warmth/involved behavior
	Dutch sample, did not specify ethnicity
Jones-Gordils et al. (2021)	235 families (i.e., mother, intimate partner, and child)	- Inhibitory control using Emotional Go/No Go task	Mothers with higher levels of inhibitory control provided better scaffolding discipline for their child.
	Longitudinal study: Two measurements (every year).	- Parenting behavior: parent-child interaction during a discussion task regarding an issue of discipline. The interaction was coded using an unpublished coding system (CADS; Caregiving Around Discipline System). Parenting was coded into warmth, structure/motivation, and technical scaffolding and then a factor of scaffolding discipline was extracted
	48% Caucasian
Kolijn et al. (2021)	66 mothers of 3.5-year-olds	- Inhibitory control using Two-choice Stop-Signal task with tracking	While controlling for other study variables, IC didn’t predict sensitive discipline.
	Longitudinal study: Six measurements in one year.	- Sensitive discipline measured by parent-child interaction during a compliance task. This task elicits parental discipline behavior as the parent instructs the child to refrain from playing with or even touching a collection of attractive toys
	Dutch sample, did not specify ethnicity
Meldrum et al. (2018)	117 infant boys and their parents; child’s Mage at T1 = 1.41 ± .04 years	- Self-Control was assessed using the Attitudinal Self-Control Scale	Direct effect of parental self-control when the infants were 17 months old on ineffective parenting when the infants were 23 months old; higher self-control resulted in lower levels of ineffective parenting.
	Longitudinal study: Three measurements (after six months from T1 and one year after T2).	- Ineffective parenting: Self-reported
	Dutch sample, did not specify ethnicity	o Harsh discipline: Ten items from the Discipline Scale of the Parental Behavior Checklist and four items from the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire were used to assess frequency with which each parent used physical and verbal punishment. Also, four items from the Nijmeegse Opvoedlijst (NOV) were used to assess how often each parent used withdrawal of attention and/or affection as a disciplinary technique.
		- Lack of structure: Ten items from the Parenting Scale were used to assess parental laxness and over-reactiveness
Shaffer & Obradović, 2017	102 primary caregivers	- Inhibitory control using the Flanker task	Parental inhibitory control was positively associated with sensitive/responsive behaviors (e.g., support for child autonomy, quality of assistance).
	Cross-sectional study	- Parenting behavior: parent-child interaction tasks include free play with provided toys, a clean-up task, problem-solving discussion, Tangoes game, and the “Perfection game”
	42% Caucasian
Valiente et al. (2007)	188 parents (164 mothers) to 7- to 12-year-old children	- Effortful control using the ATQ	When controlling for background variables, EC predicted positively positive (factor of problem focused parenting, emotion focused parenting, and expressive encouragement) and negative practices (factor of minimizing, punitive and distressed parenting).
	Cross-sectional study	- Parental reactions to their children’s negative emotions were measured with the Coping with Children’s Negative Emotions Scale (CCNES)
	54% Hispanic
Zaidman-Zait & Shilo (2021)	141 mothers and their 8 to 12 year-old children (72 boys).	- Inhibitory control assessed using Go/No Go task.	When controlling for other variables, False-Alarm rate in the No-Go trails predicted negative parenting positively and negatively supportive parenting. IC didn’t predict lax or over-reactive parenting.
	Cross-sectional study	- Assessed using the Parenting Scale (PS):
		o laxness scale.
		o Over-reactivity scale
	Did not specify ethnicity	- Mother–child interaction of conflict discussion task:
		o Negative parenting.
		o Supportive parenting
Studies Related to Self-Regulation and Personality Dimensions
Alessandri et al. (2014)	476 young adults (239 males)	- EC using the ATQ	EC correlated positively with Openness, Conscientiousness, Agreeableness and Extraversion, and negatively with Neuroticism.
	Longitudinal study: Five measurements (did not specify occasions).	- The Big Five Questionnaire (BFQ)
	100% citizens of Genzano, Rome.
Bell et al. (2020)	25 older adults (Mage = 71.66 years)	- Inhibition using the Behavioral Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Adult (BRIEF-A)	When controlling for other variables, only Conscientiousness predicted Inhibition scale.
	Cross-sectional study	- The Big Five Inventory (BFI)
	64% Caucasian
Bridgett et al. (2013)	188 psychology students (32% male)	- IC using the ATQ-SF	Neuroticism correlated negatively with IC.
	Cross-sectional study	- Neuroticism was assessed using the NEO-FFI
	54% Caucasian
Campbell et al. (2011)	155 students (48 male); Mage = 19.01 ± 2.51 years	- Inhibition tasks:	In a difficult task, extraverts performed better in the inhibition tasks, compared to introverts or ambiverts.
		o The Tower of Hanoi (TOH) task	In an easy task, no differences existed between the three groups.
		o The Affective Go/No-Go task (AGN)
		o The Anti-cue task
	Cross-sectional study	- Extraversion was assessed using two scales:
		o Revised short Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ-R)
	Did not specify ethnicity	o the Carver and White Behavioral Inhibition/Activation Scale (BIS/BAS)
Evans & Rothbart (2007)/Evans & Rothbart (2009)	Two studies:	- EC using the ATQ	EC correlated positively with Conscientiousness and negatively with Neuroticism.
	Study 1: Undergraduate psychology students (N = 258; 150 women).	- The Big-Five: NEO-PI-R	These finding were corroborated in Study 2.
	Study 2: Community sample (N = 700; 397 women)
	Cross-sectional study
	Did not specify ethnicity
Gartstein et al. (2013)	147 mothers of 4-month-old infants; Mage at T1 = 28.67 ± 5.27 years	- The Adult Temperament Questionnaire (ATQ):	- Extraversion did not correlate significantly with effortful control.
	Longitudinal study: Three measurements (at 4, 12, and 18 months of age)	o Negative Affect
	Did not specify ethnicity	o Extraversion/Surgency
		o EC
Jensen-Campbell et al. (2002)	113 participants (27 male)	- Big-Five were assessed using:	- Agreeableness and Conscientiousness predicted better inhibition, when controlling for other variables.
	Cross-sectional study	o the Big Five Inventory (BFI)
		o the International Personality Item Pool (IPIP)
	Did not specify ethnicity	- A factor of Inhibition was extracted using the Stroop test, and a computerized version of the WCST
Johann & Karbach (2022)	91 young adults (39 male); Mage = 23.49 ± 3.21 years	- Inhibition was assessed using the Flanker task	When controlling for other variables, no correlation were found between the Big-Five and Inhibition.
	Cross-sectional study	- The Big Five Inventory (BFI-S)
	Did not specify ethnicity
Landman-Peeters (2007)	447 adolescents and young adults.	- The Adult Temperament Questionnaire (ATQ):	- Negative Affect correlated negatively with EC and IC
		o Negative Affect	- Extraversion correlated negatively with IC
	Cross-sectional study	o Extraversion/Surgency
	Did not specify ethnicity	o EC
Laverdière et al. (2010)	139 students (83% female)	- EC using the ATQ	EC correlated positively with Conscientiousness and negatively with Neuroticism.
	Cross-sectional study	- The MINI International Personality Items Pool (MINI-IPIP)
	Did not specify ethnicity
Murdock et al. (2013)	182 adults (59 male); Mage = 19.81 ± 1.97 years	- Inhibition using the Color-Word Interference test, a Stroop-like measure, from the D-KEFS	When controlling for other variables, Inhibition did not predict any trait from the Big-Five.
	Cross-sectional study	- The NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI)
	53% Caucasian
Padilla & Andres (2021)	70 participants	- IC using the Stop Signal Task	No correlation were found between the Big-Five and Inhibition.
	Cross-sectional study	- The Big-Five Questionnaire (BFQ)
	Did not specify ethnicity
Rothbart et al. (2000)	207 students	- EC using the ATQ	EC correlated with Conscientiousness and Neuroticism.
	Cross-sectional study	- The Big-Five using the Mini-Markers for the Big Five
	Did not specify ethnicity
Tangney et al. (2004)	In Study 2: 255 undergraduate students (48 male); Mage = 20.10 ± 4.23 years	- Development of the Self-Control Scale	Most robust correlations were found between Agreeableness and Conscientiousness and self-control.
	Cross-sectional study	o general capacity for elf-discipline	Correlations were found also between Neuroticism and self-control.
		o inclination toward Deliberate/Nonimpulsive action
		o Healthy habits
		o Self-regulation in service of a work ethic
	58% Caucasian	- The Mini Marker, which investigated the Big-Five
Tortella-Feliu et al. (2013)	353 undergraduate students (106 male); Mage = 22.69 ± 5.22 years	- EC using the ATQ-short form	When controlling for other variables, EC was predicted positively by Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness and Openness, and negatively by Neuroticism.
	Cross-sectional study	- The NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI)	IC was predicted by Neuroticism, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness.
	Spanish sample, did not specify ethnicity
Wiltink et al. (2006)	213 psychosomatic patients	- EC using the short form of the ATQ	EC correlated positively with Extraversion, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness, and negatively with Neuroticism.
	Cross-sectional study	- The NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI)
	Did not specify ethnicity
Studies Related to Personality Dimensions and Parenting Practices
Aluja et al. (2007)	134 Two-parent families with teenagers. Mothers' Mage = 42.44 ± 4.89 years, fathers' Mage = 45.20 ± 5.60 years	- The Big Five Questionnaire (BFQ)	For fathers
		- Parenting practices by a modified version of the Egna Minnen av Barndoms Uppfostran (EMBU-P):	- Positive correlation were found between Conscientiousness and Emotional Warmth
		o Rejection	- Positive correlations between Neuroticism and Rejection and Control Attempts.
		o Emotional Warmth	- Positive correlation between Openness and Emotional Warmth.
	Cross-sectional study	o Control Attempts	For mothers
	Spanish sample, did not specify ethnicity	o Favoring Subject	- Conscientiousness correlated positively with Emotional Warmth and Control Attempts
			- Neuroticism correlated negatively with Rejection and Control Attempts.
Bailes & Leerkes (2021)	259 mothers to 6-month-old infants. Mothers' age range 18–44 years	- At T1, Agreeableness, Extraversion and Neuroticism were assessed using the NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI).	- Agreeableness correlated negatively with Overtly Negative Maternal Behaviors and Unresponsive Maternal Behaviors.
	Longitudinal study: Two measurements (at birth and six months of age)	- Parenting practices at T2: Insensitive maternal behavior by distress eliciting tasks.	- Extraversion correlated negatively with Unresponsive Maternal Behaviors.
	50% Caucasian	o Unresponsive maternal behavior was calculated as the percent of time mothers monitored (e.g., passively watched infant), were distracted (e.g., looked away from infant), and were withdrawn from their infant (e.g., physically moved away from infant or abruptly ended interaction)	- Neuroticism correlated positively with Unresponsive Maternal Behaviors.
		o Overtly negative maternal behavior was calculated as the percent of time mothers engaged in mismatched affect (e.g., laughed while infant was distressed), intrusive (e.g., forced own agenda on infant), negative (e.g., negative affect toward infant or disciplined infant), and persistent ineffective behaviors (e.g., refused to alter behavior that was not soothing infant when other options were present)	Mediation effect was found between Neuroticism/Extraversion and Overtly Negative Maternal Behaviors by minimizing attributes.
Batool & Ahmad (2016)	342 parents (159 fathers) to teenager. Mage = 41.40 ± 8.19 years	- The NEO Five-Factor Inventory.	Reliability of the factors on the Big-Five were low.
	Cross-sectional study	- Parenting practices by the Parent-Child Relationship Inventory (PCRI):	When controlling for other variables:
	100% Pakistani	o Involvement scale (INV)	- Openness predicted positively Autonomy-support.
		o Communication scale (COM)	- Extraversion predicted positively Involvement
		o Limit Setting scale (LIM)	- Communication was predicted positively by Openness and negatively by Extraversion.
		o Autonomy scale (AUT)
Belsky et al. (1995)	69 families rearing firstborn sons (10 months of age). Mothers' Mage = 28.4 years, fathers' Mage = 30.6 years	- Agreeableness, Extraversion and Neuroticism by the NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI).	For mothers and fathers:
	Cross-sectional study	- Parenting practices by two 1-h home observations of family interaction:	- Neuroticism correlated negatively with Positive affect, sensitivity and cognitive stimulation and positively with negative affect and intrusiveness.
	100% Caucasian	o Positive Affect and Negative Affect (separately) expressed toward the child	- Extraversion correlated positively with Positive affect, sensitivity and cognitive stimulation.
		o Sensitivity to the child’s needs and goals	For mothers:
		o Intrusiveness, or the extent to which the parent inserted his/her own goals and agendas upon the child without regard for what the child was doing	- Agreeableness correlated positively with Positive affect, sensitivity and cognitive stimulation and negatively with detachment and negative affect.
		o Detachment, or the extent to which the parent seemed to be uninvolved with and unresponsive toward the child	For fathers:
		o Cognitive Stimulation, or the extent to which the parent endeavored to intellectually stimulate the child, as indexed by reading to the child and explaining things to him	- Agreeableness correlated positively only with cognitive stimulation.
Bornstein et al. (2011)	262 mothers of firstborn children (20 months of age). Mothers' Mage = 31.16 ± 6.36 years	- The Big-Five by the Jackson Personality Inventory (JPI).	- Openness correlated positively with symbolic play
	Cross-sectional study	- Parenting practices by a 10 min of naturalistic mother– child free play during the home visit:	- Agreeableness correlated positively with Maternal Speech to child
	100% Caucasian	o Maternal Speech to child: (a) mean length of utterance (b) different word roots	- Conscientiousness correlated positively with physical affection
		o Expressions of Affection: (a) social play (b) praise or endearments (c) physical affection
		o Demonstrations and solicitations of exploratory and symbolic play
Bradley & Corwyn (2019)	3011 mothers to 6-month-old/54 month-old/5th grade children. Obtained from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and youth Development. Mothers' Mage = 28.60 ± 5.50 years	- At 6 months, maternal Agreeableness was assessed using a shortened version of the NEO Personality Inventory	Agreeableness predicted positively sensitivity and simulation and negatively harshness at 6 months, 54 months and at 5th grade.
	Cross-sectional study	- Maternal behavior toward the child was coded by observers from videotapes of 15-min semi-structured interactions in which the mother and child played in age-appropriate activities:
	83% Caucasian	o Stimulation
		o Sensitivity
		o Harshness
Browne et al. (2012)	381 families. Mage = 34.56 ± 4.59 years	- The Big-Five by an Abbreviated version of the 100-adjective inventory of the Big Five	Mother’s positive maternal attitude toward her child was correlated significantly with higher levels of Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness. and Openness.
	Longitudinal study. Two measurements (when the children’s age was two months and 18 months)	- Parenting practices:	Mother’s negative attitude toward her child was significantly correlated with higher levels of Neuroticism and lower levels of Agreeableness and Conscientiousness.
	60.40% Caucasian	o Positive and negative parenting self-report using the Parent Practices Scale
		o Observed negativity in parenting was coded: Expressed negative affect and negative control
		- Observed positivity in parenting was coded: sensitive responding, mutuality, and positive control
Brummelman et al. (2015)	250 parents (125 mothers) of a child between 8 to 12 years old. Mage = 42.00 ± 4.60 years	- The Big-Five by the Ten-Item Personality Inventory	- Warmth correlated positively with Openness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and negatively with Neuroticism.
	Cross-sectional study	- Parenting practices:	- Control correlated positively only with Conscientiousness.
	Dutch sample, did not specify ethnicity	o Parental Warmth subscale of the Short Form of the Parental Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaire
		o Parental control using Parental Control Scale
Clark et al. (2018)	674 parents to teenagers. Mage = 36.80 ± 5.90 years	- The Big-Five by the 44-item Big Five Inventory	For mothers
	Longitudinal study: Two measurements in a 1 week period	- Parenting practices by Parent–Child interactions assessing:	- Warmth was predicted positively by Extraversion, Agreeableness and negatively Neuroticism.
	100% Mexican	o Warmth	- Hostility was predicted positively by Neuroticism.
		o Hostility	For fathers
			- Warmth was predicted by Extraversion and Conscientiousness.
			- The Big-Five didn’t predict hostility.
Cohrdes & Göbel (2022)	4258 parents and their adolescents. Obtained from the German Health Interview and Examination Survey for Children and Adolescents (KiGGS).	- The Big Five Inventory (BFI-10)	When controlling for other variables,
	Cross-sectional study	- The Parental Behaviors Questionnaire (ZKE):	- Neuroticism predicted negatively warmth and support, and positively Rules and Behavioral Control and Psychological Control.
		o Warmth and Support
		o Rules and Behavioral Control
		o Psychological Control
	Did not specify ethnicity		- Agreeableness predicted negatively warmth and support, and positively Rules and Behavioral Control and Psychological Control.
			- Conscientiousness predicted positively warmth and support, and Rules and Behavioral Control and negatively Psychological Control.
			- Extraversion predicted positively warmth and support, and Rules and Behavioral Control.
			- Openness predicted negatively warmth and support, and positively Psychological Control.
Coplan et al. (2009)	285 mothers of 1st grade children	- The Big-Five by the Ten Item Personality Inventory (TIPI)	- Agreeableness predicted Authoritative positively and authoritarian parenting negatively.
	Cross-sectional study	- Parenting styles were assessed with the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire	- Neuroticism predicted positively Overprotective parenting.
	76% Caucasian	o Authoritative
		o Authoritarian
		o Overprotective
Davis et al. (2021)	1347 mothers. Age ranged from 17 to 70 years old.	- Extraversion, Neuroticism and Conscientiousness by the Big-Five by the Ten Item Personality Inventory (TIPI).	- Neuroticism correlated positively with Authoritarian and Uninvolved parenting
	Cross-sectional study	- Parenting styles were assessed with the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire:	- Conscientiousness correlated negatively with Authoritarian and Uninvolved parenting and positively with Authoritative parenting.
	Did not specify ethnicity	o Permissive
		o Authoritative
		o Authoritarian
		o Uninvolved
de Haan et al. (2012)	463 families (both parents or one of them and one adolescent); adolescent’s Mage at T1 = 13.50 years (12–15). Data obtained from the longitudinal Flemish Study on Parenting, Personality, and Development.	- The Five-Factor Personality Inventory.	Higher levels of over-reactivity were related to lower levels of Extraversion and Agreeableness and higher levels of Neuroticism.
	Longitudinal study: Two measurements (2 years apart)	- Parental practices: Over-reactivity and warmth	Greater warmth was related to higher levels of Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness and lower levels of Neuroticism.
	Belgian sample, did not specify ethnicity
de Haan et al. (2009)	599 families (both parents or one of them and one adolescent). Data obtained from the longitudinal Flemish Study on Parenting, Personality, and Development.	- The Five-Factor Personality Inventory	Higher levels of Extraversion and Agreeableness predicted warmer assessment of parenting and less over-reactive parenting.
	Longitudinal study: Two measurements (6 years apart)	- Parental practices: Over-reactivity and warmth, assessed by the adolescents
	Belgian sample, did not specify ethnicity
Denissen et al. (2009)	287 two-parent families with two adolescent children. Mothers' Mage = 41.7 years, fathers' Mage = 43.9 years.	- The Big-Five by the 30 adjective Big Five personality markers	- Warmth correlated positively with Extraversion and Conscientiousness.
	Cross-sectional study	- Parenting practices by the Relational Support Inventory responses:	- Restrictive Control correlated negatively with Openness.
	Dutch sample, did not specify ethnicity	o Warmth
		o Restrictive Control
Diana et al. (2021)	210 religious Islamic parents	- Parents' Agreeableness assessed by a scale that was designed to assess six facets, namely tendermindedness, modesty, compliance, altruism, straightforwardness, and trust.	No direct path was found between Agreeableness and engagement.
	Cross-sectional study	- The parental engagement scale.
Dickson et al. (2014)	120 parents, most of the sample ranged in age between 26–35 years	- The Big-Five by the Ten Item Personality Inventory.	Highly Conscientious parents were high on authoritative parenting.
	Cross-sectional study	- Parenting styles were assessed by the Parenting Style Scale:
	100% Ghanaian sample	o Authoritative
		o Authoritarian
		o Permissive
Gao & Wang (2022)	134 primary caregivers (114 mothers) and their 1st grade children	- Neuroticism at T1 was assessed using the 10-item Big Five Inventory (BFI-10)	Neuroticism at T1 correlated positively with negative discipline at T1, but didn’t predict it at T2.
	Longitudinal study: Two measurements (one year apart)	- At both time points, parental negative discipline behaviors was assessed using the Parent–Child Relationship Inventory (PCRI)
	100% Chinese sample
Hart et al. (2017)	368 parents (131 male). Mage = 37.99 ± 10.84 years.	- The Big-Five by the Ten Item Personality Inventory.	When controlling for other variables,
	Cross-sectional study	- Parenting style was assessed by the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire:	- Neuroticism predicted negatively Authoritative parenting and positively Authoritarian parenting.
		o Authoritative
		o Authoritarian
		o Permissive
	75% Caucasian		- Openness and Conscientiousness predicted positively Authoritative parenting and negatively Authoritarian parenting.
			- Agreeableness predicted positively Authoritative parenting.
			- Conscientiousness predicted negatively Permissive parenting.
Hartas (2015)	8168 mothers (biological or adoptive) to teenagers. Data obtained from the United Kingdom Household Longitudinal Study (UKHLS)	- The Big Five Inventory – Short Version (BFI-S)	When controlling for other variables,
		- Cluster analysis of questions to measure Affective Parenting and Dialogic Parenting.	- Neuroticism and Openness predicted positively Affective Parenting.
			- Agreeableness and Conscientiousness predicted positively Dialogic Parenting.
	Cross-sectional study
	Did not specify ethnicity
Hong et al. (2015)	268 families (255 two-parent families) to 1st grade children	- The Big Five Inventory at T1	At T1, when controlling for other variables,
	Longitudinal study: Two measurements (one year apart)	- The Ghent Parental Behavior Scale at T1 and T2:	- Positive Support was predicted positively by Openness and Conscientiousness.
		o Positive Support
		o Negative Control
	100% Singaporean sample		- Negative Control was predicted negatively by Openness.
			At T2, when controlling for other variables,
			- Positive Support was predicted positively by T1 Conscientiousness.
			- Negative Control was predicted negatively by T1 Agreeableness.
Hutteman et al. (2014)	2008 parents (1548 mothers) to children aged 10–15 years old. Obtained from the German Socio-Economic Panel Study (SOEP). Mage = 31.50 ± 5.40 years	- The 50-item International Personality Item Pool at T1-T3	Parent–child conflict correlated negatively with Conscientiousness and positively with Neuroticism.
	Longitudinal study: Two measurements (4 years apart)	- Parent–child conflict was measured using the Parent–Adolescent Conflict Scale
	German sample, did not specify ethnicity
Huver et al. (2010)	688 parents of adolescents. Data obtained from the Study of Medical Information and Lifestyles in Eindhoven (SMILE)	- The Quick Big Five questionnaire	Supportive attitude was significantly correlated with higher levels of Extraversion and Agreeableness, above and beyond the other traits. Strict control was significantly correlated with higher Neuroticism, above and beyond the other traits.
	Cross-sectional study	- Parenting styles: Dutch adaptation to the Parenting Practices Questionnaire: authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and uninvolved
	Dutch sample, did not specify ethnicity
Karreman et al. (2008)	89 two-parent families raising firstborn preschool-aged children. Mothers' Mage = 34.50 ± 4.20 years. Fathers' Mage = 36.50 ± 5.70 years	- The NEO Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI)	The Big Five didn’t predict any parenting practices.
	Cross-sectional study	- Parenting practices using a parent–child interactions:
	Dutch sample, did not specify ethnicity	o Positive Control
		o Negative Control
		o Warmth
Kochanska et al. (2007)	102 two-parent families. Mothers' Mage = 30.80 ± 5.30 years. Fathers' Mage = 32.23 ± 6.03 years	- The NEO Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) at T1	- For mothers, the Big Five didn’t predict any parenting practices. However, when an interaction between demographic risk factors and Extraversion was found when predicting power assertion.
	Longitudinal study: Two measurements (7 and 36 months of child age)	- Parental Power Assertion during parent-child interactions: Toy Cleanups and Do-Not Touch task	- For fathers, the Big Five didn’t predict power assertion. However, interactions between demographic risk factors and Neuroticism and Openness were found.
	88% Caucasian	- Affectively Positive parenting was coded during diverse naturalistic contexts	- For fathers, Affectively Positive parenting was predicted negatively by Neuroticism and positively by Extraversion and Agreeableness.
Koenig et al. (2010)	102 two-parent families with infants	- The NEO Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI)	For both parents, high levels of Neuroticism correlated with less positive parenting.
	Longitudinal study: Four measurements (7, 25, 38, and 67 months of age)	- Parenting practices at T4: Behavioral measures include	For fathers, high levels of Extraversion correlated with more positive parenting.
	90% Caucasian	o Responsiveness to the child: sensitivity-insensitivity, acceptance-rejection, and cooperation-interference for each context
		o Affectively positive parent-child interactions: a discrete positive emotion (joy, affection) or a discrete negative emotion
Krupić et al., 2023 (the study was already available in 2020)	173 parents (139 mothers) and their preschool children	- The Big Five Inventory (BFI)	When controlling for other variables,
	Cross-sectional study	- The Parenting Styles Questionnaire (PSQ):	- Openness predicted positively authoritative style.
	Croatian sample, did not specify ethnicity	o Authoritative	- Agreeableness predicted positively authoritative style and negatively authoritarian style.
		o Authoritarian	- Conscientiousness predicted positively authoritative style.
		o Permissive	- Neuroticism predicted positively authoritarian and permissive styles.
Metsäpelto & Pulkkinen (2003)	172 parents (78 male). Data obtained from the Jyvaskyla Longitudinal Study of Personality and Social Development.	- The Big Five Personality Inventory (NEO-PI) at T1	- Restrictiveness correlated negatively with Extraversion and Openness and positively with Conscientiousness for fathers. For mothers it correlated negatively with Extraversion and Openness.
	Longitudinal study: Two measurements (3 years apart)	- Child Rearing Practices questionnaire at T2	- Parents who were high on Neuroticism used more permissive and authoritarian parenting.
	Finnish sample, did not specify ethnicity.		- Parents who were high on Extraversion used more permissive and authoritative and emotionally involved parenting.
			- Parents who were high on Openness used more permissive and authoritative parenting.
			- Being high on Extraversion and low on Neuroticism results in high authoritative parenting. When reversed, it results in high authoritarian parenting.
			- Being high on Extraversion and Neuroticism results in permissive parenting. Being low on both results in engaged parenting.
Metsäpelto & Pulkkinen (2005)	106 families (52 fathers) and their elementary-school child. Data obtained from the Jyvaskyla Longitudinal Study of Personality and Social Development	- Extraversion by the Big Five Personality Inventory	No correlation was found between Extraversion and Positive Parenting.
	Cross-sectional study	- A factor of Positive Parenting was extracted based on:
	Finnish sample, did not specify ethnicity	o Child-rearing Practices Questionnaire
		o Two problem-solving tasks that was coded into enjoyment of interaction, positive affect, interest in the child’s activity, democratic participation, and assistance
Oliver et al. (2009)	174 parents (73 male) and their toddlers (at T1). Mothers' Mage = 28.60 ± 4.20 years. Fathers' Mage = 31.50 ± 5.10 years	- The NEO Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) at the 13-year assessment	- For fathers and mothers, Involvement correlated negatively with Neuroticism and positively with Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness.
	Longitudinal study: Three measurements (Annual assessment)	- Parent–Child Relationship Inventory (PCRI) at the 15 and 16-year assessments:	- For fathers, Limit Setting correlated positively with Agreeableness and Conscientiousness.
	90% Caucasian	o Involvement	- For mothers, Limit Setting correlated negatively with Neuroticism and positively with Openness, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness.
		o Communication
		o Limit Setting
Olsen et al. (1999)	80 mothers and their mothers. Grandmothers' Mage = 58 years. Mothers' Mage = 32 years	- Mothers and grandmothers Neuroticism and Conscientiousness were reported using the NEO Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI)	- For mothers, Nurturance correlated positively with Conscientiousness.
	Cross-sectional study	- Mothers and grandmothers answered the Block Child Rearing Practices Report:	- For grandmothers no correlations were found.
	98% Caucasian	- Nurturance
		- Restrictiveness
Prinzie et al. (2004)	599 families (557 two-parent families) to an elementary-school-aged child. Mothers' Mage = 37 ± 3.64 years. Fathers' Mage = 39 ± 4.26 years	- The Parenting Scale:	When controlling for other variables,
		o Over-reactive parenting
		o Lax parenting
	Cross-sectional study	- The Five Factor Personality Inventory (FFPI)	- Parents’ Over-reactivity was predicted positively by Neuroticism and negatively by Openness.
			Laxness was predicted negatively by Openness.
	Belgian sample, did not specify ethnicity
Prinzie et al. (2009)	Meta-analyses using 5853 parent–child dyads that were included in 30 studies		- The Big Five is meaningfully, even if modestly, related to parenting practices.
			- The associations were robust across mother and father reports and across assessment methods of parenting.
			- Parents who manifest higher levels of Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Openness and lower levels of Neuroticism engage in more warm and structured parenting.
			- Those higher on Agreeableness and lower on Neuroticism are more supportive of their children’s autonomy than are other parents.
Rueger et al. (2011)	Meta-analyses using 63 studies		- Significant albeit small mean effect size across studies.
			- Harsh-negative parenting behavior being a reactive type of parenting in which negative affective experiences (e.g., anger, frustration, irritation or anxiety) provoke quick responses that can involve intrusion into the child’s activities, physical or psychological punishment, or expressed irritation.
			- Support for the importance of positive affect in parenting behavior and suggest that its association with parenting may be somewhat specific to supportive-positive behavior.
Sahithya & Raman (2021)	82 parents and their children (42 children diagnosed with anxiety disorders and 42 age and gender-matched healthy control subjects)	- The NEO Five Factor Inventory III (NEO-FFI-3)	For fathers,
		- Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire (PSDQ):	- Neuroticism correlated positively with permissive parenting and negatively with authoritative parenting.
		o Authoritarian parenting	- Extraversion correlated negatively with permissive parenting and positively with authoritative parenting.
		o Authoritative parenting	- Openness correlated positively with authoritative parenting.
		o Permissive parenting	- Agreeableness correlated positively with authoritative parenting.
	Cross-sectional study		- Conscientiousness correlated positively with authoritative parenting and negatively with permissive parenting.
	Did not specify ethnicity
			For mothers,
			- Neuroticism correlated positively with permissive and authoritarian parenting and negatively with authoritative parenting.
			- Extraversion correlated positively with authoritative parenting.
			- Openness correlated positively with authoritative parenting.
			- Agreeableness correlated positively with authoritative parenting and negatively with authoritarian parenting.
			- Conscientiousness correlated positively with authoritative parenting and negatively with permissive and authoritarian parenting.
Schofield et al. (2012)	451 two-parent families to male seventh-grade students. Mothers' Mage = 37.70 years. Fathers' Mage = 39.70 years	- The NEO Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) at T1	Positive parenting was associated positively with Agreeableness and Conscientiousness, and negatively with Neuroticism.
	Longitudinal study: Two measurements (one year apart)	- A factor of Positive parenting (At T2) was operationalized as high levels of observed warmth and support and low levels of hostility and coercion
	American sample, did not specify ethnicity
Smith (2010)	140 mothers and their toddlers. Mage = 32.10 ± 1.63 years	- The Big Five Inventory (BFI)	When controlling for other variables, Extraversion and Neuroticism predicted positively controlling parenting. No significant predictions were found for supportive parenting.
	Cross-sectional study	- Two 4-min free-play episodes during which mothers were asked to play with their children as they would at home:
	95.70% Caucasian	o Maternal sensitivity
		o Maternal involvement
		o Maternal intrusiveness
		o Maternal directiveness
Smith et al. (2007)	246 mothers and their toddlers (at T1)	- The Big Five Inventory (BFI)	Agreeableness and Conscientiousness correlated positively with T2 Sensitivity.
	Longitudinal study: Three measurements (6 months apart)	- Two 4-min free-play episodes during which mothers were asked to play with their children as they would at home:
	71.10% Caucasian	o Maternal sensitivity
		o Maternal involvement
		o Maternal intrusiveness
		o Maternal directiveness
Vafaeenejad et al. (2020)	617 two-parent families with 6–12 years-old child	- Goldberg’s Big-Five Personality Inventory	When controlling for other variables,
	Cross-sectional study	- Robinson Parenting Styles & Dimensions Questionnaire	For both parents,
		o Authoritarian parenting	- Neuroticism predicted negatively authoritative parenting and positively authoritarian and permissive parenting.
		o Authoritative parenting	- Openness predicted positively authoritative parenting and negatively authoritarian and permissive parenting.
		o Permissive parenting	- Conscientiousness predicted positively authoritative parenting and negatively permissive parenting.
			For fathers,
			- Extraversion predicted positively authoritarian parenting.
			For mothers,
			- Agreeableness predicted positively authoritative parenting.
	100% Iranian sample
van Aken et al. (2007)	117 families to boys	- The 30-adjective Big Five markers	For fathers,
	Cross-sectional study	- Using questionnaires and factor analysis, they measured:	- Extraversion correlated negatively with psychological control.
		o Support	- Agreeableness correlated positively with support and positive discipline.
		o Positive discipline	- Neuroticism correlated positively with psychological control and lack of structure.
		o Psychological control	- Openness correlated positively with support and positive discipline.
		o Lack of structure	For mothers,
		o Physical punishment	- Extraversion correlated negatively with lack of structure.
	Dutch sample, did not specify ethnicity		- Extraversion correlated negatively with lack of structure.
			- Neuroticism correlated negatively with support and positively with psychological control, lack of structure and physical punishment.
			- Openness correlated positively with support.
van Eldik et al. (2019)	455 families (one or two parents) with adolescents. Data obtained from the Flemish Study in Parenting, Personality and Development. Mothers' Mage = 36.50 ± 3.48 years. Fathers' Mage = 38.40 ± 4.02 years.	- The Five-Factor Personality Inventory (FFPI) at T1	When controlling for other variables, Extraversion predicted positively over-reactive discipline.
	Longitudinal study: Three measurements (6 and 2 years apart)	- Perceived parenting by the adolescents at T3:
	Flemish sample, did not specify ethnicity	o Warmth
		o Autonomy-supportive parenting
		o Over-reactive discipline
Verhoeven et al. (2007)	111 two-parent families with toddlers. Mothers' Mage = 32.80 ± 3.98 years. Fathers' Mage = 34.70 ± 4.72 years.	- The 30 adjective Big Five personality markers	When controlling for other variables,
		- Using questionnaires and factor analysis, they measured:	- Agreeableness predicted positively Support and Positive Discipline.
	Cross-sectional study	o Support	- Conscientiousness predicted negatively Lack of structure.
		o Positive discipline	- Neuroticism predicted negatively Support and positively Psychological Control.
		o Psychological control
		o Lack of structure
		o Physical punishment
	Dutch sample, did not specify ethnicity
Williamson & Johnston (2019)	120 mothers to 6-to-12-year-old children. Mage = 33.88 ± 5.95 years	- The International Personality Item Pool–120 Item (IPIP-120)	Neuroticism correlated negatively with Positive Parenting Behavior and negatively with Negative Parenting Behavior.
		- The Alabama Parenting Questionnaire (APQ):
		o Positive Parenting
	Cross-sectional study	o Involvement
		- The Alabama Parenting Questionnaire (APQ):
		o Inconsistent Discipline
	74% Caucasian	- The Parenting Scale (PS):
		o Over-reactivity
		o Laxness
		- The Parental Care and Tenderness questionnaire (PCAT):
		o Warmth
Zvara et al. (2019)	182 couples followed across the transition to parenthood. Mothers' Mage = 28.24 ± 4.02 years. Fathers' Mage = 30.20 ± 4.81 years.	- In the third trimester of pregnancy, expectant parents separately completed the NEO Five Factor Inventory and reported Neuroticism.	When controlling for other variables, Neuroticism didn’t predict Harsh intrusive parenting.
	Cross-sectional study	- Parents’ harsh intrusive parenting was determined using an observational assessment composed of a structured play task, in which parents were asked to play separately with their 9-month-old infant using a shape sorter or stacking rings
	85% Caucasian

Table 2.

Empirical Evidence Relating Personality Dimensions and Parenting Practices.

Variables	Support ratio (%)	Support positive correlation		Support negative correlation		Do not support
		Adaptive parenting practices	Maladaptive parenting practices	Adaptive parenting practices	Maladaptive parenting practices	Adaptive parenting practices or maladaptive parenting practices
Neuroticism	76.00	0	24	14	1	12
Extraversion	55.00	16	4	1	6	18
Openness	55.55	13	2	1	7	16
Agreeableness	70.45	22	2	2	9	13
Conscientiousness	72.50	22	2	1	7	11

Note. Marked in bold is evidence in the expected direction. Adaptive parenting practices include authoritative style, warmth, positive control, communication, autonomy-support, positive affect, sensitivity, cognitive stimulation, symbolic play, physical affection, acceptance, nurturance and involvement. Maladaptive parenting practices include authoritarian style, permissive style, rejection, negative control, unresponsiveness, limiting setting, detachment, negative affect, harshness, rejection, hostility, over-reactivity, laxness, parent-child conflicts, intrusiveness, psychological control, lack of structure and physical punishment. Under the “Support” columns, all of the relations are significant at a level of p < .05; under the “Do not support” column, all of the relations are insignificant at a level of p > .05. Support ratio was calculated using the number of pieces of evidence that support the expected relation (marked in bold) divided by total evidence (support the expected relation + do not support a relation); for example, for Neuroticism, $\frac{\left(24+14\right)}{\left(24+14+12\right)}$ .

Transparency and Openness

All the procedures used for conducting this systematic review are revealed and explained in the manuscript. No code was used and the study design and analysis were not pre-registered.

Literature Review

Personality Dimensions and Their Relevance to Self-Regulation

Personality refers to the internally based psychological characteristics that often correspond to adjectives such as shy, mean, outgoing, dominant, and so forth (Allen, 2015) and the relatively enduring patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (Roberts, 2009). One of the main personality models in the literature is the Big-Five model. The Big-Five model (Goldberg, 1992; Soto & John, 2017) conceptualizes personality into five dimensions: Openness to experience, Extraversion, Neuroticism, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness (see Appendix 1 for theoretical definitions). Only one study relating the Big-Five to EC and IC with a parents’ sample was found (Gartstein et al., 2013). This illustrates the need for more studies that investigate these relations among parents. Hence, the following review is focused on non-parent adult samples.

Conceptually, when the Big-Five model was created (see historical reviews by Goldberg, 1992, 1993) and validated (Soto & John, 2017), it was not divided into temperamental dimensions (which emerge early in life) and character dimensions (which are consolidated later in life when self-concepts are reorganized; Cloninger et al., 1993). This kind of differentiation better characterizes the hierarchical structure of personality, as basic temperamental dimensions that emerge early (as in infancy) are the core constructs for later layers of personality dimensions, such as character traits. In relation to the Big-Five, Openness to experience, Extraversion and Neuroticism can be seen as temperamental dimensions, as the individual differences between them can be seen at infancy (Ahadi & Rothbart, 2014). However, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness are more mature dimensions that emerge later in life. This notion was validated as there is to some extant an overlap between them and the character dimensions from Cloninger et al.'s (1993) model (Capanna et al., 2012).

Two dimensions that the literature is divided and indecisive on regarding their relations to EC and IC are Openness to experience and Extraversion. Openness has a strong positive empirical correlation with orienting sensitivity (Evans & Rothbart, 2007, 2009) and adults who are more extraverted tend to have a higher appetitive approach (positive affect, excitement, hope) and to be less avoidant (feelings of negative affect, fear, anger, frustration, and sadness; Evans & Rothbart, 2007, 2009). These findings correspond with the notion that these dimensions are part of bottom-up processes and function as reactive dimensions of personality.

Higher Extraversion and Openness are associated with better EC in general (Alessandri et al., 2014; Tortella-Feliu et al., 2013; Wiltink et al., 2006). Extraversion, specifically, was found to be related with a better ability to inhibit inappropriate responses in difficult tasks but with less ability to switch between different task goals (i.e., set shifting; Campbell et al., 2011). On the other hand, there is some evidence showing that there is no empirical relation between Extraversion or Openness and EC or IC (Gartstein et al., 2013; Johann & Karbach, 2022; Laverdière et al., 2010; Padilla & Andres, 2021; Rothbart et al., 2000; Tangney et al., 2004) or even a reversed correlation between them (Landman-Peeters, 2007). These contradictory findings regarding the relation between Extraversion, Openness and EC suggest that there is a need for further investigation to clarify the role of Extraversion and Openness and effortful control, especially in the context of parenting.

Regarding Neuroticism, which is another bottom-up process that is related to a lower appetitive approach and more avoidance (Evans & Rothbart, 2007, 2009), most of the literature reviewed here supports a negative correlation between EC/IC and Neuroticism (Alessandri et al., 2014; Bridgett et al., 2013; Evans & Rothbart, 2007, 2009; Landman-Peeters, 2007; Laverdière et al., 2010; Rothbart et al., 2000; Tangney et al., 2004; Tortella-Feliu et al., 2013; Wiltink et al., 2006).

The last two dimensions, Conscientiousness and Agreeableness, capture more mature characteristics of personality (see Appendix 1). Regarding Conscientiousness, the literature addresses it as the mature overlay of effortful control (Bridgett et al., 2015; Jackson & Hill, 2019). Meaning, effortful control is a core construct of Conscientiousness that is highly important for the crystallization of full and mature Conscientiousness; however, they are separate constructs (Costantini et al., 2015; Roberts et al., 2005). More support for this notion was provided by showing that higher EC and IC have a strong and positive correlation with Conscientiousness and a medium correlation to Agreeableness (Alessandri et al., 2014; Bell et al., 2020; Jensen-Campbell et al., 2002; Laverdière et al., 2010; Rothbart et al., 2000; Tangney et al., 2004; Tortella-Feliu et al., 2013; Wiltink et al., 2006). Despite the findings described above, these connections have not been fully studied beyond self-reports, and they have not been studied in the context of parenting; therefore, more research is still needed.

Interim Conclusions

High levels of parental Agreeableness and Conscientiousness and lower levels of Neuroticism seem to be related to better parents' self-regulation. More research is needed to better understand the relations between Extraversion, Openness and effortful control. More research is needed in more diverse samples and especially in the parental context. Moreover, it is important to note that no previous study has addressed the theoretical and empirical overlaps between some of the personality dimensions and self-regulation. For example, one of the items that measures Conscientiousness, according to the BFI (Big Five Inventory), is “Perseveres until the task is finished”, which clearly overlaps with the theoretical and empirical measures of EC (e.g., the reverse item from the ATQ [Adult Temperament Questionnaire]: “I often make plans that I do not follow through with”). Theoretically, Conscientiousness is supposed to be a more developed and mature construct that relies on the person’s EC; however, this idea requires further investigation. Another gap in the relevant extant literature reviewed above is that it mainly relies on self-reports. Self-report biases (Chan, 2010; Paulhus & Vazire, 2007) could hinder the validity of the findings; thus, future studies should include other measures (like a partner report) to validate these findings.

The Big-Five Model and Parenting Practices

All five factors outlined by the Big-Five model have been empirically correlated with parenting practices (see meta-analyses by Prinzie et al., 2009; Rueger et al., 2011; review by Taraban & Shaw, 2018). Studies show that parents who have high levels of Agreeableness, Openness to experience, and Extraversion tend to be warmer and to exert more adaptive parenting practices (e.g., Bradley & Corwyn, 2019; Clark et al., 2018; Krupić et al., 2023; see meta-analysis by Prinzie et al., 2009; more studies are summarized in Table 1). Also, more emotionally stable parents (i.e., less neurotic) tend to exhibit more positive emotions and cooperation (Kochanska et al., 2007; Koenig et al., 2010), more warmth, and more sensitivity to their children (Bornstein et al., 2011; Koenig et al., 2010). Moreover, those who have high levels of Agreeableness and Extraversion are experienced as warmer (de Haan et al., 2009) and rate themselves as having a more authoritative parenting style (i.e., a more democratic climate with a high supportive attitude alongside strict control; Coplan et al., 2009; de Haan et al., 2012; Huver et al., 2010; Prinzie et al., 2009).

Regarding maladaptive parenting practices, parents who have low levels of Agreeableness self-report more erratic, harsh, and over-reactive (e.g., screaming or yelling) practices (Browne et al., 2012; de Haan et al., 2009, 2012) and indicate they are behaviorally more unresponsive, passive and withdrawn (Bailes & Leerkes, 2021). A neurotic parent (i.e., less emotionally stable) tends to exhibit more rejection (Aluja et al., 2007), over-reactiveness and strict practices, with a less supportive attitude (Browne et al., 2012; de Haan et al., 2012; Huver et al., 2010; Koenig et al., 2010). As well as exhibiting less positive affect and warmth (Belsky et al., 1995; Brummelman et al., 2015; Cohrdes & Göbel, 2022), and having more parent-child conflicts (Hutteman et al., 2014), they are characterized by authoritarian and uninvolved parenting style (Davis et al., 2021; Gao & Wang, 2022; Hart et al., 2017; Oliver et al., 2009). All of the above may result in higher risk for parental burnout (Le Vigouroux et al., 2017).

However, here, as well as in the previous section, most of the literature reviewed supports the existence of relations between adaptive and maladaptive practices and Neuroticism, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness (see Table 2 for support ratios). When inspecting the findings relating adaptive and maladaptive practices with Extraversion and Openness, the results are mixed.

Interim Conclusions

All five dimensions of the Big-Five model have been linked to parental practices (see the summary in Table 2) in the expected directions. However, the results are still mixed and might imply more complex relations between these constructs. Moreover, it is important to note that most of the literature reviewed here is ambiguous regarding the race and culture of the participants; therefore, future studies should address sample cultural and racial diversity. In general, higher levels of Agreeableness, Extraversion, Openness, Conscientiousness, and emotional stability (as opposed to Neuroticism) are related to more adaptive parenting and less maladaptive ones. The literature does point out the importance of Neuroticism, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness. Another important notion is the differential associations between mothers and fathers when inspecting the relation between the Big-Five and parenting practices.

A Comprehensive Model

Based on the literature reviewed above and the theoretical meaning of the personality dimensions, a model linking the different dimensions with temperamental self-regulation and parenting practices is proposed here (see Figure 2). We divided the dimensions into two clusters: (1) temperamental dimensions that are intrinsic aspects of self-regulation and (2) dimensions that might mediate or moderate, at least partially, the effect of self-regulation on parenting practices. This model focuses on the hypothesized relation between parents' self-regulation and parenting practices, expanding upon and elaborating this relation, which appears in the conceptual framework suggested by Bridgett et al. (2015). Our model’s suggestion of mediation/moderation roles of the specific personality traits requires empirical testing, meaning that the model provides a plausible platform that can guide future research. Given the critical role of parenting practices in the development of children, the importance of further research in this field is indisputable. We hope that the proposed model can contribute to this effort.

Figure 2.

A Conceptual Framework for the Relations Between Effortful Control, Personality, and Parenting Practices. Note. Rectangles represent observed variables, based on self-reported/behavioral/physiological measures. Circles represent latent theoretical factors. The relation between the bottom-up processes factor and the self-regulation factor is bidirectional; self-regulation can regulate and be regulated by bottom-up processes. Full lines represent hypothesized connections that have already been, at least partially, empirically established. The dashed lines and question marks present the possible moderating/mediating effects that are yet to be defined and require empirical investigation.

Temperamental Dimensions of Self-Regulation

As reviewed, parental EC and parenting practices are correlated with temperamental personality factors of the parent, such as Extraversion, Openness to experience and Neuroticism. Here we suggest that these temperamental dimensions are part of the bottom-up processes that are being regulated and that regulate the individual, meaning that the appetitive approaches and avoidance tendencies of an individual are determined by these temperamental personality dimensions. For example, if a person is highly extraverted (i.e., very sociable, assertive, and energetic) then their appetitive approach will be bolstered. The bolstering of the appetitive approach will not necessarily lead to a lower level of self-regulation because the opposing force of EC and high-level top-down processes can down-regulate it. This suggestion can explain how parents who are well regulated could also be more extraverted and open to experience and less neurotic. This elaboration supports and adds to the conceptual models of Rothbart et al. (2001) and Nigg (2017); specifically, that some temperamental dimensions function as regulated/regulating processes that counteract the ability to top-down regulate (see latent temperamental component of self-regulation in Figure 2).

Dimensions that Might Mediate or Moderate, at Least Partially, the Effect of Self-Regulation on Parenting Practices

We agree with the literature that suggests that Conscientiousness is greatly determined by self-regulation (see Bridgett et al., 2015; Jackson & Hill, 2019). Hence, it might mediate the connection between self-regulation and more adaptive parenting practices, as well as less maladaptive ones. In other words, better parental top-down regulation could be manifested in the preference for order and structure, work ethic, and commitment to goals, which are the different facets of Conscientiousness. When conscientious people become parents, they will be committed to the parental role and will strive to achieve order and structure for their children, resulting in adaptive parenting practices.

We suggest that, in a similar way, Agreeableness might be a mediator of the relation between self-regulation and parenting practices. As reviewed above, Agreeableness has been associated with better self-regulation as well as with more adaptive parenting practices and less maladaptive ones. When looking at the theoretical meaning of the dimension, it becomes apparent that it relies on self-regulation. By definition, the ability to be respectful (a facet of Agreeableness, which upholds the ability to inhibit antagonistic and aggressive impulses) requires EC, thus self-regulation affects it. This dimension, in turn, enables a parent to be warm and compassionate toward their child in the face of antagonistic feelings that might arise in different parenting situations. For example, a parent will need to down-regulate negative feelings after their child makes a scene. If the parent self-regulates, then it will be easier for them to be more agreeable (i.e., to feel more active emotional concern for the child’s well-being, treating them with regard for their personal preference and rights, while inhibiting antagonistic and aggressive impulses). By being more agreeable and self-directed, a parent can show more warmth and sensitive care toward their child.

Agreeableness not only might mediate the relation, this dimension might moderate it as well. Parents’ self-regulation would determine their ability to change their behaviors, thoughts, and emotions to achieve a goal (Berger, 2011). On the one hand, a moderation effect is possible because self-regulation would not determine whether the “goal” of self-regulation is to help others or to help oneself. The beneficiary of the self-regulation would be determined by the level of Agreeableness. A parent who is highly agreeable and highly self-regulated might want to regulate themselves to help others without selfish benefits, as part of being respectful toward them. In contrast, a parent who is less agreeable might want to self-regulate only if they can benefit from it. These two examples can lead to various outcomes, including adaptive or maladaptive parenting practices. In other words, the level of Agreeableness might act as a moderating personality dimension on self-regulation and result in the type of parenting style. When looking at parents with low levels of self-regulation, the agreeable parent will try to assist the child. However, if the child has difficulties or if the assistance takes a long time, then the parent probably will not be patient for long.

As pointed out in Belsky’s (1984) transactional model (Taraban & Shaw, 2018), it is important to remember that just as parents shape the traits of their children, children shape their parents’ reactions and behavior. An empirical support for such transactional conceptualization has been found, for instance, in a study by Browne et al. (2012), who pointed out the potential effect of Agreeableness on differential responsivity to different children of the same parent. Children’s characteristics evoke responses from the social and physical environments and therefore partially determine the specific environment in which they develop (see Scarr & McCartney’s, 1983 theoretical model regarding gene-environment correlations and its empirical support reviewed in Jaffee & Price, 2007).

Limitations

Some limitations of our review and proposed model should be pointed out. First, in addition to the personality dimensions that were addressed in the review, there are many narrower personality traits that were not addressed, such as perfectionism, self-compassion, need for control, self-esteem, and so forth. For example, perfectionism correlates with self-regulation (Uzun Ozer et al., 2014) and authoritarian parenting (Gong et al., 2015). Higher self-compassion is correlated with more authoritative and less authoritarian and permissive parenting (Gouveia et al., 2016). The plausible relations among those traits and self-regulation and parenting certainly deserve further investigation but were out of the scope of the present review. Due to clarity and length considerations, we focused the review on a main and prevailing conceptual model of personality. Second, our review focused on reported measures because studies addressing personality dimensions and parenting practices that employed neurophysiological measures are extremely scarce. A comprehensive review of the literature regarding self-regulation and parenting at the physiological levels, including genetic and animal model work, can be found in Bridgett et al. (2015).

Author Biographies

Maor Yeshua, M.A., is a doctoral student in the Department of Psychology at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev. His research focuses on the mother-child relationship in self-regulation at the behavioral, electrophysiological, and reported levels. He is especially interested in how parents' temperament and character are manifested in their parenting and affect children's self-regulation and behavior.

Andrea Berger, Ph.D., is a Full Professor in the Department of Psychology at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev. Her research focuses on the relation between the brain and behavior in the typical and atypical (for example, in FAS, and ADHD) development of children. The main topic of her research is the development of executive attention and control, including inhibitory control, monitoring, and error-detection – and their implications for the child’s self-regulation.

Appendix 1.

A Definitions Summary of the Big-Five Model Factors

Factor	Definition
Extraversion	Sociability – desire to socially approach and engage with others.
	Assertiveness – willingness to express personal opinions and goals in social situations.
	Energy levels – experience of positive affect and high levels of physical activity.
Agreeableness	Compassion – active emotional concern for others’ well-being.
	Respectfulness – treating others with regard for their personal preference and rights, while inhibiting antagonistic and aggressive impulses.
	Trust – holding positive generalized beliefs about others.
Conscientiousness	Organization – preference for order and structure.
	Productiveness – work ethic and persistence while pursuing goals.
	Responsibility – commitment to meeting duties and obligations.
Neuroticism/negative emotionality	A tendency to feel anxiety, depression, sadness, and emotional volatility.
Openness to experience	Intellectual curiosity and enjoyment of thinking, aesthetic sensitivity, and creative imagination.

Note. The definitions were drawn from Soto and John (2017) for the Big-Five Model.

ORCID iD

Maor Yeshua https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3463-5624

Data Availability Statement

Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.