Abstract
Centenarians represent a population achieving extreme longevity. Despite growing interest in the role of dietary supplements in aging, there is limited research examining their use among centenarians. This study assessed the prevalence, duration, and frequency of dietary supplement use among centenarians in China. Data on self-reported supplement usage were sourced from the 2018 wave of the Chinese Longitudinal Healthy Longevity Survey. The analysis included 2,169 female and 708 male centenarians. Descriptive statistics were used to report prevalence, duration, and frequency of use, stratified by sex. Overall, 10.7% (95% confidence interval [CI] = 9.4%, 12.0%) of females and 12.3% (95% CI = 9.9%, 14.7%) of males reported using dietary supplements. The prevalence of calcium, protein, multivitamin, vitamin A/D, iron, zinc, and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) use was between 6.5–7.3%, 3.7–5.8%, 2.8–3.0%, 1.9–2.1%, 1.2–1.4%, 1.2–1.3%, 0.4–0.7%, respectively. The frequency of use was typically reported as “often”. The median duration of supplement use was from 2 to 10 years. Most supplement users (7.3–8.8%) consumed a single supplement. Approximately one in ten centenarians in China reported using dietary supplements. The most commonly consumed supplements were calcium, protein, and multivitamins, while DHA was the least commonly used. Participants who reported using supplements generally indicated regular consumption. The overall pattern of dietary supplement use was similar between females and males. Given the low overall prevalence of supplement use, this lifestyle practice appears to play a relatively minor role in the lives of centenarians in China.
Keywords: Ageing, National cohort, Questionnaire, CLHLS
Introduction
Centenarians, individuals who have reached the age of 100 + years, represent a compelling model of successful aging and extreme longevity [1–3]. A large proportion of these individuals maintain functional independence and demonstrate lower prevalence or delayed onset of chronic conditions compared to the general older population [4–6]. Centenarians live substantially longer than the average global lifespan, making them one of the most exemplary groups for studying human aging [7].
The prevalence of centenarians has increased considerably over recent decades [8]. Specifically, the total estimated number of centenarians in 1995 was 125,000, increasing to 451,000 in 2015 [8]. According to the United Nations, the global population of centenarians is projected to exceed 25 million by the year 2100 [8]. This demographic trend underscores the need to understand the genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors that contribute to their exceptional longevity. Among these, lifestyle practices, including diet, physical activity, and the use of dietary supplements, have gained increasing attention [9, 10].
Dietary habits, including the consumption of specific food groups and nutritional supplements, are recognized as important factors influencing aging and health outcomes [11, 12]. While several studies have examined the dietary habits of centenarians, research specifically focused on their use of dietary supplements remains limited [10, 12]. A 2024 systematic review attempted to document the diet, medication, and dietary supplement use among centenarians [10]. While 34 studies were included in the review, none of them explored dietary supplement use. The authors of this systematic review speculated that the lack of reporting on supplement intake might be due to their relatively low use in this population. [10]
Given the growing interest in the role of dietary supplements in promoting health and longevity, a better understanding of their usage patterns in centenarians is warranted [10, 13]. Accordingly, this study assessed the sex-specific prevalence, duration, and frequency of dietary supplement use among a large sample of centenarians from a national cohort.
Methods
Study design
This study used data from the Chinese Longitudinal Healthy Longevity Survey (CLHLS) [14–16], which represents a large-scale examination of the health and longevity of older adults living in 23 provinces in China [14]. Using a multistage cluster sampling approach, the participants were randomly selected [14]. This survey includes adults aged 65 + years, with a large focus on samples of octogenarians, nonagenarians, and centenarians. The survey was first conducted in 1998, with follow-up waves occurring every few years (2000, 2002, 2005, 2008–2009, 2011–2012, 2014 and 2017–2018). Various data are collected as a part of this survey, including sociodemographic, lifestyle, and health measures. The data on the dietary supplement use was introduced in the 8th wave of data collection, which was conducted in 2018 [17], and included a total of 15,874 respondents aged 65 + years. For the present study, we focused on the data collected only among the sample of centenarians (n = 2,877). The CLHLS data is publicly available upon registration [17]. All study participants gave informed consent. The study received ethical approval from the Biomedical Ethics Committee of Peking University (ref: IRB00001052-13,074). Informed consent was provided by all participants or their authorized representatives.
Questionnaire on dietary supplements
The questionnaire on dietary supplements was included in the section on physical health. This aspect of the data collection started with a question: “Do you usually take a nutritional supplement?”, with possible answers “Yes” or “No”. Only the participants who answered with “Yes” were asked follow-up questions on the intake of specific dietary supplements as well as duration and frequency of supplementation. The questionnaire focused on protein, calcium, iron, zinc, multivitamins, vitamin A/D, and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), asked in that order. If the supplement did not fall into any of these categories, participants could indicate they took other supplements, which were grouped under “Others” in the survey. If the participants indicated they consume a specific supplement, they were also asked for how many years they have been consuming it. Additionally, the survey included questions on frequency of use, with responses: “sometimes”, “seldom”, or “often”.
Sociodemographic, health, and lifestyle characteristics
To describe the study sample, we extracted the data on participants’ sex, age, and stature (height and weight). The following variables were also extracted: self-reported quality of life and self-reported health (very good; good; fair; bad; very bad; not able to answer), main occupation before the age of 60 (professional and technical personnel; governmental, institutional or managerial personnel; commercial, service or industrial worker; self-employed; agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry or fishery worker; houseworker; military personnel; never worked; others), self-rated economic status (very rich; rich; fair; poor; very poor; do not know), doing housework (almost every day; once a week; at least one a month; sometimes; never; do not know), smoking (smoker; non-smoker), drinking alcohol (yes; no), and participation in exercise (yes; no),
Statistical analysis
For sociodemographic, health, and lifestyle categories absolute frequencies and percentages were calculated. Age, height, and weight are presented as mean ± standard deviation. The prevalence of dietary supplement consumption was calculated as a percentage and presented with the 95% confidence interval (95% CI). Years of taking a specific dietary supplement were expressed as median (interquartile range [IQR]). The frequency of taking a supplement (i.e., sometimes, seldom, or often) and the number of supplements taken (1, 2, 3, 4, etc.) were calculated as absolute frequencies and percentages. Analyses were stratified by sex. All analyses were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics V.30 (SPSS Inc. an IBM Company, Chicago, IL, USA).
Results
Participant characteristics
The total sample size for this study was 2,877, including 2,169 females and 708 males (Table 1). Females had an average age of 102.2 ± 2.6 years, weight of 42.7 ± 9.8 kg, and height of 145.1 ± 11.0 cm. Males had an average age of 101.8 ± 2.2 years, weight of 53.7 ± 11.9 kg, and height of 158.8 ± 11.6 cm. The participants’ self-reported quality of life was most commonly classified as “good” (38.3–39.0%), as was self-reported health (27.6–31.5%). For both sexes, their main occupation before 60 years old was in the category “agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry or fishery worker” (49.4–64.1%). The participants’ economic status was mostly self-rated as being “fair” (64.3–70.3%). The majority indicated that they never perform any housework (83.5–83.7%). The included participants were also generally non-smokers (80.9–95.1%), did not drink alcohol (83.5–91.2%), and did not perform any structured exercise (80.4–88.3%).
Table 1.
Participants characteristics
| Variable | Mean ± SD/frequency (percentage) | |
|---|---|---|
| Females (n = 2,169) | Males (n = 708) | |
| Age | 102.2 ± 2.6 | 101.8 ± 2.2 |
| Stature | ||
| Weight (kg) | 42.7 ± 9.8 | 53.7 ± 11.9 |
| Height (cm) | 145.1 ± 11.0 | 158.8 ± 11.6 |
| Self-reported quality of life | ||
| Very good | 343 (15.8) | 140 (19.8) |
| Good | 830 (38.3) | 276 (39.0) |
| Fair | 345 (15.9) | 122 (17.2) |
| Bad | 58 (2.7) | 14 (2.0) |
| Very bad | 9 (0.4) | 3 (0.4) |
| Not able to answer | 559 (25.8) | 153 (21.6) |
| Self-reported health | ||
| Very good | 174 (8.0) | 58 (8.2) |
| Good | 599 (27.6) | 223 (31.5) |
| Fair | 572 (26.4) | 214 (30.2) |
| Bad | 212 (9.8) | 56 (7.9) |
| Very bad | 30 (1.4) | 7 (1.0) |
| Not able to answer | 558 (25.7) | 150 (21.2) |
| Main occupation before the age of 60 | ||
| Professional and technical personnel | 48 (2.2) | 55 (7.8) |
| Governmental, institutional or managerial personnel | 16 (0.7) | 53 (7.5) |
| Commercial, service or industrial worker | 117 (5.4) | 111 (15.7) |
| Self-employed | 32 (1.5) | 19 (2.7) |
| Agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry or fishery worker | 1,390 (64.1) | 350 (49.4) |
| Houseworker | 292 (13.5) | 17 (2.4) |
| Military personnel | 5 (0.2) | 12 (1.7) |
| Never worked | 74 (3.4) | 6 (0.8) |
| Others | 21 (1.0) | 25 (3.5) |
| Self-rated economic status | ||
| Very rich | 37 (1.7) | 27 (3.8) |
| Rich | 297 (13.7) | 133 (18.8) |
| Fair | 1,524 (70.3) | 455 (64.3) |
| Poor | 217 (10.0) | 60 (8.5) |
| Very poor | 47 (2.2) | 14 (2.0) |
| Do not know | 20 (0.9) | 6 (0.8) |
| Smoking at present | ||
| Smoker | 74 (3.4) | 127 (17.9) |
| Non-smoker | 2062 (95.1) | 573 (80.9) |
| Drinking alcohol at present | ||
| Yes | 129 (5.9) | 103 (14.5) |
| No | 1979 (91.2) | 591 (83.5) |
| Exercise at present | ||
| Yes | 203 (9.4) | 127 (17.9) |
| No | 1915 (88.3) | 569 (80.4) |
| Performing of housework | ||
| Almost every day | 209 (9.6) | 69 (9.7) |
| Once a week | 54 (2.5) | 18 (2.5) |
| At least once a month | 21 (1.0) | 5 (0.7) |
| Sometimes | 45 (2.1) | 16 (2.3) |
| Never | 1,816 (83.7) | 591 (83.5) |
| Do not know | 2 (0.1) | 1 (0.1) |
SD = standard deviation; Age, weight, and height are presented as mean ± SD; all other variables are presented as frequency (percentage); Note: frequencies and percentage may not amount to the respective sample size and 100% due to missing data
Dietary supplement use
Overall use
For females, the prevalence of dietary supplement use was 10.7% (95% CI = 9.4%, 12.0%; Table 2). For males, the prevalence of dietary supplement use was 12.3% (95% CI = 9.9%, 14.7%).
Table 2.
Prevalence, duration, and frequency of dietary supplement use among the participants
| Variable | Percentage (95% CI)/median (IQR)/frequency (percentage) | |
|---|---|---|
| Females (n = 2,169) | Males (n = 708) | |
| The use of any supplements | 10.7% (95% CI = 9.4%, 12.0%) | 12.3% (95% CI = 9.9%, 14.7%) |
| Protein | ||
| Prevalence of protein use | 3.7% (95% CI = 2.9%, 4.5%) | 5.8% (95% CI = 4.1%, 7.5%) |
| Years of taking protein | 5 (IQR = 2, 10) | 4 (IQR = 2, 10) |
| Taken sometimes | 10 (0.5%) | 3 (0.4%) |
| Taken seldom | 16 (0.7%) | 9 (1.3%) |
| Taken often | 51 (2.3%) | 29 (4.1%) |
| Calcium | ||
| The use of calcium supplements | 6.5% (95% CI = 5.5%, 7.6%) | 7.3% (95% CI = 5.4%, 9.3%) |
| Years of taking calcium | 5 (IQR = 2, 10) | 5 (IQR = 2, 10) |
| Taken sometimes | 19 (0.9%) | 4 (0.6%) |
| Taken seldom | 38 (1.8%) | 20 (2.8%) |
| Taken often | 81 (3.7%) | 27 (3.8%) |
| Iron | ||
| The use of iron supplements | 1.2% (95% CI = 0.7%, 1.6%) | 1.4% (95% CI = 0.5%, 2.3%) |
| Years of taking iron | 3 (IQR = 2, 6.5) | 10 (IQR = 6.5, 10) |
| Taken sometimes | 3 (0.1%) | 1 (0.1%) |
| Taken seldom | 6 (0.3%) | 3 (0.4%) |
| Taken often | 14 (0.6%) | 6 (0.8%) |
| Zinc | ||
| The use of zinc supplements | 1.2% (95% CI = 0.8%, 1.7%) | 1.3% (95% CI = 0.4%, 2.1%) |
| Years of taking zinc | 3 (IQR = 2, 6.3) | 10 (IQR = 6, 10) |
| Taken sometimes | 3 (0.1%) | 1 (0.1%) |
| Taken seldom | 6 (0.3%) | 3 (0.4%) |
| Taken often | 16 (0.7%) | 5 (0.7%) |
| Multivitamin | ||
| The use of multivitamin supplements | 2.8% (95% CI = 2.1%, 3.5%) | 3.0% (95% CI = 1.7%, 4.2%) |
| Years of taking multivitamins | 5 (IQR = 2, 10) | 5 (IQR = 3, 10) |
| Taken sometimes | 7 (0.3%) | 2 (0.3%) |
| Taken seldom | 12 (0.6%) | 7 (1.0%) |
| Taken often | 37 (1.7%) | 12 (1.7%) |
| Vitamin A/D | ||
| The use of vitamin A/D | 1.9% (95% CI = 1.3%, 2.5%) | 2.1% (95% CI = 1.1%, 3.2%) |
| Years of taking vitamin A/D | 5 (IQR = 2, 10) | 6 (IQR = 3, 10) |
| Taken sometimes | 7 (0.3%) | 1 (0.1%) |
| Taken seldom | 14 (0.6%) | 2 (0.3%) |
| Taken often | 17 (0.8%) | 12 (1.7%) |
| DHA | ||
| The use of DHA | 0.4% (95% CI = 0.1%, 0.6%) | 0.7% (95% CI = 0.1%, 1.3%) |
| Years of taking DHA | 2 (IQR = 0, 6.3) | 7.5 (IQR = 3.8, 10) |
| Taken sometimes | 1 (0.0%) | 1 (0.1%) |
| Taken seldom | 2 (0.1%) | 1 (0.1%) |
| Taken often | 3 (0.1%) | 2 (0.3%) |
| Other supplements | ||
| The use of other supplements | 2.3% (95% CI = 1.7%, 2.9%) | 2.4% (95% CI = 1.3%, 3.5%) |
| Years of taking the other supplements | 3 (IQR = 0.5, 10) | 5 (IQR = 2, 10) |
| Taken sometimes | 6 (0.3%) | 2 (0.3%) |
| Taken seldom | 9 (0.4%) | 2 (0.3%) |
| Taken often | 35 (1.6%) | 13 (1.8%) |
DHA = docosahexaenoic acid; CI = confidence interval; IQR = interquartile range; the data on the prevalence of use are expressed as a percentage (95% CI); the data on the number of years taking the supplement is presented as median (IQR); the data on the frequency of supplement use are expressed as absolute frequencies (percentage)
Protein
For females, the prevalence of protein supplementation was 3.7% (95% CI = 2.9%, 4.5%) with a median duration of 5 years (IQR = 2, 10 years). Among the respondents, 51 (2.3%) indicated they consume protein supplements often. For males, the prevalence of protein supplementation was 5.8% (95% CI = 4.1%, 7.5%), with a median duration of 4 years (IQR = 2, 10 years). Among the respondents, 29 (4.1%) indicated they consume protein supplements often.
Calcium
For females, the prevalence of calcium supplementation was 6.5% (95% CI = 5.5%, 7.6%) with a median duration of 5 years (IQR = 2, 10 years). Among the respondents, 81 (3.7%) indicated they consume calcium supplements often. For males, the prevalence of calcium supplementation was 7.3% (95% CI = 5.4%, 9.3%), with a median duration of 5 years (IQR = 2, 10). Among the respondents, 27 (3.8%) indicated they consume calcium supplements often.
Iron
For females, the prevalence of iron supplementation was 1.2% (95% CI = 0.7%, 1.6%) with a median duration of 3 years (IQR = 2, 6.5 years). Among the respondents, 14 (0.6%) indicated they consume iron supplements often. For males, the prevalence of iron supplementation was 1.4% (95% CI = 0.5%, 2.3%) with a median duration of 10 years (IQR = 6.5, 10 years). Among the respondents, 6 (0.8%) indicated they consume iron supplements often.
Zinc
For females, the prevalence of zinc supplementation was 1.2% (95% CI = 0.8%, 1.7%) with a median duration of 3 years (IQR = 2, 6.3 years). Among the respondents, 16 (0.7%) indicated they consume zinc supplements often. For males, the prevalence of zinc supplementation use was 1.3% (95% CI = 0.4%, 2.1%) with a median duration of 10 years (IQR = 6, 10 years). Among the respondents, 5 (0.7%) indicated they consume zinc supplements often.
Multivitamin
For females, the prevalence of multivitamin supplementation was 2.8% (95% CI = 2.1%, 3.5%) with a median duration of 5 years (IQR = 2, 10 years). Among the respondents, 37 (1.7%) indicated they consume multivitamin supplements often. For males, the prevalence of multivitamin supplementation was 3.0% (95% CI = 1.7%, 4.2%) with a median duration of 5 years (IQR = 3, 10 years). Among the respondents, 12 (1.7%) indicated they consume multivitamin supplements often.
Vitamin A/D
For females, the prevalence of vitamin A/D supplementation was 1.9% (95% CI = 1.3%, 2.5%) with a median duration of 5 years (IQR = 2, 10 years). Among the respondents, 17 (0.8%) indicated they consume vitamin A/D supplements often. For males, the prevalence of vitamin A/D supplementation was 2.1% (95% CI = 1.1%, 3.2%) with a median duration of 6 years (IQR = 3, 10 years). Among the respondents, 12 (1.7%) indicated they consume vitamin A/D supplements often.
DHA
For females, the prevalence of DHA supplementation was 0.4% (95% CI = 0.1%, 0.6%) with a median duration of 2 years (IQR = 0, 6.3 years). Among the respondents, 3 (0.2%) indicated they consume DHA supplements often. For males, the prevalence of DHA supplementation was 0.7% (95% CI = 0.1%, 1.3%) with a median duration of 7.5 years (IQR = 3.8, 10 years). Among the respondents, 2 (0.3%) indicated they consume DHA supplements often.
Other supplements
For females, the prevalence of other supplement use was 2.3% (95% CI = 1.7%, 2.9%) with a median duration of 3 years (IQR = 0.5, 10 years). Among the respondents, 35 (1.6%) indicated they consume other supplements often. For males, the prevalence of other supplement use was 2.4% (95% CI = 1.3%, 3.5%) with a median duration of 5 years (IQR = 2, 10 years). Among the respondents, 13 (1.8%) indicated they consume other supplements often.
Number of supplements
For both sexes, most of the participants indicated they consume a single supplement (7.3–8.8%), followed by two supplements (1.7–2.0%). Less than 1% consumed three or more supplements.
Discussion
The main finding of this study is that the overall prevalence of dietary supplement use among centenarians in China is approximately 10–12%. The most commonly consumed dietary supplements were calcium, protein, and multivitamins, while DHA was the least commonly used. Participants who reported using supplements generally indicated regular consumption. Among the users, the majority reported consuming only a single supplement. The median duration of supplement use was from 2 to 10 years. The overall pattern of dietary supplement use was similar between females and males. Given the low overall prevalence of supplement use, this lifestyle practice appears to play a relatively minor role in the lives of centenarians in China.
Findings from this study indicate that approximately 1 in 10 adults aged 100 + years in China consume dietary supplements. To the best of our knowledge, no prior research has specifically examined sex-specific supplement use among centenarians, limiting direct comparisons with other findings [10]. However, several studies have investigated the use of dietary supplements in older adult populations (60 + years of age). For instance, data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey show that 70% of older adults in the United States reported using a dietary supplement within 30 days of the interview [18]. Given the much lower prevalence of dietary supplement use found in centenarians in this study, it is possible that supplement use declines with advancing age. Still, previous analyses using CLHLS data have explored trends in dietary supplement use across different age groups (65–74, 75–84, 85–94, 95 + years; both sexes combined) and found relatively consistent rates of use [19]. A study conducted in Foshan, China, including 600 community-dwelling older adults indicated that the prevalence of dietary supplement consumption was 19.1%, which is slightly higher compared to the data herein [20]. However, this study included participants aged 55 to 85 + years and was geographically limited to a single urban area [20]. Given the limited and often indirect evidence currently available, further research specifically targeting centenarian populations across diverse geographic and socioeconomic contexts is needed.
The median duration of dietary supplement consumption among the analyzed cohort varied from 2 to 10 years. Some of the participants started consumption of dietary supplements only after reaching centenarian status. These data highlight that the participants did not necessarily consume dietary supplements throughout their older adult life. Accordingly, this raises important questions about the motivations behind starting supplement use at such an advanced age; whether due to a recent health diagnosis, advice from caregivers or healthcare providers, changes in perceived nutritional needs and/or evolving opinions about the risks and benefits of dietary supplementation [21]. Data from the United States indicate that older adults commonly take calcium supplements for “bone health” and multivitamins to “improve overall health” [21]. These two supplements were also among the most frequently used in this analysis, possibly due to similar motivations. However, because the CLHLS did not collect information on participants’ reasons for supplement use, future research should incorporate questions about motivations and specific purposes for using dietary supplements. This would provide a more comprehensive understanding of supplement use among centenarians. It would also be valuable to clarify whether supplements are primarily used for disease prevention or for managing existing health conditions. Additionally, the relationship between supplement use and longevity deserves further investigation, particularly in the context of other key lifestyle factors (e.g., diet and physical activity) and their impact on clinical outcomes.
Previous studies have shown that dietary supplement use (particularly for general health rather than physical performance) is more common among women than men. For instance, a study of older adults in Italy found that 44% of women used dietary supplements compared to 30% of men [22]. A study conducted in the United States also found sex-differences among adults 51 years and older, with 37% of males using supplements compared to 47% of females [23]. Data from Taiwan in 2005 also indicated a higher prevalence among women (34%) than men (30%), though the difference was much smaller than in Italy and the USA [24]. A previous CLHLS analysis found higher prevalence of dietary supplement use in women vs. men aged 65+ years [19]. Our findings did not indicate appreciable sex differences in supplement use, as the point estimates and 95% CIs overlapped across different comparisons. It might be that the sex-based differences in supplement use diminish with advancing age.
Strengths and limitations
There are several strengths and limitations of this study, which are inherently related to the strengths and limitations of the CLHLS. The main strength of the study is the large sample of centenarians surveyed, which is truly a unique feature of the CLHLS [14]. An additional strength of the study is the comprehensive evaluation of the type of supplement taken, the duration, and the frequency of use. Still, while the frequency of use was evaluated, the possible responses included “sometimes”, “seldom”, or “often”. These categories might have different interpretations between individuals, and therefore these responses could be expanded to more specific information such as “taken multiple times per day”, “taken once per day”, “taken 1–7 days per week”. Such data would provide more specific insights into the frequency of use. The survey did not include questions about lifetime supplement use, limiting the ability to draw conclusions about long-term effects. Furthermore, the study focuses on specific supplements and cannot be used to infer the potential benefits or drawbacks of consuming different types or quantities of dietary supplements.
While this is more of a methodological consideration rather than a limitation per se, it is important to highlight that inference on the direct impact of these dietary supplements on longevity cannot be made due to the study’s descriptive analysis. It is unclear whether supplement use contributed in any meaningful way to the participants’ extended lifespan, or whether it was simply a coincidental behavior adopted in life. Individuals who are exceptionally long-lived may be more inclined to adopt health-promoting behaviors, such as taking supplements, rather than such behaviors being a driver of their longevity. The impact of dietary supplements on health outcomes and lifespan in centenarian populations should be further explored in longitudinal studies. Finally, future studies may also consider examining the role of personalized supplementation strategies and emerging technologies (e.g., genetic testing) in optimizing supplement effectiveness and assessing long-term impact.
Conclusion
The main finding of this study is that the overall prevalence of dietary supplement use among centenarians in China is approximately 10–12%. The most consumed supplements were calcium, protein, and multivitamins, while DHA was the least frequently used. Participants who reported using supplements generally indicated regular consumption. Out of the users, most indicated they consume a single supplement. The median duration of supplement use was from 2 to 10 years. The pattern of dietary supplement use was similar between females and males. Given the low overall prevalence of supplement use, this lifestyle practice appears to play a relatively minor role in the lives of centenarians in China.
Acknowledgements
Data from the Chinese Longitudinal Healthy Longevity Survey (CLHLS) Wave 8 were utilized in this study, with approval for data access. We extend appreciation to the participants and researchers who contributed to the data collection.
Authors’ contributions
JG conceptualized the idea for the study. JG performed the data analysis. JG wrote the manuscript draft. JG, AHK, and BJS, interpreted the data, wrote and edited the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final version of the manuscript, and agree with the order of presentation of the authors.
Funding
None.
Data availability
This study utilized data from the Chinese Longitudinal Healthy Longevity Survey (CLHLS). The de-identified data and metadata are publicly available upon request at Peking University Open Research Data Platform website: https://opendata.pku.edu.cn/?language=en
Declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Footnotes
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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Associated Data
This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.
Data Availability Statement
This study utilized data from the Chinese Longitudinal Healthy Longevity Survey (CLHLS). The de-identified data and metadata are publicly available upon request at Peking University Open Research Data Platform website: https://opendata.pku.edu.cn/?language=en