Role of self-advocacy, academic accommodation, and attitude in career readiness among students with learning disabilities: a social cognitive perspective

Abstract

Background

Higher education is the terminal stage for preparing career aspirants. Its responsibility becomes more crucial for students with learning disabilities (SWLDs). Extending implications of Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), the current study investigates the contribution of SWLDs’ self-advocacy to their career readiness with the mediating role of their academic accommodation and the moderating role of faculty’s attitude towards their career readiness.

Method

The research design of the current study was a descriptive survey with cross-sectional data collection. The participants were 326 SWLDs. They were selected using a multi-stage and multi-method sampling approach from 12 top QS-ranked universities in Pakistan. The data were collected online using a self-developed questionnaire, “Empowering Students with Learning Disabilities Scale (ESLDS)”. It was analyzed using jamovi software. Pearson correlation, simple linear regression, mediation, and moderation analysis were deployed to test hypotheses.

Results

The analysis showed that SWLDs’ self-advocacy (B₁ = 0.409, SE = 0.04, t[324] = 9.99, p < .001, R = .49, R² = 0.24) significantly contributes to their career readiness of SWLDs. Their academic accommodation (B = 0.233, SE = 0.04, 95% CI [0.165, 0.306], Z = 6.54, p < .001) significantly mediated the relationship between self-advocacy and career readiness. Although faculty attitudes individually contributed, the moderation effect (SA×FA) was (B = 0.081, SE = 0.05, 95% CI [-0.008, 0.176], Z = 1.72, p = .085) statistically insignificant for the relationship between self-advocacy and career readiness.

Conclusion

In this study, the researchers addressed the knowledge gap on the interplay of constructs such as self-advocacy, academic accommodations, faculty attitudes, and career readiness. This study highlights the importance of developing a supportive environment for SWLDs to address their challenges related to success in academic and professional lives. It had several implications for theory, practice, and research.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40359-026-04003-9.

Introduction

Career readiness is one of the goals of higher education for all students, regardless of their abilities and disabilities [1, 2]. Career preparedness of students with learning disabilities (SWLDs) is very challenging in resource-constrained countries. It may involve their preparedness and skill development for their inclusion at a professional level [3]. Unlike their typical peers, SWLDs face more barriers in educational institutions. They face several difficulties in applying academic skills to workplace demands. It requires academic knowledge and soft skills, resilience, empathy, and understanding of the workplace environment and job skills [4, 5]. SWLDs often face challenges in learning these skills, such as managing societal stigma and accessing career development resources [6, 7]. For SWLDs, achieving career readiness is associated with their effective use of academic accommodation at educational institutions [8].

Self-advocacy skills are very important for such students to talk about their needs for addressing academic issues [9]. SWLDS need to communicate their needs, rights, and goals to meet their educational needs [10]. These skills empower them to manage academic challenges, request accommodations, and contribute to the decision-making process for their career readiness [11, 12]. In this way, they feel more included because they can appropriately present their concerns. Students with better self-advocacy and argumentative skills find themselves more prepared for jobs [13–15]. These factors highlight the necessity of enhancing self-advocacy among SWLDs to foster success in challenging environments. Research presents that SWLDs experience lower success and career opportunities than typical individuals, partially associated with lower self-advocacy skills [16]. The research mentions that such students’ advocacy depends upon interpersonal skills and the faculty’s attitudes and support [17, 18]. They can only talk about their accommodating opportunities if they feel confident to express themselves freely.

Academic accommodation plays a significant role in facilitating SWLDs in their higher education journey [19, 20]. It includes support services and flexible timelines for submitting assignments and exams, ensuring equitable access to SWLDs [21]. However, the effectiveness of these accommodations is often not up to the required level in students’ perception [22]. The literature supports that SWLDs actively seek out and utilize accommodation to experience higher academic engagement and performance [23]. It has been seen that developed countries provide better accommodation opportunities to such students. They believe that if they are managed properly, they can be useful citizens of the community [24]. It is yet to be examined how academic accommodations for such students mediate the relationship between their advocacy skills and career readiness.

The accommodating and facilitating attitudes encourage inclusion. In this regard, university teachers are a very important and decisive factor for the inclusion of SWLDs at the university level. Their attitude toward SWLDs can help them to advocate for their needs for academic tasks [25, 26]. The research supports that faculty attitude significantly influences the experiences of SWLDs in higher education [27, 28]. A positive faculty attitude toward inclusion and institutional support develops an environment where students feel safe expressing their needs and seeking adjustments in their instruction [29, 30]. On the other hand, negative attitudes lead to barriers that hinder students’ success [31]. The literature supports that faculty members trained in disability and inclusive practices are more likely to foster supportive relationships with their students [32, 33]. This highlights the importance of institutional culture and training programs that promote inclusivity among faculty members [34].

Although various researchers around the world are conducting studies on the inclusion of SWLDs in mainstream educational institutions. However, there is limited research that explains how SWLDs develop career readiness through their self-advocacy. The researchers designed this study for SWLDs to examine how universities help them prepare for professional life. Self-advocacy is a critical skill that enables students to seek support and navigate academic demands. Academic accommodations provide structural support but are only effective when students actively utilize them. Faculty attitudes are important for students’ engagement. The objective of this study was to investigate SWLDs’ perceptions regarding the contribution of self-advocacy to their career readiness with the mediating role of academic accommodations and the moderating role of faculty attitudes.

Literature review

Self-advocacy and career readiness of SWLDs

In the current study, SWLDs’ self-advocacy was measured by their confidence in communicating their academic needs to their faculty members, their ease and belief in their abilities to seek academic accommodation, and their ability to overcome challenges associated with their learning needs, their participation in activities related to their rights, career opportunities, and societal adjustment. A study developed a self-advocacy model for the decision-making of SWLDs. They emphasized the need for occupational therapy interventions to empower their advocacy for academic and non-academic accommodations and career readiness [35]. Another study on SWLDs found that self-advocacy instruction is vital for SWLDs to foster their preparation for effective communication of their needs, which can lead to their ability to promote their career readiness by countering their academic challenges [22]. A study revealed that interpersonal communication of SWLDs and the advocacy of their needs is the main factor for their career readiness [10]. A study was carried out on the self-advocacy of SWLDs using a multi-method approach. The researchers found that self-advocacy significantly contributes to their career readiness to foster independence and success in future employment opportunities [36]. The above studies mention that advocacy is a critical factor for achieving success in academic and professional settings. Based on these arguments, the researchers designed the following directional hypothesis.

H1: Self-advocacy of SWLDs significantly contributes to their career readiness at the university level.

Self-advocacy, academic accommodation, and career readiness of SWLDs

In this study, academic accommodation for SWLDs included their perceptions of institutional provision and participants’ perceptions of extended time on exams or assignments, alternative assessment, the use of assistive technology, note-taking assistance, reduced course load, exemption from penalties for spelling and grammar errors, and breaks during class or tests. However, during the literature review process, the authors found no study on the mediating role of academic accommodation between SWLDs’ self-advocacy and career readiness. However, there were a few separate studies on these variables. For example, a study addressing issues such as legislation or accommodation for the career readiness of SWLDs emphasized the need for academic accommodation to foster institutional preparation and post-graduation success, promoting equitable opportunities in different professions [37]. According to a study that supports SWLDs’ career readiness among college students, they argued that transition planning for SWLDs is needed to foster academic accommodation and equip them for career readiness through individual education programs [38]. Another study was conducted at the university level on the academic accommodation of SWLDs to address their needs. It found that most of the students with disabilities had hidden disabilities that needed proper support to equip them for a better future and career [19]. This study advances the inquiry by conceptualizing accommodation as a mediating process shaped by self-advocacy and faculty attitudes. Another study was carried out on the role of self-advocacy in participants’ future career expectations. The researchers collected data using questionnaires from 179 college students. After analysis, they found that self-advocacy significantly contributes to career readiness [39]. The researchers developed the following directional hypothesis based on the above arguments and the literature gap.

H2: Academic accommodations of SWLDs positively mediate the relationship between their self-advocacy and career readiness at the university level.

Self-advocacy, faculty attitudes, and career readiness of SWLDs

This study measured faculty attitudes toward the career readiness of SWLDs at the university level through university teachers’ attitudes toward promoting inclusion by creating a supportive environment, encouraging communication by actively engaging with SWLDs, collaborating on accommodations by providing disability support, empowering SWLDs by acknowledging their potential and strengths, and investing in professional development by staying informed about best practices for teaching and supporting SWLDs. During the extensive literature review, the authors did not find studies on the moderating role of faculty attitudes in the relationship between self-advocacy and career readiness of SWLDs. Moreover, there was a gap in faculty members’ attitudes toward the career readiness of SWLDs. However, there were studies on these variables in isolation. For instance, A study was carried out on teachers’ attitudes toward SWLDs. The researchers collected data using a questionnaire from 70 faculty members. After analysis, they found that faculty members had positive attitudes toward SWLDs [40]. In the local context of Pakistan, after collecting data from 230 teachers, a study revealed that teachers showed attitudes toward mild disabilities and their adjustment in inclusive classrooms [31]. A study on university faculty members’ attitudes toward SWLDs revealed that faculty members had positive interactions and significant positive attitudes toward SWLDs [41]. While these findings suggest generally positive orientations among faculty, the literature rarely connects attitudes to SCT constructs of reciprocal determinism. Faculty beliefs and behaviors can either strengthen or weaken the effects of student self-advocacy on career readiness, yet this moderating role remains untested. This gap justifies the originality of the current study’s focus on faculty attitudes as a boundary condition in SCT-informed models of SWLDs’ readiness. Another study on teachers’ attitudes toward the career development of SWLDs revealed that most teachers believed SWLDs could join the labor market if appropriately trained [42]. Based on the positive attitudes of the faculty members toward SWLDs and the literature gap, the researchers formulated the following hypothesis.

H3: Faculty’s attitude toward SWLDs significantly moderates between their self-advocacy and career readiness at the university level.

Theoretical background

The current study was guided by Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), which provides an understanding of the interplay between agency, environmental factors, and behavioral outcomes [43]. The researchers in this study focused on SWLDs’ personal agency, which aligns directly with self-advocacy [44]. Regarding SWLDs, self-advocacy covers all the aspects of their ability to communicate their needs and ask for help whenever needed in their academic tasks. Thus, the researchers are of the view that if SWLDs use their personal agency to talk about their academic needs, there can be more spoken about [45]. Furthermore, SCT’s focus on reciprocal determinism represents the interaction between personal factors like self-advocacy and environmental influences. If they are combined with these students’ career readiness, they can feel more included in society after university life. Based on the SCT framework, the research was guided by the following research model (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1.

Research Model

Methodology

Research design

The researchers guided the current study to examine SWLDs’ perceptions regarding their career readiness at the university level. The researchers’ challenge was to follow the appropriate methods and techniques for data collection. The literature supports that when the survey design is suited, data collection is required from a larger group of participants to generalize the findings. Thus, the researchers employed a quantitative survey design with cross-sectional data collection to investigate relationships among the study’s constructs [46]. A survey design was chosen because it allows data collection from large and diverse samples, enhancing the generalizability and reliability of findings [47]. The selection of this design helped researchers to collect data through a self-developed questionnaire [48, 49]. This design is consistent with the literature. It further strengthened the study’s validity by helping systematic participant measurement [50, 51].

Participants

The participants were SWLDs studying at the university level in Pakistan’s top-ranked universities. The authors developed an inclusion criterion for their recruitment. Only participants who had, or had gone through, a learning disability initially identified through educational or familial referral processes, as reported by participants. This study mainly focused on learning disabilities such as dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, auditory processing disorder, non-verbal learning disability, and executive functioning disorder. Only those students who agree to volunteer participation will be selected. Criteria include involving students who use support services. Moreover, they should have at least language proficiency to understand and respond to the questionnaire. To ensure reliability in participant identification, confirmation of learning disabilities was based on documentation from institutional support services or medical/psychological professionals.

Fulfilling selection criteria, the authors selected participants using multi-method and multi-stage sampling techniques to choose 326 SWLDs from the 12 universities ranked in the QS World University Rankings 2025 in Pakistan [52]. These universities were selected from the World’s QS ranking. Among these 326 respondents, 172 (53%) were males, and 154 (47%) were females. There were almost equal numbers of students from social (162) and natural sciences (164). They have nearly equal locale backgrounds (urban = 160, rural = 166). Most of them (80%) were enrolled at the Master’s level, followed by 16% of students doing an MPhil (an extended master’s degree). While some of them (3.5%) were enrolled in Bachelors, and only two (0.5%) respondents were pursuing their PhD. Participants were recruited using a stratified sampling approach. Universities and academic disciplines were first stratified by sector (public/private) and field (social and natural sciences). Within these strata, students who met the inclusion criteria and volunteered to participate were invited through institutional channels. A simple random sampling technique was used to select willing participants. The researchers conducted a post hoc power analysis using G*Power 3.1 regarding sample adequacy. Based on a medium effect size (f² = 0.15), alpha = 0.05, and power = 0.80, the analysis indicated that a minimum of 129 participants was required for regression models with up to three predictors. Therefore, the final sample of 326 respondents exceeded the required size and ensured sufficient statistical power for the planned analyses.

Measure and data collection

The authors reviewed the literature to find valid and reliable instruments for SWLDs. The researchers found a few tools to identify their attitudes and adjustments in mainstream education. However, no tool was found to fit the current study’s context or measure their responses to the study’s variables guided by SCT. The researchers developed the Empowering Students with LDs Scale (ESLDS) questionnaire after a sufficient literature review. Moreover, the researchers conducted informal discussions with university students with learning disabilities to ensure that the items reflected their lived experiences. The authors included their voices. The first part of the ESLDS was about participants’ gender, locality, discipline, and the program they were enrolled in. The second part comprised four sub-scales. Initially, a pool of 26 items was created on a five-point Likert scale with options ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). These were later refined through a rigorous expert opinion and pilot testing process. The authors revised items and modified the ESLDS based on the feedback of three practicing experts (PhDs). Experts mainly gave input on the items’ relevance to the study’s aim and hypotheses. The reliability results were acceptable for each of the constructs (higher than 0.70 Cronbach’s alpha). Then, the final questionnaire was shared with participants, and data were collected face-to-face and online (Google Forms). The questionnaire had a brief section for participants’ volunteer participation and consent procedure. The data were collected in two months (March and April 2025). The sample items and final reliability analysis are presented in Table 1.

Table 1.

Sample items of ESLDS and reliability

Sr #	Sub-scales	Items	α	Sample items	Literature review
1	Self-advocacy (SA)	5	0.72	• I advocate for myself to access accommodation and support when needed. • I feel myself expressive discussing my learning disability with university staff.	[11, 16, 17, 22, 24, 35, 36, 39]
2	Academic accommodation (AA)	5	0.79	• The university has flexible schedules to support students with learning disabilities. • The academic accommodations positively improved my learning outcomes.	[19, 20, 22, 23, 35]
3	Faculty attitude (FA)	5	0.80	• I feel respected by my professors despite my learning disability. • My professors are approachable when I need additional academic support.	[32, 34, 40, 41, 53–56]
4	Career readiness (CR)	5	0.74	• I am confident in articulating my strengths and abilities in professional settings. • My university experience has prepared me well for professional challenges.	[1, 37, 38, 57, 58]

Table 1 reveals that Cronbach’s alpha values of all sub-scales range between 0.72 and 0.80, higher than the threshold value of 0.70 for the scale’s suitability and acceptance. To ensure the questionnaire’s construct and convergent validity, the researchers conducted exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, showing the model’s fitness. The EFA supported a four-factor solution consistent with the hypothesized subscales, with all factor loadings above 0.60. CFA further validated this structure, indicating good construct validity. As it was not the paper’s subject, considering the journal’s word count constraint, it is not reported here. However, the model fit indices (χ²/df = 2.10, RMSEA = 0.06, TLI = 0.93, CFI = 0.92) indicated an acceptable to good model fit.

Research ethics

The current study was approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the School Education Department, Government of Punjab, Pakistan (SED/KSR/3370/AD-III) and ensured that it posed no risk or side effects to the participants. All procedures were conducted under the ethical standards outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki and relevant national policies in Pakistan. Informed consent to participate was obtained from all participants before data collection. The current study involved SWLDs. Thus, the researchers ensured specific ethical protocols while collecting data from them [59]. The first part of the questionnaire had a consent question with a brief description of the study’s objective. The authors obtained consent from participants rather than their parents and carers by demonstrating their volunteer participation in the current study. Their rights and dignity were ensured during the data collection process. For instance, no such questions were asked that could reveal their identities. Respecting their privacy, the data was protected using the password option and was not used for anything other than this study. They were provided with clear information, and the language of the items was kept very simple and understandable. No physical or psychological threat was involved as the data were collected online. They could answer the questionnaire in their own easy and comfortable time, living on their university campuses or in residential areas. They were given the right to withdraw the data collection process if they felt any inconvenience.

Results

The researchers collected and screened the data. It was analyzed using jamovi software (version 2.7.5). This software was used for its accessibility, transparency, and suitability. It has advanced functions for conducting statistical analyses. Before testing the study’s hypothesis, the authors tested the assumptions of parametric statistics. The data showed normal distribution after deploying the Shapiro-Wilk test (W = 0.97, p =.42). The Levene’s test was carried out to explore the homogeneity of the variance (F[2,301] = 1.25, p =.13). It indicated the equal variance across groups. The results of the correlation among sub-scale variables are presented in Table 2.

Table 2.

Correlation analysis (N = 326)

Sub-scale variables	1	2	3
Self-advocacy (SA)	1
Academic accommodation (AA)	0.47***	1
Faculty attitude (FA)		0.68***	1
Career readiness (CR)			0.60***

***p <.001

In Table 2, the authors provide the nature and magnitude of relationships among the study’s constructs. It was found that there is a positive, moderate, and statistically significant relationship between SWLDs’ self-advocacy and academic accommodation (r =.47, n = 326, p <.001). The relationship between academic accommodation and faculty attitude was found to be strong, positive, and statistically significant (r =.68, n = 326, p <.001). This analysis provided the foundation for further analysis, such as simple linear regression and mediation. The graphical representation of the correlations between sub-scale variables is presented in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2.

Correlation Matrix

The researchers created the H1 to explore how much SWLDs’ self-advocacy contributes to their career readiness at the university level. Simple linear regression analysis was carried out, and the results are presented in Table 3.

Table 3.

Contribution of Self-Advocacy to career readiness

Predictor	Estimate	SE	t	p
Intercept	2.463	0.17	15.24	< 0.001
Self-Advocacy (SA)	0.409	0.04	9.99	< 0.001
R =.49, R2 = 0.24, F(1, 324) = 99.8, p <.001

Dependent variable: CR Career readiness

In Table 3, the intercept (B₀ = 2.463, SE = 0.17, t[324] = 15.24, p <.001) indicates that when self-advocacy is zero, students’ career readiness was at 2.463, and this was significant. The self-advocacy estimate (B₁ = 0.409, SE = 0.04, t[324] = 9.99, p <.001) suggests that for every one-unit increase in self-advocacy, career readiness increases by 0.409 units. This increase is estimated when all other variables are held constant. The results indicate that self-advocacy significantly contributes to SWLDs’ career readiness at the university level if they advocate for their needs well. The coefficients (R =.49, R² = 0.24) show that this model explains approximately 24% of the total variance in career readiness. This variance is only caused by their proper advocacy. The overall model was also statistically significant (F[1, 324] = 99.8, p <.001). This shows that self-advocacy contributes to SWLD’s career readiness. The graphical representation of the regression estimates is presented in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3.

Estimated Marginal Means

The second hypothesis examined the mediational role of academic accommodation between SWLDs’ self-advocacy and career readiness in universities. H2 was tested at the 95% confidence interval (CI) with a bootstrap sample of 1000 using mediation analysis, and the results are presented in Table 4.

Table 4.

Mediational effect of academic accommodation between Self-Advocacy and career readiness

			95% Confidence Interval
Effect	Estimate	SE	Lower	Upper	Z	p	% Mediation
Indirect	0.233	0.04	0.165	0.306	6.54	< 0.001	57
Direct	0.176	0.05	0.077	0.284	3.41	< 0.001	43
Total	0.409	0.06	0.283	0.536	6.56	< 0.001	100

Table 4 provides the results for H2. The analysis provides the direct, indirect, and total effects of self-advocacy on SWLDs’ career readiness in the presence of academic accommodation as a mediator. The indirect effect was statistically significant (B = 0.233, SE = 0.04, 95% CI [0.165, 0.306], Z = 6.54, p <.001). It indicates that the mediator plays a significant role in the relationship between self-advocacy and career readiness by accounting for 57% of the total effect. The direct effect was also statistically significant (B = 0.176, SE = 0.05, 95% CI [0.077, 0.284], Z = 3.41, p <.001). Even after accounting for the mediation pathways, the analysis shows that self-advocacy is directly related to career readiness, contributing to 43% of the total effect. Supporting H2, the analysis reveals that academic accommodation has a significant role as a mediator between self-advocacy and career readiness of SWLDs. The graphical presentation of the mediation estimates is presented in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4.

Mediation Plot

The third hypothesis examined the moderating effect of faculty members’ attitudes towards SWLDs on their self-advocacy and career readiness. To test H3, the researchers deployed moderation with the bootstrap sample of 1000 on 95% of the CI. The results of the moderation analysis are presented in Table 5.

Table 5.

Moderation estimates

			95% Confidence Interval
Variables	Estimate	SE	Lower	Upper	Z	P
Self-advocacy (SA)	0.214	0.06	0.112	0.334	3.88	< 0.001
Faculty attitude (FA)	0.400	0.05	0.287	0.499	7.44	< 0.001
SA*FA	0.081	0.05	− 0.008	0.176	1.72	0.085

Table 5 provides the results for H3. The analysis revealed that self-advocacy and faculty attitudes are essential for the career readiness of SWLDs. It was found that the main effect of self-advocacy of SWLDs significantly contributes to their career readiness (B = 0.214, SE = 0.06, 95% CI [0.112, 0.334], Z = 3.88, p <.001). Similarly, the main effect of faculty members’ attitudes significantly contributes (B = 0.400, SE = 0.05, 95% CI [0.287, 0.499], Z = 7.44, p <.001) to the career development of SWLDs. However, the interaction effect (SA*FA) was not statistically significant (B = 0.081, SE = 0.05, 95% CI [−0.008, 0.176], Z = 1.72, p =.085). Although the direction of the effect indicates a potential interaction between SA and FA, the lack of statistical significance implies that FA does not significantly moderate the relationship between self-advocacy and career readiness of SWLDs. The non-significant moderation effect indicates that faculty attitude does not alter the strength of the relationship between self-advocacy and career readiness. The graphical representation of the moderation analysis is presented in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5.

Simple Slope Plot

Discussion

The present study was guided by Bandura’s SCT, using its postulates and implications for human agency and the agentic nature of human perspective. In line with SCT, self-advocacy represents personal agency, academic accommodation reflects environmental influence, and faculty attitude demonstrates the reciprocal nature of social interactions. Both of these constructs apply the principle of reciprocal determinism to explain how personal and contextual factors shape career readiness. The authors found that SWLDs’ self-advocacy is a significant predictor and contributor to their career readiness. This implies that if these students could speak up for their rights and advocate for their basic needs and skills, they would get the guidance and potential support leading to their professional preparedness at university and post-graduation success. This study supported the findings of various previous studies, which mentioned that self-advocacy significantly contributes to career readiness and the learning behavior required for future success [10, 22, 35]. This implies they may get better career opportunities if the respondents advocate for their voices.

The second hypothesis was designed to examine the mediating role of academic accommodation for SWLDs in Pakistan’s top-ranked 12 universities between their self-advocacy and career readiness. The mediation analysis is consistent with SCT because it models how environmental supports, such as academic accommodations, channel the effect of personal agency (self-advocacy) on career outcomes. This aligns with Bandura’s view that agency operates through social and structural facilitators. After developing a mediation analysis, it was found that academic accommodation mediates the relationship of said variables, with self-advocacy’s significant and positive role and its direct and indirect contribution. This implies that when the social aspect of SCT is applied, it helps participants to achieve their desired goals by advocating for their adequate accommodations in the schedule of academic activities, such as exams, presentations, and assignments (altered and flexible patterns). Addressing the research gap for mediation analysis for the mentioned factors, the current findings provided pertinent evidence that if SWLDs help themselves gain their potential university facilities, they can get better academic outcomes, leading to their post-graduation success in professional settings. This study partially supported the findings of previous studies that argued that academic accommodations and potential readiness for career and post-graduation are linked to each other [19, 37, 38]. Thus, the researchers believe the relationship between SWLDs’ self-advocacy and their career readiness is mediated by their efforts to obtain academic accommodation that caters to their unique needs in their academic pursuits at the university level.

The third hypothesis was designed to examine the moderating role of faculty attitudes on the relationship between SWLDs’ self-advocacy and career readiness. Self-advocacy and faculty attitude independently contributed to career readiness. However, the interaction between these variables was not statistically significant. Therefore, faculty attitude did not function as a moderator in this relationship. Thus, the current study partially supported the findings of previous studies, which argued that the faculty’s positive attitude might help SWLDs attain their potential readiness for life after study [41, 42]. This implies that faculty support SWLDs in learning soft and professional skills required in professional settings.

Conclusion

The current study was an effort to examine how various institutional and personal factors at the university level influence the career readiness of SWLDs. Universities are considered the terminal institutions for developing soft and professional skills among students. After graduation, most students join different professions to contribute to personal and national economic growth. Following Bandura’s SCT, it was found that self-advocacy of SWLDs significantly contributes to their career readiness at the university level. At this level, students are mature adults and can advocate for their needs, considering their learning potential. It was also found that if SWLDs were provided with adequate support and academic accommodations, they feel much more satisfied and prepared to learn professional etiquette and soft skills for post-graduation jobs. It was also found that faculty attitude is critical in making these students more valuable and contributing individuals who might help themselves, their families, and the country’s economy. The study’s outcomes substantiate prior findings while extending knowledge in higher-education research on disabilities, thereby contributing context-specific evidence from a developing-country perspective. Through this study, the researchers extended the implications of Bandura’s SCT using the mediation-moderation research model. This study is a significant addition to the literature, which fills several knowledge and methodological gaps. It is one of the pioneering studies in developing countries, such as Pakistan, which mentioned the need for careers for SWLDs, considering them a significant segment of society, and presented several critical results for them. This study is novel as it simultaneously examines self-advocacy, academic accommodation, and faculty attitude concerning the career readiness of SWLDs. This combination has not been tested in contexts in developing countries such as Pakistan.

Limitations and future research

This research presents some very strong implications. However, it had some limitations as well. These limitations can be addressed in future studies. For example, the researchers collected data from only those students who experienced learning disabilities. Thus, the results cannot represent students with other psychological or physical disabilities. This limitation can be addressed by including students with other disabilities as well. The sample consisted predominantly of postgraduate students, with limited representation from undergraduate programs. As a result, the findings may be more representative of postgraduate SWLDs. However, this limitation can be addressed by selecting a balanced sample by including undergraduate students. Another limitation was that the sample was limited to university students, which may not capture the experiences of SWLDs in schools or colleges. Future research should include different educational levels to better understand variations across contexts. Another limitation was that the authors employed a cross-sectional design (survey) that provides only a current image and situation of the phenomenon. Moreover, the researchers relied on self-reported data; common method bias (CMB) is also possible. To address this limitation, the researchers suggested adding another data collection method to enhance participants’ rigor. The researchers also suggest longitudinal research and experimental studies to get detailed evidence on relationships and contextual factors.

Implications

The study had several theoretical and practical implications for universities and policy, faculty members, and students with learning disabilities.

Theoretical implications

The researchers followed SCT for the case of SWLDs to check its individual, institutional, and interpersonal aspects. The researchers concluded that the study’s construct regarding self-advocacy is important for participants’ personal development. Moreover, SWLDs can prepare themselves more if they are provided with institutional support in the form of academic accommodation. This indicates the need for institutional support with their individual effort to get ready for the future. Moreover, the non-significant moderating effect of faculty attitude indicates the need to refine models that overemphasize faculty influence. Beyond validating SCT in the context of SWLDs, this study extends the theory by demonstrating that individual agency (self-advocacy) and institutional support (academic accommodations) enhance SWLDs’ career readiness. This merger of individual and institutional support reflects SCT’s principle of triadic reciprocity, where person, behavior, and environment reinforce each other.

For universities and policy

The current study highlights the need for developing an actionable policy for such students. For example, the researchers found that academic accommodation is a significant predictor of SWLDs’ career readiness. Thus, universities are suggested to make their academic schedules flexible for such students by providing them with all the basic and operational needs. The researchers also believe that teachers and department heads can play their roles in the adjustment of SWLDs. They can provide them with the necessary and important arrangements for their professional development. They can also propose university-level frameworks or standing procedures to bridge theory and action for skills development among SWLDs.

For faculty

The researchers found that faculty attitudes are an important predictor of the career readiness of SWLDs. Thus, they are suggested to attend workshops and seminars on their successful inclusion in practical fields after their degrees. They are also suggested to design inclusive courses for such students by providing more open and flexible opportunities.

For students with learning disabilities

The findings highlight that self-advocacy is a crucial aspect of their life to master their professional skills. Universities are the terminal platform for their success. Thus, with the help of their personal efforts and institutional support, they can learn various job-related skills. Thus, they are guided to participate in institutional talks about the provision of flexible schedules and other accommodations to enhance their inclusion at the institutional and professional levels.

Abbreviations

SWLDs

Students With Learning Disabilities

SCT

Social Cognitive Theory

ESLDS

Empowering Students with Learning Disabilities Scale

SA

Self-Advocacy

AA

Academic Accommodation

CR

Career Readiness

FA

Faculty Attitude

Authors’ contributions

A.I.A. and S.I. designed this study. A.I.A. supervised, collected data, and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. S.I. refined its language and contributed to methodology. Both authors made important contributions to revising the manuscript. Both authors contributed, read, and edited the manuscript and approved the submitted version.

Funding

This study was supported by the Deanship of Scientific Research and Vice President for Graduate Studies and Scientific Research, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa, Saudi Arabia, Grant number KFU260228.

Data availability

Data is available and can be provided on a reasonable request.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

The School Education Department, Government of Punjab, Pakistan, approved this study vide reference number (SED/KSR/3370/AD-III) and ensured that it posed no risk or side effects to the participants. All procedures were conducted under the ethical standards outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki and relevant national policies in Pakistan. Informed consent to participate was obtained from all participants before data collection.

Consent for publication

Not Applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.