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. 2026 Mar 6;67:5. doi: 10.1186/s40529-026-00492-4

Drivers of floristic discovery in a temperate flora: insights from three decades of vascular plant records in Ukraine

Mykyta Peregrym 1,2,✉, Ihor Olshanskyi 3, Svitlana Zhygalova 4
PMCID: PMC12965962  PMID: 41790311

Abstract

Background

Floristic discoveries continue to occur even in regions with a long history of botanical exploration. Ukraine, one of the largest countries in Europe, has been the subject of intensive botanical study for more than two centuries, yet new species, subspecies, and national records are still regularly documented. Understanding the ecological and methodological factors that drive these discoveries is important for improving biodiversity assessment, guiding field surveys, and updating national floras. This study provides a comprehensive synthesis of all vascular plant taxa newly described for science or newly recorded from Ukraine during the period from 1997 to 2024 and identifies the principal drivers of floristic discovery in a temperate flora.

Results

A total of 331 species and subspecies of vascular plant were discovered or newly recorded during the study period, including 57 taxa described as new to science. These findings span lycopods, ferns, gymnosperms, and flowering plants, with flowering plants contributing the largest share. Synanthropic habitats, particularly those associated with human disturbance and escaped cultivated plants, yielded the highest number of discoveries. Grasslands, woodlands, stone outcrops, and coastal habitats also contributed substantially, while mountainous areas were notable centres for both newly described taxa and hybridogenic diversity. The majority of discoveries were based on material collected during spring and summer, although historical herbarium specimens, some over a century old, were essential for many taxonomic descriptions and for confirming previously overlooked taxa. Citizen science platforms supported several recent national records by enabling rapid detection and preliminary verification of unusual occurrences, although they have not yet contributed directly to the description of new taxa.

Conclusions

Our findings highlight the continued incompleteness of floristic knowledge, even in well-studied temperate regions, and underscore the need for targeted survey strategies that integrate historical collections, underexplored habitats, and public participation. While Ukraine provides the case study, these patterns and methodological approaches are broadly applicable to biodiversity assessment and conservation planning in similar biogeographic contexts worldwide.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40529-026-00492-4.

Keywords: Biodiversity monitoring, Citizen science, Grasslands, Herbarium collections, Hybrids, Synanthropic habitats

Background

The discovery of a new species is one of the greatest thrills of the life botanical, often shrouded in romantic stories (Baker 2014). A chance to find something absolutely new motivates young people to become a botanist, and already experienced botanists to get the recognition. At the same time the facts of descriptions of species new for science are honored even for well-known and leading scientific organisations. That is why they inform about their successes in biodiversity discovery almost every year on their official websites. So, from ancient dinosaurs to worms at the bottom of the ocean, scientists and associates from the Natural History Museum (London, UK) described an extraordinary 815 new species in 2023 (Davis 2023). The researchers of the California Academy of Sciences added 153 new species to the tree of life in that time, from observing to collecting to DNA testing (Lindqwister 2023). In 2023, 74 plants and 15 fungi were named by botanists and mycologists at Kew and at their partner organisations around the globe (Cheek 2024). The Missouri Botanical Garden’s science and conservation staff discovered and named 67 newly-described and newly-resurrected species of plants during the last year (Martin 2023). This global enthusiasm has even led to the development of strategic guidelines and predictive maps for finding new species (Šlapeta 2013; Pennisi 2021; Martin and Haelewaters 2023).

Generally, ca. 2000 new species of plants are described around the world every year, however, the rate of discovery is slowing down, due to reduction in financial and scientific support for fundamental natural history studies (Christenhusz and Byng 2016). For example, average of 19.5 species of vascular plants described per year in Nigeria (the long-term trend in species descriptions credibly declines over time), nevertheless predictions for the number of new species descriptions by 2070 vary from 1004 to 2239 species for this country (Bello et al. 2023). In Europe, where floras have been intensively surveyed for centuries, the description of new taxa is rare. Yet, even documenting a species as new to a national flora remains valuable, with implications for conservation, invasion biology, and biogeographic knowledge. Understanding the ecological and methodological drivers behind such discoveries can improve survey efficiency and biodiversity monitoring, especially in regions considered well-explored. As well, the process impacts directly on biodiversity conservation and our knowledge about evolution (Hey 2009).

Ukraine provides a good case study: it is the largest country wholly within Europe, with botanical research dating back to the late 18th century (Melnyk 2012) and a rich history of national and regional floristic works (“Flora of the Ukrainian SSR”, Vol. I-XII (1936–1965); “Flora Unionis Rerumpublicarum Sovieticarum Socialisticarum”, Vol. I-XXX (1934–1964); “Flora of the European part of the USSR”, Vol. I-VIII (1974–1989); two editions of the checklist of vascular plants of the former USSR (Cherepanov 1995, 2007); and many regional floras, cheklists, identification guides). The most recent comprehensive checklist of vascular plants (Mosyakin and Fedoronchuk 1999) is now over 25 years old, and numerous new species, subspecies, and hybrids have been reported since its publication. Here, we compile and analyze a list of all new species and subspecies of vascular plant for science and for Ukraine recorded for the first time from the country between 1997 and 2024, identifying patterns in taxonomy, origin, habitat, geography, seasonality, and data sources. Such a review is carried in the first time for the flora of Ukraine, and at the same time these results are used to infer general drivers of floristic discovery in temperate regions and to provide recommendations applicable beyond the country. As well, such information will be useful for updating data in floristic lists of continental, national and regional levels, as well as it will allow researchers to be more effective and targeted to carry out their explorations.

Materials and methods

Study area

As mentioned above, our research covers the territory of Ukraine, a country geographically located in Central Europe, but politically – in Eastern Europe. The total area of the internationally recognised territory of the country is 603,549 km2 (Rudenko 2007; Zasenko et al. 2024). It lies in a temperate climatic zone influenced by moderately warm, humid air from the Atlantic Ocean (Rudenko 2007). Average annual temperatures range from about 5.5–7 °C in the north to about 11–13 °C in the south (Zasenko et al. 2024). There are three main zones of natural vegetation (the forest zone, the forest-steppe, and the steppe) and two mountain countries with a clearly defined altitudinal zone (the Crimean Mountains and the Ukrainian part of the Carpathians) (Rudenko 2007). The highest peak of the Ukrainian Carpathians is the Hoverla Mount (2,061 m above sea level), and the Roman-Kosh Mount (1,545 m above sea level) is the highest peak of the Crimean Mountains (Rudenko 2007; Zasenko et al. 2024). However, natural vegetation is highly transformed by antropogenic impact, for example steppes occupied about 40% of the recognized territory of the country, but presently only about 1–3% of the natural and semi natural steppes of Ukraine remain unchanged (not transformed) (Ya. Didukh 2009; Korotchenko and M. Peregrym 2012).

The total number of vascular plants within Ukraine has not been established clearly yet. There is different data. For example, Mosyakin and Fedoronchuk mentioned 5100 species based on the National Report, and they noted “our estimation is somewhat different”, but the accurate number is absent (Mosyakin and Fedoronchuk 1999). According to Ya. Didukh, the spontaneous flora of vascular plants of Ukraine consists of almost 4500 species (Didukh 2010). Unfortunately, more precise information is not available.

Terminology

The term “floristic discovery” is used in this study that might have a wider meaning from the description of a new plant taxon for science to a finding of any new plant taxon, even the lowest rank, in any area, even the smallest one (for example, within a yard, a village, a town or a district). However, in our case we narrowed it to floristic findings of new species and subspecies of vascular plants for the internationally recognised territory of Ukraine, as well as descriptions of new species and subspecies of vascular plants for science from the territory studied.

Literature review

The research is based exclusively on the results of a literature review using Scopus (https://www.scopus.com), Web of Science (https://www.webofscience.com) and PubMed (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov) databases, as well as not indexed periodical editions and monographs published in Ukraine and Russia mostly in Slavic languages in the period 1997 – December 31, 2024. A part of publications of 1997 and 1998 also were included in our research, but only unaccounted ones in the checklist by Mosyakin and Fedorchuk (Mosyakin and Fedoronchuk 1999). A total of 192 publications were analyzed in our study (Petryk 1992; Shipunov 1996, 1997, 2000; Rostanski et al. 1997; Yeremko 1997; Agapova 1998; Egorova 1998; Krassovskaya 1998; Levichev 1998, 2008; Moysienko 1998, 2005; Travnicek 1998; Kirschner and Štěpánek 1998; Mosyakin and Moysienko 1999; Honcharenko 2000; Tzvelev 2000, 2001a, b, 2002, 2003a, b, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012; Umanets 2000a, 2000b Vasyljeva and Kovalenko 2000; Danylyk and Panchenko 2001; Krassovskaja et al. 2001; Nikitin 2001, 2002, 2003; Pavlov 2001; Didukh and Boratynski 2002; Shumilova 2002, 2014; Sova and Mosyakin 2002; Tikhomirov 2002, 2015; Byalt and Orlova 2003; Dubyna et al. 2003; Kuziarin 2003, 2009, 2012; Tatanov 2003a, b; Romo et al. 2004; Seregin 2004, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2012; Thomson 2004; Zielinski 2004; Kucherevskyi 2005; Panchenko and Mosyakin 2005; Chorna et al. 2006; Moysienko and Yena 2006; Yena et al. 2006, 2011; Danylyk et al. 2007; Albach 2008; Gureyeva and Page 2008; Krassovskaja 2008; Moysienko and Mosyakin 2008; Orlov 2008; Yena 2008; Zavjalova 2008; Efimov 2008; Bagrikova 2009; Bednarska 2009; Danylyk and Honcharenko 2009; Fitsajlo and Orlov 2009; Jasinska et al. 2009; Kucherevskyi et al. 2009; Orlov and Gubar 2009; Prots 2009; Peterson et al. 2009; Andryk et al. 2010; Borsukevych 2010; Didukh et al. 2010; Ostapko et al. 2010; Peregrym and Kuzemko 2010; Punina et al. 2010; Zhmud and Zhmud 2010; Bezsmertna 2011; Knyasev 2011; Lazkov 2011; Ryff 2011, 2013; Yena and Shevera 2011; Bezsmertna et al. 2012; Fateryga and Kreutz 2012, 2014; Geltman and Shatko 2012; Hahn 2012; Kreutz and Fateryga 2012; Tzvelev and Geltman 2012; Fateryga et al. 2013, 2014, 2015, 2022; Melnikov 2013; Melnyk et al. 2013; Olshanskyi and Orlov 2013; Orlov and Iakushenko 2013; Yu. Peregrym et al. 2013; Ryff et al. 2013, 2023; Tyshchenko et al. 2013; Bagrikova and Ryff 2014; Burda 2014; Harpke et al. 2014; Nachychko 2014, 2016; Orlov et al. 2014, 2019, 2022; Nobis et al. 2014, 2020; Štěpánek and Kirschner 2014, 2018, 2022a, b; Zhou et al. 2014; Ljubka et al. 2014; Popova 2015; Seregin et al. 2015a, b; Zvyagintseva 2015; Raab-Straube and Raus 2015, 2017, 2019b, a, 2020, 2021b, a, 2023, p. 1, 2024; Nachychko and Honcharenko 2016; Vasjukov 2016; Parnikoza and Celka 2016; Sołtys-Lelek and Oliіar 2016; Kipriyanova and Shadrin 2017; Gouz and Timoshenkova 2017; Bednarska and Brazauskas 2017; Mosyakin 2017; Bondareva et al. 2018; Ostapko 2018, 2020; Shiyan 2018; Mayorov 2018; Novák and Zukal 2018; Bulakh et al. 2019, 2020; Shynder 2019; Wolf et al. 2019; Kuzemko et al. 2019; Novikov et al. 2020; Orlov and Shevera 2020, 2021; Shynder et al. 2020, 2022a, b, c, 2024; Takács et al. 2020; Shevera et al. 2020; Mosyakin and Mandák 2020; Kechaykin et al. 2020; Bagrikova et al. 2021; Moysiyenko et al. 2021, 2023; Mosyakin and Mosyakin 2021; Dudáš et al. 2022; German 2022; Kobiv et al. 2022; Shalimov 2022; Bagrikova and Perminova 2022; Peregrym and Koopman 2023; Štěpánek et al. 2023; Mátis et al. 2023; Krahulec et al. 2023; Sennikov and Tikhomirov 2024a, b; Shiyan et al. 2024; Bronskov and Bronskova 2024).

Approaches used for data analysis

Generalized information on all floristic discoveries, including supporting data (location, habitat type, date of collection, species origin, and notes), is presented in a tabular format in the Supplementary Material. Taxa of the highest ranks, including newly described species and subspecies of vascular plants reported for the first time in the flora of Ukraine, are listed according to poster overviews based on recent molecular phylogenetic syntheses (Cole et al. 2021; Cole 2022). The order of families and species follows the Latin alphabet, and taxonomic volumes are accepted according to Plants of the World Online (https://powo.science.kew.org).

For the analysis of habitats associated with the newly described or newly recorded taxa in Ukraine, we used the classification system proposed in the National Habitat Catalogue of Ukraine (Kuzemko et al. 2018). All types of habitats are divided into nine groups, which are mainly in line with the major groups of the European Nature Information System – EUNIS (https://eunis.eea.europa.eu): marine, coastal, aquatic, wetlands, grasslands, scrub, forests, stone outcrops and other sparsely vegetated habitats, synanthropic. Some species exhibited broad ecological amplitudes and were therefore recorded in multiple habitat types. For 18 taxa, the habitat information was not specified in the original publications and remains unknown.

To identify the most productive periods of floristic discovery within the year, whether describing new taxa or recording species or subspecies new to the territory of Ukraine, we divided the year into four quarters: 1st quarter – January, February, March; 2nd quarter – April, May, June; 3rd quarter – July, August, September; and 4th quarter – October, November and December. Next, all available dates of herbarium specimens or field observations cited in the analyzed publications (a total of 490 records; however, 30 of these specified only the year without an exact date) were compiled. This allowed us to identify the periods when the highest numbers of discoveries were made. Monthly-level analysis was avoided due to calendar discrepancies: a part of the country transitioned from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar on February 14, 1918 (with a 13-day difference between the two), and it is not always clear which calendar style was used in the original sources.

Licences

Figure 2 was prepared as a modified version of the map “Ukraine, administrative divisions” by TUBS (2025), available under the Creative Commons Attribution–ShareAlike 3.0 license (CC BY-SA 3.0; https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0), via Wikimedia Commons.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

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Geographic distribution of new species and subspecies of vascular plants recorded for the flora of Ukraine during 1997–2024, shown by administrative regions

Results

General information

The total number of new species and subspecies of vascular plants reported for the first time within Ukraine during the studied period is 331, however presently accepted ones are only 314. There are 1 species of lycopods, 9 species and subspecies of ferns, 2 species of gymnosperms, and 302 species and subspecies of flowering plants (1 species of magnoliids, 78 taxa of monocots and 223 taxa of eudicots). New ferns are represented by 5 genera and 5 familes, gymnosperms – by 2 genera and families, and angiosperms – by 164 genera and 59 families (1 genus and family of magnoliids, 46 genera and 14 families of monocots, as well as 117 genera and 44 families of eudicots). Aizoaceae Martinov, Menispermaceae Juss., Talinaceae (Fenzl) Doweld are new families for the spontaneous flora of Ukraine, as well as 31 genera (Althenia F. Petit, Ampelopsis Michx., Apocynum L., Axyris L., Calligonum L., Cyclospermum Lag., × Dactylocamptis P.F. Hunt & Summerh, Diplachne P. Beauv., Dysphania R. Br., Eclipta L., Gelasia Cass., Groenlandia J. Gay, Klasea Cass., Koelreuteria Laxm., Lomelosia Raf., Macleaya R. Br., Malcolmia W.T. Aiton, Menispermum Tourn. ex L., Mesembryanthemum L., Nerium L., Olimarabidopsis Al-Shehbaz, O’Kane & R.A. Price, Parentucellia Viv., Petrosedum Grulich, Phedimus Raf., Puschkinia Adams, Sporobolus R. Br., Symphyotrichum Nees, Talinum Adans., Trichophorum Pers., Triodanis Raf., Tyrimnus (Cass.) Bosc) are reported here for the first time.

The largest numbers of new taxa were found within next families: Asteraceae Bercht. & J. Presl (52 species and subspecies), Poaceae Barnhart and Rosaceae Juss. (22 species each), Orchidaceae Juss. (20 species and subspecies), Portulacaceae Juss. (10 species), Amaryllidaceae J. St.-Hil., Brassicaceae Burnett and Lamiaceae Martinov (9 species each), Papaveraceae Juss. (8 species), Cyperaceae Juss., Cactaceae Juss. and Caryophyllaceae Juss. (7 species each). The most discoveries of new taxa within genera were made in following ones: Taraxacum F.H. Wigg. (33 species), Rubus L. (11 species), Epipactis Zinn and Portulaca L. (10 taxa each), Allium L. (9 taxa), Opuntia Mill. (7 species), Viola L. (6 taxa), Euphorbia L. (5 species), Thymus L. (4 species), Asplenium L., Cardamine L., Crataegus L., Cotoneaster Medik., Dryopteris Adans., Erigeron L., Festuca Tourn. ex L., Juglans L., Lonicera L., Oxalis L., Papaver L., Plantago L., Poa L., Rumex L., and Veronica L. (3 taxa within each).

The average number of accepted vascular plant species and subspecies newly recorded from Ukraine per year, based on the publication dates of the relevant studies, was 11.18 ± 8.26. The annual distribution of published discoveries is presented in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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Annual number of vascular plant species and subspecies newly recorded from Ukraine, based on the publication dates of relevant studies (1997–2024)

New taxa for science

The description of 57 new taxa for science from the territory of Ukraine during the studied period is very notable: 46 species (14 nothospecies among them) and 11 subspecies (3 nothosubspecies). However, not all of them are recognized at present, a part of them (3 species and 4 subspecies) is already considered as synonyms to other taxa. For example, Brachypodium pinnatum (L.) P. Beauv. subsp. juzepczukii Tzvelev is not accepted by POWO, and it is simply considered as B. pinnatum (POWO, 2025); or Arenaria martrinii Tzvel. which is considered as a synonym to A. serpyllifolia L. subsp. serpyllifolia (POWO, 2025). Though there is a group of other examples: in particular, newly described Gagea microfistulosa Levichev is already considered as G. polidorii J.-M. Tison (Peterson et al. 2009), nevertheless it is a new species for the flora of Ukraine.

Almost half of these new taxa have been described from the Crimean Peninsula (25 species and subspecies), 7 taxa from both Transcarpathia and Kherson region, 6 taxa from Ivano-Frankivsk region, 3 taxa from all Luhansk, Donetsk and Mykolaiv regions, 2 taxa from both Chernivtsi and Odesa regions, as well as Kharkiv, Poltava, Dnipro, Zaporizhzhia, Kyiv, Rivne, Ternopil’, Lviv regions and Kyiv were mentioned among typical materials. Also large areas like Ukraine, the North part of Ukraine, Western Polissya, Prycarpathia and the Carpathians for a whole without any clarification were noted in descriptions of these new taxa. Besides, it is worthing to note that 40 taxa were described based on old herbarium materials, as well as these collections were used when identifying 49 taxa known early for science, but first noted for the flora of Ukraine. The largest number of new taxa for science were described among following genera: Taraxacum (7 species), Thymus (4 species), Viola (3 species and 1 subspecies), Allium (3 species), Poa (3 species), Gagea Salisb. and Festuca (2 species each), and Epipactis (1 species and 1 subspecies).

Hybrids

It should be noted that a significant number (39 taxa) of all discovered or described taxa in the flora of Ukraine are hybrids. Most of them are nothospecies, but there are 4 nothosubspecies (Anacamptis × simorrensis (E.G. Camus) H. Kretzschmar, Eccarius & H. Dietr. nothosubsp. ticinensis (Gsell) Fateryga & Kreutz (= A. coriophora (L.) R.M. Bateman, Pridgeon & M.W. Chase subsp. coriophora × A.pyramidalis (L.) Rich.), ×Dactylocamptis uechtritziana (Hausskn.) B. Bock ex M. Peregrym & Kuzemko nothosubsp. magyarii (Soó) Fateryga & Kreutz (= Anacamptis palustris (Jacq.) R.M. Bateman, Pridgeon & M.W. Chase subsp. elegans (Heuff.) R.M. Bateman, Pridgeon & M.W. Chase × Dactylorhiza incarnata (L.) Soó), Orchis ×-beyrichii Kern. nothosubsp. mackaensis (Kreutz) Fateryga & Kreutz (O. militaris L. subsp. stevenii (Rchb. f.) B. Baumann, H. Baumann, R. Lorenz & Ruedi Peter × O. simia Lam.), Viola ×popovae Vl. Nikit. nothosubsp. romankoshica Vl. Nikit. (= V. nemoralis Kijrtz. subsp. abbreviata Vl. Nikit. × V. sieheana W. Beck.)), also 3 taxa are intergeneric hybrids (×Dactylocamptis uechtritziana (= Dactylorhiza incarnata × Anacamptis palustris), ×Dactylocamptis uechtritziana nothosubsp. magyarii (= Anacamptis palustris subsp. elegans × Dactylorhiza incarnata), ×Agrotrigia hajastanica (Tzvelev) Tzvelev (= Agropyron cristatum (L.) Gaertn. s.l. × Elytrigia repens (L.) Desv. ex Nevski)) and 2 taxa are hybrids of three species (Lonicera ×muendeniensis Rehder (= L. morrowii A. Gray × L. ruprechtiana Regel × L. tatarica L.), Crataegus monogyna Jacq. × C. laevigata (Pior.) DC. × C. rhipidophylla Gand.). The largest number of taxa of hybridogenic origin belong to the following families: Orchidaceae (8 taxa), Lamiaceae, Poaceae (4 taxa each), Rosaceae and Violaceae Batsch (3 taxa). Among genera: Thymus (4 taxa), Crataegus and Viola (3 taxa each). Only 7 hybrid taxa have alien origin (Equisetum ×moorei Newman, Lolium ×elongatum (Ehrh.) Banfi, Galasso, Foggi, Kopecký & Ardenghi, Mesembryanthemum ×vascosilvae (Gideon F. Sm., E. Laguna, F. Verloove & P.P. Ferrer) Sáez & Aymerich, Symphyotrichum ×salignum (Willd.) G.L. Nesom, Lonicera ×muendeniensis, Oenothera ×wienii Renner ex Rostański, Vitis ×instabilis Ardenghi, Galasso, Banfi & Lastrucci), and 4 of them (Lolium ×elongatum, Mesembryanthemum ×vascosilvae, Symphyotrichum ×salignum, Lonicera ×muendeniensis) are considered as escaped from their cultivation in Kyiv Botanical Gardens and Syrets Arboretum. The largest number of native taxa of hybrid origin were identified within the Crimean Peninsula (17), as well as 2 taxa each from the Lugansk, Donetsk and Transcarpathian regions. Basically, new taxa of hybridogenic origin were identified from fresh field materials of the authors, but 10 species were identified from herbarium material, and 8 of the latter (Otites ×klopotovii Tzvelev, Hedysarum ×smirnovii Knjasev, Thymus alternans Klokov × T. pulegioides L., Paeonia ×maleevii Kem.-Nath. ex Mordak & Punina, Crataegus ×poplavskae Tzvelev, Viola ×bachtschisaraensis Vl. Nikit., V. ×poltavensis Vl. Nikit, V. ×popovae Vl. Nikit. nothosubsp. romankoshica Vl. Nikit.) were described for the first time for science.

Regions where new taxa were found or described

Overall, the Autonomous Republic of Crimea, located on the Crimean Peninsula, is the clear leader in the number of new species and subspecies discovered for the flora of Ukraine, with 119 taxa recorded. The second highest number was documented for Kyiv city (54 taxa), followed by Transcarpathian region (33 taxa), Lviv region (30 taxa), Odesa region (20 taxa), Ivano-Frankivsk region (16 taxa), Kherson region (15 taxa), Zhytomyr region (14 species), Kyiv region (11 taxa), Chernivtsi region (10 taxa), Cherkasy and Luhansk regions (9 taxa each), Chernihiv and Donetsk regions (7 species each), Mykolaiv region (6 species), Dnipropetrovsk region (5 species), Kharkiv and Volyn regions (4 species each), Khmelnytskyi, Poltava, Sumy, Ternopil, and Zaporizhzhia regions (3 taxa each), and Kirovohrad, Rivne, and Vinnytsia regions (2 species each). This territorial distribution is illustrated in Fig. 2.

It should be noted that several large geographic areas, such as the northern, western, and southeastern parts of Ukraine, North Polissya, the Carpathians, and Podillia, were mentioned in publications without precise reference to administrative units. Furthermore, many species and subspecies were recorded for the first time from multiple locations, often situated in different administrative regions; therefore, the total number of localities substantially exceeds the number of taxa.

The origin of new taxa: native and alien ones

The majority, 166 taxa, among all recently described and discovered taxa has natural origin in Ukraine. Other 139 taxa are alien, and the origin of nine taxa is not precisely determined: seven of them are most likely of natural origin, and two ones are most likely of alien origin. There are two groups of new alien taxa: the bigger one includes plants escaped from cultivation (76 taxa) and the smaller one (63 taxa) plants brought in by transport, cargo transportation or in some other way as a result of anthropogenic activity. If to exclude data about newly described taxa for science which are given above, the largest number of recently noted native plants were found within the Crimean Peninsula (47 taxa) and in some of western regions of Ukraine: Lviv region − 28 taxa, Transcarpathia − 13 taxa and Ivano-Frankivsk region - nine taxa. Also four species were discovered in Luhansk region, three species - in Kherson region, two new taxa were reported from each of the following regions: Chernivtsi, Kharkiv, Odesa, Sumy, Volyn’ and Zhytomyr regions. Also, one new taxon was reported from Cherkasy, Chernihiv, Dnipropetrovsk, Khmylnytskyi, Mykolaiv, Rivne, Ternopil’, Vinnytsia regions and Kyiv.

The largest number of new alien species escaped from the cultivation (49 taxa) are noted in Kyiv city. Also 16 such taxa found in the Autonomous Republic of Crimea, seven taxa - in each of Cherkasy and Odesa regions, six taxa - in Transcarpathia, five taxa - in each of Kyiv and Zhytomyr regions, and three taxa - in Dnipropetrovsk region. As well, two taxa of escaped plants detected in each of Chernighiv, Chernivtsi, Donetsk, Khmelnytskyi, Kirovohrad and Mykolaiv regions, only one taxon - in each of Ternopil’ and Zaporizhzhya regions. The current situation is somewhat different with regard to alien plants which entered the flora of Ukraine in other ways. Namely, the majority of such species were discovered in Crimea (26 taxa), as well as eight taxa in each of Odesa region and Transcarpathia. Six new alien species were noted in Kherson region, five taxa - in each of Kyiv city, Chernivtsi and Zhytomyr regions. Only two such new alien species were found in each of Kharkiv, Kyiv and Luhansk regions, as well as one species - in each of Cherkasy, Chernihiv, Donetsk, Lviv, Sumy, Vinnytsia and Volyn’ regions.

Habitats

The majority of taxa newly recorded for the flora of Ukraine are associated with synanthropic habitats (123 taxa). In addition, Chenopodium ucrainicum Mosyakin & Mandák, a species newly described for science, also occurs in such habitats. As noted in the previous section, a substantial portion of these taxa are escapees from cultivation, primarily distributed in synanthropic environments of neighboring regions. Grasslands represent the second most significant habitat type, with 56 taxa newly recorded for Ukraine and 33 taxa newly described for science. Woodlands rank third, comprising 25 taxa newly recorded for Ukraine and 9 newly described taxa. Stone outcrop habitats host 12 taxa newly recorded for Ukraine and 4 newly described for science. In coastal habitats, 7 new species and 1 subspecies were identified for the flora of Ukraine, while 3 species were newly described from these environments. Although no species or subspecies were newly described for science from aquatic, wetland, or shrub habitats, new records for Ukraine’s flora were documented as follows: 18 taxa from aquatic habitats, 8 from wetlands, and 7 from shrublands. Regrettably, the habitat types of 19 taxa could not be determined, as this information was not provided in the original publications.

Plant collection and publication dates

The highest number of floristic discoveries were based on herbarium collections and field observations made during the second quarter of the year (April–June), with a total of 213 records. The third quarter (July–September) was nearly as productive, yielding 198 records. Notably, the colder half of the year, from mid-autumn to mid-spring, also contributed to floristic discoveries: 46 records were collected in the fourth quarter (October–December), and 5 in the first quarter (January–March). These data provided the documentary basis for either newly described species and subspecies or new records for the flora of Ukraine.

The majority of herbarium collections and field observations that underpinned floristic discoveries (317 records, or 64.3%) were made during the period covered by the analyzed publications, i.e., from 1997 to 2024. The most productive years within this period were 2017 (37 records) and 2020 (34 records). Notable earlier years outside the publication timeframe include 1989 and 1990, with 8 and 10 records, respectively.

In terms of the timing of publication of floristic discoveries (see Fig. 1), the most productive years were 2020, with 36 taxa reported, and 2019, with 29 taxa.

Herbarium collection

It is important to emphasize that 82 floristic discoveries, representing 26.1% of all recorded floristic discoveries for the flora of Ukraine during the studied period, were based on herbarium materials. Notably, 34 of these cases involved the description of new species and subspecies for science, accounting for 69.4% of all taxa newly described from Ukraine within the analyzed timeframe. The publications reviewed in this study include data on 19 herbarium specimens collected in the 19th century, 66 collected during the first half of the 20th century, and 78 collected between 1951 and 1990. The oldest specimen is a collection of Botrychium simplex E. Hitchc. from the vicinity of Kharkiv, dated 12 June 1828.

Citizen science platforms

The growing role of citizen science platforms in contributing to floristic discoveries in Ukraine is also worth referencing. Although no new species or subspecies of vascular plants have yet been formally described solely on the basis of data from these platforms, several noteworthy findings have emerged through their use. For example, Astragalus calycinus M. Bieb was discovered with the help of the Plantarium platform (https://www.plantarium.ru), while the occurrence of Tamarix laxa Willd. was partially confirmed through observations on iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org). Over the past decade, platforms such as iNaturalist have increasingly been considered as complementary, or, in some cases, alternative, sources of data to herbarium collections. Although their precise role in the analyzed floristic discoveries remains unclear, references to observations from these platforms are increasingly cited in relevant publications.

Discussion

The results of this study demonstrate that, despite Ukraine’s long history of floristic research and relatively accessible territory, significant discoveries of vascular plant taxa continue to be made. This underscores a broader truth: even in relevantly well-studied temperate regions, floristic inventories remain incomplete, and ongoing fieldwork, herbarium study, and taxonomic revision remain essential.

The predominance of synanthropic habitats among discovery sites highlights that human-altered landscapes are a key frontier for floristic exploration. Many new recorded taxa, particularly alien species, were found in urban and peri-urban environments or near transport corridors, reinforcing the view that synanthropic habitats are dynamic interfaces between cultivated and spontaneous floras (Steen et al. 2024). These areas also act as primary zones for naturalization and early establishment of alien species, including potential future invasives. Thus, regular monitoring of such habitats should be an integral component of national biodiversity assessments (Galera and Sudnik-Wójcikowska 2011; Podda et al. 2025). Notably, Ukrainian botanists have only recently begun to systematically investigate escaped cultivated taxa, with several species now documented outside botanical gardens and arboreta for the first time (Konaikova et al. 2015; Peregrym et al. 2016; Shynder 2019; Shynder et al. 2020, 2022a, b; Konaikova and Peregrym 2023).

Separately, it is important to emphasize that, based on historical experience and previous research (Santini et al. 2023), the introduction and documentation of new alien plant taxa in Ukraine are expected not only to continue but likely to intensify in the coming years. The ongoing full-scale Russian invasion of Ukraine represents a major driver of this process, as large-scale movements of military equipment, ammunition, supplies, food, and personnel from multiple regions of the world increase the risk of unintentional species introductions. At the same time, widespread habitat destruction caused by military activities is generating extensive disturbed environments and novel ecological niches that may facilitate the establishment and spread of alien plant species.

Grasslands and forests featured prominently in floristic discoveries for taxa of native origin in Ukraine. These results echo findings from other European countries, where steppe remnants and montane areas serve as refugia for poorly studied or cryptic taxa (Birks and Willis 2008; Kajtoch et al. 2016; Kirschner et al. 2020). The Crimean Peninsula, in particular, emerged as a hotspot of both endemism and ongoing discovery, contributing nearly one-third of all new taxa, including many of hybrid origin. This underlines the biogeographic uniqueness of Crimea and the urgent need for its continued botanical exploration and protection of its natural areas that, unfortunately, it looks almost impossible in the conditions of the Russian-Ukrainian war at the present.

Herbarium collections are playig a substantial role in documenting floristic novelties, with over a quarter of the discoveries based on historical specimens. In many cases, herbarium samples collected in the 19th and early 20th centuries provided the basis for the formal description of new taxa. This highlights the critical importance of herbarium digitization, curation, and re-examination using contemporary taxonomic frameworks, especially in regions where field access may be limited due to geopolitical or logistic constraints.

The growing influence of citizen science platforms, particularly iNaturalist (Mesaglio and Callaghan 2021), reflects a shift in how floristic data are collected and verified. Moreover, such platforms have already directly supported species descriptions, although there have been no such cases in Ukraine yet, as well as their role in early detection and range confirmation of taxa is increasing (Mesaglio et al. 2025). The integration of citizen science observations with formal taxonomic research holds promise, especially in regions where professional botanists are few. However, the challenges of data quality, taxonomic expertise, and long-term archiving must be carefully addressed (Aceves-Bueno et al. 2017; López-Guillén et al. 2024).

Temporal patterns in floristic discoveries expectedly suggest that April–September are the most productive time, corresponding to the active growing season of most vascular plants. Nonetheless, records from late autumn and early spring demonstrate that year-round vigilance can be rewarding.

Overall, the Ukrainian case illustrates that floristic discovery remains a vital component of biodiversity research even in intensively studied floras. Focusing survey efforts on underexplored habitats (especially synanthropic and steppe), biogeographic hotspots (Crimea, Carpathians), and taxonomically complex groups (e.g., Taraxacum, Rubus, Viola), while fostering collaboration among professionals, citizen scientists, and herbarium curators, can accelerate the rate of discovery. These strategies are widely transferable and can inform biodiversity assessment, conservation planning, and invasive species management across temperate regions worldwide.

Conclusions

This study demonstrates that, even in a relevantly well-studied temperate flora, new national records and taxa new to science continue to emerge at a substantial rate. Analysis of nearly three decades of discoveries in Ukraine revealed consistent drivers: underexplored synanthropic and grassland habitats, mountainous regions rich in endemism and hybridization, and taxonomically complex plant groups. Historical herbarium collections and, increasingly, citizen science platforms also played important roles in expanding floristic knowledge.

These findings highlight the importance of integrating targeted field surveys, systematic herbarium re-examination, and collaborative networks involving both professionals and trained citizen scientists. The methodological and ecological patterns identified here are relevant well beyond Ukraine and can help improve biodiversity inventories, guide conservation priorities, and strengthen early detection of invasive species in other temperate regions.

Also, this research is an important contribution for the future updating of the current checklist of the flora of Ukraine (Mosyakin and Fedoronchuk 1999).

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary Material 1 (227.5KB, docx)

Acknowledgements

Not applicable.

Author contributions

all authors contributed to the literature review, data validation, and preparation of the original draft, as well as its subsequent review and editing. Conceptualization, data curation, formal analysis, methodological design, supervision, and visualization of the results were carried out by MP. IO also contributed to the development of methodological approaches. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Funding

Open Access funding provided by University of Oulu (including Oulu University Hospital). though the authors declare that no special funds, grants, or other support were received for the preparation of this manuscript, however the first author received a 10-month scholarship in Matej Bel University in Banská Bystrica in 2022 (supervisor: Dr. Ingrid Turisová) from the National Scholarship Programme of the Slovak Republic, as well as three sequential fellowships from December 2022 to March 2024 (supervisor: Prof., Dr. Marko Mutanen) from the Biodiverse Anthropocenes Research Programme (University of Oulu, Finland), supported by the Academy of Finland PROFI6 funding (2021–2026) (project number 336449), and grant #359684 from the Research Council of Finland through the call for inviting researchers from Ukraine to Finland 2023 that allowed him to continue research activity and prepare this study in the time of Russian invasion in Ukraine.

Data availability

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article and its supplementary information file.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Not applicable, because human participants, their data or biological material have not been involved in this research.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Footnotes

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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Supplementary Materials

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Data Availability Statement

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