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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2026 Mar 7.
Published in final edited form as: Body Image. 2025 Dec 8;56:102017. doi: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2025.102017

Changes in Weight Talk and Links with Body Satisfaction Across Adolescence and Young Adulthood

Anna K Hochgraf 1,2, Kayla Johnson 1, Annie Youngblood 1, Kaitlyn Adams 3, Katie Loth 4, Dianne Neumark-Sztainer 1
PMCID: PMC12965392  NIHMSID: NIHMS2132378  PMID: 41365086

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to illuminate the developmental trajectories of weight talk (i.e., encouragement to diet) from parents and romantic partners and the developmental timing of weight talk as a risk factor for body satisfaction across adolescence and young adulthood. Participants were 994 individuals (53.1% female; 34.9% White, 27.2% Black, 20.9% Asian, 11.7% multiracial) enrolled in a longitudinal cohort study in the U.S. (T1 M age = 14.4 years; T3 M age = 27.6 years). Multilevel tobit regression was used to examine trajectories of weight talk across development. Time-varying effect modeling (TVEM) was used to chart changes in the association between weight talk and body satisfaction as a function of age. Tobit results indicated negative, linear growth curves for weight talk from mothers (γ = −0.06, p < .001), fathers (γ = −0.10, p < .001), and romantic partners (γ = −0.11, p < .001). TVEM results indicated that the associations between weight talk and body satisfaction were negative and significant for mothers between ages 12.0 - 30.0 years, fathers between ages 14.7 - 23.1 years, and romantic partners between ages 19.7 - 25.2, and 27.6 - 30.0 years. Findings indicate that weight talk from parents and romantic partners decreases across adolescence and young adulthood; yet the impact of weight talk on body satisfaction does not necessarily decrease. Parent and romantic partner weight talk vary in their relevance to body satisfaction across adolescence and young adulthood. Findings have implications for theory and prevention of body image concerns.

Keywords: weight talk, body image, development, adolescence, young adulthood, longitudinal study

1. Introduction

Weight talk encompasses a broad range of comments related to weight, including weight-based criticism or encouragement to diet, as well as more subtle comments, such as praise for weight loss. Exposure to weight talk from parents or peers is common during adolescence and young adulthood and is associated with adverse psychological and behavioral health outcomes, including body image concerns (Berge et al., 2019; Dahill et al., 2021; Gillison et al., 2016; Puhl et al., 2017; Simone et al., 2021). Weight talk can perpetuate weight stigma by reinforcing unrealistic body ideals and negative stereotypes about larger body sizes (Pudney et al., 2019). In turn, this can lead to internalized weight bias and body image concerns (Pudney et al., 2019). Although weight talk can be well-intentioned, it can have detrimental effects on body image, particularly among girls and women (Berge et al., 2019; Puhl et al., 2017, 2022). Indeed, sociocultural pressure from parents and peers to conform to societal beauty ideals is theorized to have a prominent role in the development of body image concerns (Burke et al., 2021; Tylka, 2011). A critical next step for research is to shed light on changes in weight talk from different sources across development and identify sensitive periods when weight talk is most strongly linked to body image concerns.

1.1. Developmental Trajectories of Weight Talk from Parents and Romantic Partners

The developmental course of exposure to weight talk across adolescence and young adulthood is unknown, including potential changes in the sources of weight talk over time. Most prior studies on weight talk have presented the prevalence or odds of experiencing any weight talk at different stages of development (Berge et al., 2019; Eisenberg et al., 2012; Winkler et al., 2018). Although this information is valuable, it does not necessarily correspond to within-person changes in the level (or frequency) of weight talk across development. However, prior research from our team using a different cohort indicated that parent weight talk decreased from early to middle adolescence for boys and girls, and from middle to late adolescence for boys (Bauer et al., 2011). Parent weight talk increased from middle to late adolescence for girls, but the effect size was small (Bauer et al., 2011). Findings from another longitudinal study by our research team suggested that adolescents who experienced parent weight talk were more likely to experience parent weight talk in young adulthood, which suggests some degree of continuity across these developmental periods (Eisenberg et al., 2011).

There is reason to expect that levels of parent weight talk may be highest in adolescence and decline as youth transition to adulthood. Adolescents may experience high levels of weight talk from mothers and fathers due to weight gain associated with pubertal development (Markey, 2010) and higher day-to-day parental involvement relative to later developmental periods (Fang et al., 2021). These weight-related conversations may be initiated by either parents or adolescents themselves (Puhl et al., 2022), and may be more frequent among adolescents in larger bodies. Parents who perceive their adolescents to have excess weight are more likely to encourage dieting (Winkler et al., 2018), and young adults with higher body mass indices (BMI) report significantly more weight talk from their parents relative to young adults with lower BMIs (Eisenberg et al., 2011). Parent weight talk may decrease as adolescents transition into adulthood and gain more independence from their family of origin.

Findings from a systematic review of research on weight talk between parents and adolescents revealed that fathers are underrepresented in this literature (Yourell et al., 2021). However, family systems theory (Cox & Paley, 1997) and prior research (Hochgraf et al., 2021; Lisse et al., 2022; May et al., 2006) highlight that mothers and fathers are not interchangeable, and that fathers can have distinct relationships with their offspring that contribute to youth body image. In line with this idea, a study of Australian adolescents indicated that girls may be more likely to receive weight-related comments from their mothers, whereas boys may be more likely to receive such comments from their fathers (Dahill et al., 2021). An important next step is to examine changes in weight talk from both mothers and fathers across development.

Little is known about changes in weight talk from romantic partners across young adulthood. Establishing a romantic relationship characterized by intimacy and commitment is considered to be a developmental task of young adulthood (Rauer et al., 2013; Schulenberg et al., 2004). The nature of romantic relationships, which often involve physical intimacy and attention to appearance, may promote weight talk. Additionally, increases in shared time with romantic partners over the course of young adulthood may provide greater opportunities for exposure to weight talk from romantic partners. Thus, there may be increases in weight talk from romantic partners across young adulthood. That said, trajectories of weight talk from romantic partners may depend on body size and gender. Young adults with higher BMIs report more weight talk from their romantic partners than their peers with lower BMIs (Eisenberg et al., 2011). Extant research also suggests that men may experience more weight talk from romantic partners than women (Berge et al., 2019; Eisenberg et al., 2011). An important next step toward informing theory is to investigate changes in levels and sources of weight talk (i.e., mothers, fathers, and romantic partners) across development as well as the roles of gender and BMI.

1.2. Developmental Timing of Weight Talk as a Risk Factor for Body Image Concerns

Another gap in our knowledge of weight talk during these developmental periods is whether the strength of the association between weight talk and body image concerns varies across age. According to Life Course Theory, the timing of an experience has implications for its impact on development (Elder et al., 2003). That is, weight talk may pose greater risk for body image concerns at certain ages. Among girls, body image concerns typically increase across adolescence and for many, persist into adulthood (Lam & McHale, 2012; Wang et al., 2019). Boys typically experience lower levels of body image concerns relative to girls and their body image concerns stabilize following initial increases in early adolescence (Lam & McHale, 2012). Adolescent girls and boys with elevated BMIs are particularly vulnerable to developing body image concerns (Quick et al., 2013). Theories of body image development among girls and women suggest that sociocultural pressure to be thin, such as weight talk that focuses on dieting, leads to internalization of thin ideals of beauty (Burke et al., 2021). In turn, perceived discrepancies between thin ideals and individuals’ actual bodies lead to body image concerns (Burke et al., 2021). Theories of body image development for boys and men emphasize sociocultural pressure to conform to muscular ideals; minimizing body fat is an important yet less central concern aimed at promoting muscle definition (Tylka, 2011). It is unclear whether weight talk is more strongly associated with body image concerns at certain ages; that is, whether there are sensitive periods when individuals exposed to weight talk may be particularly vulnerable to body image concerns.

Given differential pathways and risk for body image concerns by gender, links between weight talk and body image concerns may be stronger among girls/women than boys/men, and the developmental timing of weight talk as a risk factor for body image concerns may depend on gender. That said, a study by our research team using a different sample found that cumulative encouragement to diet from parents and romantic partners across adolescence and young adulthood predicted lower body satisfaction among both women and men during adulthood, and differences in magnitude were small (Berge et al., 2019). Investigating the ages when weight talk from parents and romantic partners is most strongly associated with body image concerns will inform theory on the development of body image concerns as well as the timing of developmentally sensitive interventions. Moreover, investigating gender differences in the timing of risk will indicate whether such interventions should be tailored by gender.

1.3. Current Study

This study aims to advance developmental theory and prevention efforts for body image concerns by documenting trajectories of weight talk (specifically, encouragement to diet) from mothers, fathers, and romantic partners from adolescence through young adulthood and the developmental timing of weight talk as a risk factor for body satisfaction across these same developmental periods. The current study builds upon prior research by examining changes in exposure to weight talk across the longest span of development to date and providing new insights into the developmental timing of weight talk as a risk factor for body image concerns. We focused on encouragement to diet, one form of weight talk that is prevalent during adolescence and young adulthood (Berge et al., 2019). We hypothesized that trajectories of weight talk from mothers and fathers would decrease from adolescence to adulthood, but that the level and rate of change would depend on gender and BMI. That is, girls/women and individuals in larger bodies were expected to experience higher levels and slower rates of change in weight talk relative to their peers. We hypothesized that weight talk from romantic partners would increase across young adulthood, but that men and individuals in larger bodies would experience higher levels and faster rates of change. Finally, we expected that weight talk from any source would predict lower levels of body satisfaction during adolescence and young adulthood, particularly for girls and women. Due to the lack of extant research and theory on developmental timing of weight talk, our investigation of ages when the link between weight talk and body satisfaction was strongest was exploratory.

2. Method

2.1. Participants and Procedures

Adolescents were recruited from middle schools and high schools in the Midwestern United States to participate in Project Eating and Activity over Time (EAT), a longitudinal study of eating, activity and weight-related health. At Time 1 (T1, 2010), youth assented to participate in the study and their parents provided informed consent. At subsequent time points, participants reviewed the consent form and completion of the survey implied written consent. Trained staff administered the survey to participants at T1 during select school class periods. At Times 2 and 3 (T2, 2018; T3, 2023) participants had the option of completing the survey by mail or online. All study procedures were approved by the university’s institutional review board.

A total of 2,793 adolescents completed surveys at T1. The analytic sample included 994 participants who were retained through T3, which occurred 13 years later. Inverse probability weights were created to minimize bias due to attrition across time points (Seaman & White, 2013). In line with the geographic area from which they were recruited, participants were racially/ethnically diverse; 34.9% were White (38.9% Latinx), 27.2% were Black (5.1% Latinx), 20.9% were Asian (1.5% Latinx), 3.1% were Native American (61.0% Latinx), 11.7% were multiple races (20.8% Latinx), and 2.3% were another race (78.2% Latinx). Slightly more than half of the sample reported a female gender identity (53.1% female, 46.9% male). The mean age of the sample was 14.4 years at T1 (range = 11.0 – 20.0), 22.1 years at T2 (range = 18.0 – 30.0), and 27.6 years at T3 (range = 24.00 – 35.0). Approximately 30% of mothers’ and 28% of fathers’ highest level of education was a high school degree or less.

2.2. Measures

Measures were selected based on theory and to allow for comparison with other epidemiological studies (Bandura, 1986; Sallis et al., 2008). Measures were also reviewed by content experts and focus groups of diverse youth prior to use in this study (Neumark-Sztainer et al., 2002). Weight talk, specifically encouragement to diet, from mothers, fathers, and romantic partners was assessed with the item: “My mother/father/significant other encourages me to diet to control my weight.” The response scale ranged from 0 = not at all, 1 = a little bit, 2 = somewhat, and 3 = very much. This measure has been used extensively in research and is considered a valid indicator of weight talk (Bauer et al., 2011; Berge et al., 2019; Neumark-Sztainer et al., 2003; Simone et al., 2021). Weight talk from mothers and fathers was assessed at all three time points, and weight talk from romantic partners was assessed at T2 and T3. Missing data ranged from 3-5% for weight talk from mothers and 9-14% for weight talk from fathers across the three waves. The distribution of weight talk was not normal and could not be transformed to approximate a normal distribution; a large proportion of responses had values of zero. Therefore, we accounted for this in our analyses (see Analyses section for more details).

Body Satisfaction was assessed with the 13-item Body Shape Satisfaction Scale (Pingitore et al., 1997) which captures satisfaction with aspects of appearance (i.e., height, weight, body shape, waist, hips, thighs, stomach, face, body build, shoulders, muscles, chest, overall body fat). Participants rated satisfaction with each aspect of appearance on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = very dissatisfied to 5 = very satisfied, and possible scores ranged from 13 to 65. This measure was developed for young adults and has also been shown to have convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity among adolescents (Bucchianeri et al., 2013; P. A. van den Berg et al., 2010). Cronbach’s alphas suggested high internal consistency: α = .94 at T1, T2, and T3, and <1% of the data were missing at each time point.

Participants also reported their gender (coded 0 = girl/woman, 1 = boy/man), height and weight, date of birth, and race. For consistency across time points, we used self-reports of height and weight to calculate BMI. We also collected objective measurements of height and weight at T1, and the high correlation between BMI based on self-reported and objective height and weight (r = .88) suggests reasonable concordance between measurement types. Date of birth was used to calculate exact age in years.

2.3. Analyses

We used multilevel tobit regression to estimate change in weight talk from parents and romantic partners across development. Multilevel tobit regression enabled us to estimate growth curve models that accounted for the censored distribution of the weight talk variables (Tobin, 1958; Twisk & Rijmen, 2009). STATA handled missing data using observation-level listwise deletion. Rows containing missing values were excluded from analysis, while remaining rows for the same participant were retained. Due to small differences in missing data for mothers and fathers, the n’s varied between models (n = 986 for the main effects multilevel tobit model estimating the trajectory of mother weight talk; n = 972 for the corresponding model estimating father weight talk). Models were weighted with inverse probability weights and age in years was used as the metric of time. For each source of weight talk (i.e., mother, father, and romantic partner), we estimated three models. Model 1 estimated the growth curve of weight talk across development adjusting for covariates (i.e., BMI, gender, and race). Race was included as a covariate because there may be differences in weight talk across racial groups (Trofholz et al., 2023; P. van den Berg et al., 2008). Models 2 and 3 included cross-level interactions to assess whether the weight talk trajectories differed by gender or BMI, respectively. We specified the lower limit of weight talk as zero (i.e., the minimum value due to the censored distribution). For the parent weight talk models, age was centered on age 14 years, the mean age of the sample at T1. For the romantic partner weight talk models, age was centered on age 22 years, the mean age of the sample at T2 (i.e., the first time point when romantic partner weight talk was measured). BMI was centered on a value of 24.9, the last value in the “healthy weight” category (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2024) to facilitate interpretation of results. We evaluated the need for random slopes; however, random slopes ultimately were not included in our final models due to minimal variation in participants’ rates of change. We also examined potential quadratic effects of parent weight talk from mothers and fathers across the three time points, but these effects were not significant.

We used time-varying effect modeling (TVEM) to examine the developmental timing of associations between weight talk from mothers, fathers, and romantic partners and body satisfaction and whether these associations were moderated by gender. TVEM is a novel extension of linear regression that enables estimation of how associations between variables vary as nonparametric, continuous functions of age (Lanza & Linden-Carmichael, 2021; Li et al., 2017). We used weighted B-spline models with random intercepts, which enabled us to account for repeated measures within individuals and apply inverse probability weights. The TVEM SAS macro produces plots, or coefficient curves, that depict how the association between two variables (i.e., weight talk and body satisfaction) varies as a continuous function of age (TVEM SAS Macro, 2017). The association is statistically significant at ages when the 95% confidence interval does not include zero. TVEM uses all available data to estimate coefficient curves (Li et al., 2017). For the TVEMs for parent weight talk, we removed observations below age 12 and above 30 years, as observations outside of this age range were too sparse to reliably estimate TVEMs. We created three binary variables to represent exposure to mother, father, and romantic partner weight talk. Consistent with the multilevel tobit models, BMI was centered on a value of 24.9. TVEMs for each source of weight talk were estimated in several steps. First, we estimated a main effects model that included coefficients for the intercept, weight talk, gender, BMI, and race. The covariates BMI and race were initially specified to have time-varying effects with the intention of respecifying them as time-invariant if these effects were static or non-significant across age. Second, we added a two-way interaction between weight talk and gender predicting body satisfaction. Third, we systematically selected the number of knots for each age-varying effect in our final models to minimize Akaike’s Information Criterion and Bayesian Information Criterion (Lanza & Linden-Carmichael, 2021; Li et al., 2017).

2.4. Transparency and Openness

We reported how we determined our sample size and exclusions (see Participants and Procedures) as well as all measures used in this study (see Measures). The data and code for this analysis may be made available upon reasonable request to the corresponding author with permission of the University of Minnesota. Multilevel tobit models were estimated in Stata version 18.0. TVEMs were estimated in SAS version 9.4 and plot data were exported to RStudio and plotted using ggplot. This study was not pre-registered.

3. Results

3.1. Descriptive Statistics

Correlations and weighted means for key study variables are presented in Table 1. Gender was positively correlated with body satisfaction at T2 and T3, such that girls and women reported lower levels of body satisfaction compared to boys and men. BMI was consistently positively correlated with weight talk from mothers, fathers, and romantic partners across all time points, such that individuals with higher BMIs reported more weight talk from all sources. In addition, BMI was negatively correlated with body satisfaction across time points. Mother, father, and romantic partner weight talk were positively correlated with each other and negatively correlated with body satisfaction across time points. The sample mean for BMI was within the “healthy weight” category as defined by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention at T1 and within the “overweight” category at T2 and T3 (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2024). The sample means for weight talk correspond to low to moderate levels of weight talk for all sources and time points. Sample means for body satisfaction were just above the midpoint of the scale.

Table 1.

Correlations and Weighted Means for Key Study Variables

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
1. Gender ---
2. T1 BMI .03 ---
3. T2 BMI −.03 .68*** ---
4. T3 BMI −.04 .63*** .83*** ---
5. T1 M Wt Talk .04 .40*** .33*** .32*** ---
6. T2 M Wt Talk −.00 .20*** .30*** .28*** .29*** ---
7. T3 M Wt Talk −.05 .22*** .34*** .38*** .28*** .44*** ---
8. T1 F Wt Talk .06† .32*** .27*** .23*** .62*** .19*** .20*** ---
9. T2 F Wt Talk .02 .18*** .26*** .23*** .23*** .45*** .26*** .24*** ---
10. T3 F Wt Talk .02 .19*** .22*** .23*** .19*** .23*** .45*** .27*** .37*** ---
11. T2 RP Wt Talk .00 .22*** .29*** .26*** .23*** .40*** .30*** .16** .39*** .18*** ---
12. T3 RP Wt Talk .04 .22*** .32*** .32*** .18*** .31*** .43*** .09* .21*** .21*** .44*** ---
13. T1 Body Satis. .06† −.37*** −.30*** −.32*** −.30*** −.13*** −.20*** −.20*** −.14*** −.14*** −.25*** −.07† ---
14. T2 Body Satis. .14*** −.29*** −.40*** −.37*** −.21*** −.23*** −.24*** −.16*** −.22*** −.13*** −.37*** −.19*** .38*** ---
15. T3 Body Satis. .14*** −.27*** −.31*** −.37*** −.15*** −.17*** −.26*** −.14*** −.17*** −.18*** −.26*** −.27*** .39*** .58*** ---
Weighted Mean --- 23.18 27.19 29.22 1.80 2.02 1.72 1.61 1.67 1.35 2.20 1.78 43.70 42.25 40.84
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†

p < .10

*

p < .05

**

p < .01

***

p < .001

Note. Gender is coded 0 = female, 1 = male. T1 = time 1, T2 = time 2, T3 = time 3. BMI = body mass index. M = mother, F = father, RP = romantic partner. Wt = weight. Romantic partner weight talk was not assessed at T1. Satis = satisfaction.

3.2. Developmental Trajectories of Weight Talk

Tables 2a, 2b, and 2c present results from multilevel tobit models with no interaction terms (Model 1; Main Effects), with age X gender interactions (Model 2), and with age X BMI interactions (Model 3). Results from Model 1 indicated negative, linear trajectories of mother weight talk (γ = −0.06, SE = 0.01, p < .001), father weight talk (γ = −0.10, SE = 0.01, p < .001), and romantic partner weight talk (γ = −0.11, SE = 0.02, p < .001), adjusting for gender, BMI, and race. Gender was not a statistically significant predictor of the level of weight talk from mothers but was a significant predictor of weight talk from fathers (γ = .51, SE = 0.13, p < .001) and romantic partners (γ = 0.36, SE = 0.15, p = .02). Specifically, boys/men experienced higher levels of weight talk from fathers and romantic partners than girls/women. BMI was positively associated with predicted level of weight talk from mothers (γ = 0.10, SE = .01, p < .001), fathers (γ = 0.09, SE = .01, p < .001), and romantic partners (γ = 0.09, SE = .01, p < .001). Race also predicted level of weight talk, such that Asian participants reported higher levels of weight talk from mothers (γ = 1.17, SE = 0.13, p < .001), fathers (γ = 1.09, SE = 0.16, p < .001), and romantic partners (γ = 1.21, SE = 0.17, p < .001) relative to White participants (reference group). Participants who reported “other race” had higher levels of weight talk from mothers (γ = 1.28, SE = 0.31, p < .001) and fathers (γ = 1.30, SE = 0.45, p = .004) compared to White participants. Results from Model 2 revealed that the two-way interaction for age X gender was not significant. That is, the rate of change in weight talk from mothers, fathers, and romantic partners across development did not depend on gender. Results from Model 3 showed small two-way interaction effects for age X BMI. BMI was negatively associated with the rate of change in weight talk from mothers (γ = −0.004, SE = .001, p < .001) and fathers (γ = −0.004, SE = .001, p < .001), but not romantic partners. Simple slopes for rate of change in mother weight talk were γ = −0.01 at one SD below the mean for BMI and γ = −0.05 at one SD above the mean for BMI. Simple slopes for rate of change in father weight talk were γ = −0.01 at one SD below the mean for BMI and γ = −0.06 at one SD above the mean for BMI.

Table 2a.

Results for Multilevel Tobit Regression Models Estimating Growth Curves for Mother Weight Talk Across Development

Model 1: Main Effects Model 2: Age by Gender Model 3: Age by BMI
Fixed Effects γ SE [95% CI] γ SE [95% CI] γ SE [95% CI]
Intercept −0.18 0.12 [−0.42, 0.05] −0.27* 0.13 [−0.52, −0.02] −0.18 0.12 [−0.41, 0.06]
Age −0.06*** 0.01 [−0.07, −0.04] −0.04*** 0.01 [−0.06, −0.03] −0.05*** 0.01 [−0.07, −0.03]
Covariates
 BMI 0.10*** 0.01 [0.09, 0.11] 0.10*** 0.01 [0.09, 0.11] 0.13*** 0.01 [0.11, 0.16]
 Gender 0.17 0.11 [−0.04, 0.38] 0.34* 0.16 [0.04, 0.65] 0.16 0.11 [−0.04, 0.37]
 Race
  Black or African American 0.08 0.15 [−0.22, 0.38] 0.08 0.15 [−0.22, 0.38] 0.07 0.15 [−0.22, 0.37]
  Asian American 1.17*** 0.13 [0.92, 1.41] 1.17*** 0.13 [0.92, 1.41] 1.16*** 0.13 [0.91, 1.41]
  American Indian or Native American −0.14 0.31 [−0.74, 0.46] −0.14 0.31 [−0.75, 0.46] −0.15 0.31 [−0.75, 0.46]
  Other 1.28*** 0.31 [0.67, 1.89] 1.28*** 0.31 [0.67, 1.89] 1.31*** 0.31 [0.70, 1.92]
  Multiracial −0.17 0.18 [−0.52, 0.17] −0.17 0.18 [−0.52, 0.17] −0.17 0.18 [−0.52, 0.17]
Interaction effects
 Age x Gender −0.02 0.02 [−0.05, 0.01]
 Age x BMI −0.004*** 0.001 [−0.01, −0.002]
Intercept Variance 0.94 0.14 [0.70, 1.25] 0.94 0.14 [0.70, 1.25] 0.95 0.14 [0.71, 1.26]
Residual Variance 2.53 0.16 [2.24, 2.86] 2.53 0.16 [2.23, 2.85] 2.50 0.16 [2.21, 2.82]
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Note. γ = unstandardized coefficient; SE = standard error; CI = confidence interval; BMI = body mass index. The reference group for race was White.

*

p < .05

**

p < .01

***

p < .001

Table 2b.

Results for Multilevel Tobit Regression Models Estimating Growth Curves for Father Weight Talk Across Development

Model 1: Main Effects Model 2: Age by Gender Model 3: Age by BMI
Fixed Effects γ SE [95% CI] γ SE [95% CI] γ SE [95% CI]
Intercept −0.95*** 0.16 [−1.27, −0.62] −0.95*** 0.17 [−1.28, −0.62] −0.93*** 0.16 [−1.25, −0.61]
Age −0.10*** 0.01 [−0.12, −0.08] −0.10*** 0.01 [−0.13, −0.07] −0.09*** 0.01 [−0.12, −0.07]
Covariates
 BMI 0.09*** 0.01 [0.07, 0.11] 0.09*** 0.01 [0.07, 0.11] 0.13*** 0.01 [0.10, 0.16]
 Gender 0.51*** 0.13 [0.25, 0.77] 0.52** 0.19 [0.14, 0.89] 0.51*** 0.13 [0.25, 0.77]
 Race
  Black or African American 0.08 0.19 [−0.31, 0.46] 0.08 0.19 [−0.31, 0.46] 0.06 0.19 [−0.31, 0.44]
  Asian American 1.09*** 0.16 [0.78, 1.40] 1.09*** 0.16 [0.78, 1.40] 1.08*** 0.16 [0.76, 1.39]
  American Indian or Native American 0.27 0.31 [−0.34, 0.89] 0.27 0.31 [−0.34, 0.89] 0.27 0.31 [−0.34, 0.88]
  Other 1.30** 0.45 [0.41, 2.20] 1.30** 0.46 [0.41, 2.20] 1.33** 0.44 [0.47, 2.19]
  Multiracial −0.20 0.24 [−0.68, 0.28] −0.20 0.24 [−0.68, 0.28] −0.22 0.24 [−0.70, 0.26]
Interaction effects
 Age x Gender −0.0005 0.02 [−0.04, 0.38]
 Age x BMI −0.004** 0.001 [−0.01, −0.002]
Intercept Variance 1.31 0.21 [0.95, 1.79] 1.31 0.21 [0.95, 1.79] 1.28 0.20 [0.94, 1.75]
Residual Variance 3.21 0.25 [2.75, 3.75] 3.21 0.25 [2.75, 3.75] 3.18 0.25 [2.73, 3.70]
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Note. γ = unstandardized coefficient; SE = standard error; CI = confidence interval; BMI = body mass index. The reference group for race was White.

*

p < .05

**

p < .01

***

p < .001

Table 2c.

Results for Multilevel Tobit Regression Models Estimating Growth Curves for Romantic Partner Weight Talk Across Development

Model 1: Main Effects Model 2: Age by Gender Model 3: Age by BMI
Fixed Effects γ SE [95% CI] γ SE [95% CI] γ SE [95% CI]
Intercept −0.29 0.15 [−0.59, 0.01] −0.27 0.15 −0.57, 0.03] −0.28 0.15 [−0.59, 0.02]
Age −0.11*** 0.02 [−0.14, −0.07] −0.11*** 0.02 [−0.15, −0.07] −0.11*** 0.02 [−0.15, −0.06]
Covariates
 BMI 0.09*** 0.01 [0.06, 0.11] 0.09*** 0.01 [0.06, 0.11] 0.09*** 0.01 [0.06, 0.11]
 Gender 0.36* 0.15 [0.06, 0.66] 0.32 0.19 [−0.06, 0.70] 0.36* 0.15 [0.06, 0.66]
 Race
  Black or African American 0.38 0.23 [−0.07, 0.83] 0.38 0.23 [−0.07, 0.82] 0.38 0.23 [−0.06, 0.83]
  Asian American 1.21*** 0.17 [0.87, 1.55] 1.21*** 0.17 [0.87, 1.55] 1.21*** 0.17 [0.87, 1.55]
  American Indian or Native American 0.27 0.43 [−0.58, 1.12] 0.27 0.44 [−0.58, 1.12] 0.26 0.43 [−0.58, 1.11]
  Other 0.34 0.45 [−0.54, 1.23] 0.34 0.45 [−0.54, 1.23] 0.34 0.45 [−0.54, 1.23]
  Multiracial 0.16 0.29 [−0.41, 0.72] 0.16 0.29 [−0.40, 0.73] 0.16 0.29 [−0.41, 0.72]
Interaction effects
 Age x Gender 0.01 0.04 [−0.06, 0.09]
 Age x BMI 0.0003 0.003 [−0.01, 0.01]
Intercept Variance 1.50 0.25 [1.08, 2.07] 1.50 0.25 [1.08, 2.07] 1.50 0.25 [1.08, 2.07]
Residual Variance 1.84 0.22 [1.46, 2.33] 1.84 0.22 [1.46, 2.33] 1.84 0.22 [1.46, 2.33]
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Note. γ = unstandardized coefficient; SE = standard error; CI = confidence interval; BMI = body mass index. The reference group for race was White.

*

p < .05

**

p < .01

***

p < .001

3.3. Developmental Timing of Weight Talk as a Risk Factor for Body Satisfaction

In the TVEMs for the associations between mother and father weight talk and body satisfaction, the effect for BMI was static across age. Thus, it was included as a time-invariant effect in the final models. The age-varying association between mother weight talk and body satisfaction was negative and significant between ages 12.0 (β = −6.68, 95% CI [−10.79, −2.56] and 30.0 years (β = −5.78, 95% CI [−9.45, −2.10]), adjusting for gender, race, and BMI. The strength of this association decreased between ages 12.0 - 25.6 years and then increased through age 30.0 years (Figure 1). The age-varying association between father weight talk and body satisfaction was negative and significant between ages 14.7 (β = −2.51, 95% CI [−4.95, −0.07] and 23.1 years (β = −2.07, 95% CI [−4.12, −0.01]), and strongest at age 18.2, adjusting for gender, race, and BMI (Figure 1). In the TVEM for the association between romantic partner weight talk and body satisfaction, the effect for BMI was static and the effect for race was non-significant across age. Thus, BMI and race were treated as time-invariant effects in the final models. Romantic partner weight talk was negatively associated with body satisfaction between ages 19.7 (β = −4.09, 95% CI [−8.08, −0.09]) and 25.2, and ages 27.6 and 30.0 (β = −6.91, 95% CI [−12.32, −1.50]) years, with the strongest associations at ages 22.0 (β = −8.51, 95% CI [−11.75, −5.27]) and 30.0 (Figure 2). None of the two-way interactions between weight talk and gender were statistically significant.

Figure 1. Coefficient Curves for the Age-Varying Associations between Mother and Father Weight Talk and Body Satisfaction.

Figure 1

Open in a new tab

Note. The association between weight talk and body satisfaction is statistically significant at ages when the 95% confidence intervals, denoted by dashed lines, do not include zero.

Figure 2. Coefficient Curve for the Age-Varying Association between Romantic Partner Weight Talk and Body Satisfaction.

Figure 2

Open in a new tab

Note. The association between weight talk and body satisfaction is statistically significant at ages when the 95% confidence interval, denoted by dashed lines, does not include zero.

4. Discussion

The aims of this study were twofold. First, we sought to chart the developmental trajectories of weight talk (specifically, encouragement to diet) from mothers, fathers, and romantic partners from adolescence through young adulthood, and examine whether gender and BMI predicted both the level and rate of change in weight talk across age. Second, we aimed to shed light on the developmental timing of weight talk as a risk factor for body image concerns and potential gender differences in developmental timing. We found that weight talk from mothers and fathers generally decreases across adolescence and young adulthood, and weight talk from romantic partners decreases across young adulthood. Moreover, our findings suggest that both the source and developmental timing of weight talk have implications for body satisfaction. The overarching goal of this study was to inform theory and prevention efforts for body image concerns.

4.1. Developmental Trajectories of Weight Talk from Parents and Romantic Partners

We expected relatively high levels of parent weight talk during adolescence given puberty-related changes in body shape and size and greater parental involvement during adolescence than young adulthood. We expected parent weight talk to decline as adolescents approached adulthood and opportunities for such conversations decreased. Therefore, we hypothesized that in general, individuals would experience decreases in weight talk from mothers and fathers between adolescence and adulthood. Our findings support that weight talk from mothers and fathers typically decreases from adolescence to adulthood, following a linear trend. Although the literature on the developmental course of romantic partner weight talk during young adulthood is sparse, we expected that romantic partner weight talk would increase between young adulthood and adulthood due to increases in shared time with romantic partners over this period. Increases in shared time with romantic partners may create more opportunities for weight talk to occur. Contrary to our hypotheses, we found that weight talk from romantic partners decreased across young adulthood in a linear trend. This decrease may reflect that as individuals approach age 30, they are more likely to be in a stable romantic relationship. Some research indicates that weight is a more salient issue when individuals are trying to attract a partner than after they have entered a long-term relationship (Bove & Sobal, 2011). Another possibility is that romantic partner weight talk decreases over time because young adults learn through experience that weight talk can negatively impact their romantic relationship. Weight-related criticism from romantic partners is associated with relationship instability among young adults (Killoren et al., 2022). Additionally, when husbands perceive their wives’ bodies to be too large, wives report increases in conflict and decreases in relationship satisfaction the following year (Hochgraf & McHale, 2020). These findings are novel and represent an important contribution to our understanding of changes in experiences of weight talk across development. Prior research has largely documented changes in prevalence but not within-person changes in weight talk. In addition, fathers are underrepresented in research on weight talk, and there is relatively little prospective research on weight talk from romantic partners during young adulthood.

We expected BMI to predict both the level and rate of change in trajectories of weight talk from mothers, fathers, and romantic partners. Individuals with higher BMIs had higher levels of weight talk from all sources across development. In addition, the rate of change in weight talk over time depended on BMI, although not in the expected direction. Mother and father weight talk decreased at a slightly faster rate for individuals with larger bodies than for individuals with smaller bodies. However, the small coefficients for these interactions and confidence intervals near zero suggest that this difference is likely not meaningful. Romantic partner weight talk did not increase at a faster rate for individuals with larger bodies than for individuals with smaller bodies. Our findings are consistent with prior research indicating that perceived and actual weight status predict weight talk from parents and romantic partners (Eisenberg et al., 2011; Winkler et al., 2018). Our findings suggest that individuals with larger bodies experience higher levels of weight talk from parents and romantic partners across age relative to individuals with smaller bodies. This finding is important because the increased exposure to weight talk places individuals with larger bodies at elevated risk for a range of adverse psychological and behavioral health outcomes (Berge et al., 2019; Gillison et al., 2016; Puhl et al., 2017; Simone et al., 2021).

We also expected gender to predict the level and rate of change in weight talk from mothers, fathers, and romantic partners, such that girls/women were expected to experience higher levels and slower changes in weight talk from parents, and men were expected to experience higher levels and faster increases in romantic partner weight talk than women. Gender predicted the level of weight talk from fathers and romantic partners, such that after adjusting for BMI and race, fathers engaged in higher levels of weight talk with sons than daughters, and men reported experiencing more weight talk from their romantic partners than women did. Drawing comparisons between findings from our study and extant research is challenging due to differences in the way weight talk was analyzed and potential secular changes in weight talk. Prior research has focused on gender differences in the prevalence of weight talk at different stages of development (Berge et al., 2019; Eisenberg et al., 2011, 2012), which is conceptually distinct from gender differences in trajectories of weight talk across development. Moreover, most prior research has not distinguished between weight talk from mothers and fathers. That said, our finding that fathers engaged in higher levels of weight talk with sons than with daughters is somewhat consistent with results from a study of Australian adolescents and their parents, which found that the overall prevalence of negative comments about body shape and weight from fathers was higher among sons than daughters (Dahill et al., 2021). Our finding that men experienced higher levels of weight talk over time from romantic partners than women is consistent with our research team’s prior work with other cohorts which suggests that the prevalence of weight talk from romantic partners is higher among men than women (Berge et al., 2019; Eisenberg et al., 2011). This finding may reflect that young women are socialized to be attentive to their own body weight and shape (Murnen, 2011) and this preoccupation leads to conversations about weight, including comments about their male romantic partners’ bodies. It may also be less socially acceptable for men to comment on women’s bodies.

4.2. Developmental Timing of Weight Talk as a Risk Factor for Body Image Concerns

Life Course Theory suggests that the impact that an experience has on development depends on its timing (Elder et al., 2003). Our findings clarify the developmental timing of weight talk from mothers, fathers, and romantic partners as a risk factor for body image concerns. In line with our hypotheses, we found that weight talk from mothers, fathers, and romantic partners was associated with lower levels of body satisfaction across age. This finding is consistent with prior research which indicates that cumulative weight talk from parents and romantic partners predicts lower body satisfaction during young adulthood (Berge et al., 2019). However, the current study expanded upon findings from prior research by revealing the ages when weight talk from different sources is most strongly associated with body image concerns. Specifically, we found that weight talk from mothers was consistently associated with lower body satisfaction from early adolescence (age 12) to adulthood (age 30), with the strongest associations during adolescence and around age 30 years. Weight talk from fathers was associated with lower body satisfaction between mid-adolescence and young adulthood, but the association was not as strong as that of mothers. Weight talk from romantic partners, which we began measuring during young adulthood, was strongly associated with lower body satisfaction throughout young adulthood. There was only a brief window during the mid-twenties when romantic partner weight talk was not associated with lower body satisfaction. These findings suggest that although weight talk generally decreases throughout adolescence and young adulthood, the impact of weight talk on body satisfaction does not necessarily decrease. In line with the idea that establishing a romantic relationship is a developmental task of young adulthood (Rauer et al., 2013; Schulenberg et al., 2004), romantic partner weight talk may become more salient than parent weight talk during this period. However, we found that the negative association between mother weight talk and body satisfaction persisted throughout the twenties, suggesting that parents continue to contribute to their children’s body image even as they reach adulthood.

Based on theorized and observed gender differences in the development of body image concerns during adolescence and young adulthood (Burke et al., 2021; Lam & McHale, 2012; Tylka, 2011), we expected that the link between weight talk and body satisfaction would be stronger for girls/women than boys/men across development. However, there were no gender differences in the strength of association or the developmental timing of weight talk as a risk factor for body image concerns. This finding is somewhat consistent with our team’s prior research with a different cohort, which indicated that the magnitude of association between cumulative experiences of weight talk and body satisfaction during young adulthood was similar for women and men (Berge et al., 2019). The lack of observed gender differences in the association between weight talk and body satisfaction across development may suggest that the impact of weight talk (specifically, encouragement to diet) is similarly detrimental to body satisfaction for girls/women and boys/men. These findings do not necessarily challenge prevailing theory of body image. Bivariate correlations indicated that girls/women tended to have lower body satisfaction compared to boys/men, suggesting that girls/women are indeed more vulnerable to experiencing intense, negative feelings about their bodies. It may be that the high societal value placed on girls’/women’s body weight and shape drives the relatively higher intensity of body image concerns among girls/women, and that encouragement to diet promotes body dissatisfaction for both girls/women and boys/men.

4.3. Implications for Theory and Prevention

Findings from this study have implications for theories of body image development and prevention. Theories of body image development highlight the role of sociocultural pressure to conform to societal body ideals in the development of body image concerns (Burke et al., 2021; Tylka, 2011). Weight talk from parents and romantic partners is a conduit of this sociocultural pressure. Our findings expand upon sociocultural theories of body image development by revealing how exposure to weight talk from different sources changes across adolescence and young adulthood, personal characteristics that appear to influence trajectories of weight talk, and the developmental timing of weight talk as a risk factor for body image concerns.

Interventions that help parents and young people establish norms against weight talk within their families and romantic relationships may help prevent development of body image concerns. Based on our findings, prevention programming that discourages families from engaging in weight talk should be delivered by early adolescence. Establishing norms against weight talk within families may help adolescents establish healthy patterns of interpersonal interactions (e.g., appreciation of body function) that they can apply within other close relationships, such as romantic relationships. Given the strong links between weight talk from romantic partners and low body satisfaction between ages 19 to 30 years, it may also be helpful to develop prevention programming for young adults.

4.4. Strengths and Limitations

Study strengths and limitations should be considered in interpreting the findings. This study has numerous strengths. We drew from a large, racially/ethnically and socioeconomically diverse sample of young people, which enhances the generalizability of our study findings. The longitudinal study design enabled us to chart changes in weight talk across development. To our knowledge, this study documents developmental trajectories of weight talk across the longest span of development to date. We also examined multiple sources of weight talk, including fathers, who are underrepresented in research on weight-related health and development (Yourell et al., 2021). Another strength of this study was our application of TVEM, an innovative statistical method that enabled us to investigate how the magnitude of the association between weight talk and body satisfaction varies across age and glean novel insights into the developmental timing of weight talk as a risk factor for body image concerns.

One of the limitations of this study is that we cannot draw causal inferences about links between weight talk and body satisfaction due to the correlational study design. Additionally, although our measure of weight talk has been used extensively in research and permitted measurement invariance across a large span of development, it has several limitations with implications for future research. We relied upon single-item measures of encouragement to diet from mothers, fathers, and romantic partners. This was a necessity in our epidemiological study due to large number of constructs assessed and changes in some of the measures across study waves, but single-item measures may not be as reliable as multi-item assessments. In addition, our measure of weight talk was limited in that it only captured encouragement to diet. Weight talk encompasses a range of comments related to body weight and shape, such as parents’ or partners’ disparaging comments about their own weight, weight bias directed at other individuals, and more subtle comments, such as praise for weight loss. It is possible that our findings for encouragement to diet do not generalize to other forms of weight talk. That said, encouragement to diet is a common form of weight talk and may be easier to modify than other forms that require a greater degree of self-awareness to modify. An important direction for future longitudinal research is to include repeated measures of weight talk that encompass multiple forms of weight talk from the perspective of multiple reporters. This step would build upon the current study by informing whether developmental trajectories vary depending on the type of weight talk. Another limitation of this study is that weight talk from romantic partners was not assessed during adolescence. Given that romantic relationships are often initiated in adolescence (Boisvert & Poulin, 2016), a future direction for research is to replicate and extend this study by charting trajectories of weight talk from romantic partners beginning in adolescence.

One consideration regarding our findings is that this study overlapped with the COVID-19 pandemic. The unusual amount of time spent with a small number of people (often family members or romantic partners) during lockdown, in conjunction with the stress of the pandemic and heightened weight stigma in the media (Lessard & Puhl, 2021; White et al., 2023), may have altered trajectories of weight talk or links with body satisfaction. The pandemic also prompted some young adults to live with their parents, which may have increased their exposure to parent weight talk. However, some research suggests little change in the degree to which youth experienced weight talk from parents and peers prior to and during the pandemic (Lessard & Puhl, 2021).

4.5. Conclusions

Findings from this study indicate that weight talk (specifically, encouragement to diet) from mothers and fathers typically decreases between ages 12 and 30 years, and weight talk from romantic partners typically decreases between ages 19 and 30 years. Individuals with larger bodies tend to experience higher levels of weight talk relative to their peers across development. Despite declines in weight talk across adolescence and young adulthood, experiences of weight talk are associated with lower body satisfaction across these developmental periods. The timing of weight talk as a risk factor for body image concerns depends on the source of weight talk. Although weight talk from romantic partners is more strongly associated with low body satisfaction during young adulthood than parent weight talk, parents appear to continue to shape their children’s body image during the third decade of life. Interventions that mitigate weight talk within families of adolescents may help prevent development of body image concerns and set the stage for healthy patterns of interaction related to body shape and size within romantic relationships.

Highlights.

  • Encouragement to diet from parents declines across adolescence and young adulthood

  • Encouragement to diet from romantic partners declines across young adulthood

  • Encouragement to diet is linked to lower body satisfaction

  • The source and timing of encouragement to diet have implications for body image

Acknowledgments:

Some of the findings from this study were presented at the Society for Research in Child Development Biennial Meeting in May, 2025. We thank our participants for their time and effort.

Funding:

Anna K. Hochgraf, Kayla Johnson, Annie Youngblood, and Kaitlyn Adams were supported by T32HL150452 (PI: D. Neumark-Sztainer) from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). Dianne Neumark-Sztainer was supported by R35HL139853 from the NHLBI of the NIH (PI: D. Neumark-Sztainer). Data collection was supported by R01HL116892 from the NHLBI (PI: D. Neumark-Sztainer). The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the NHLBI or the NIH.

Footnotes

Declaration of Interests: The authors have no conflicts of interest to report.

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