Development of future-oriented alternative poultry livestock products utilizing Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis larvae

Abstract

Integration of advanced technologies from the Fourth Industrial Revolution is accelerating the growth of the food technology sector. Rising global meat consumption driven by population growth raises concerns about food security, environmental impact, and animal ethics, increasing interest in alternative protein sources. Among these, Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis larvae have drawn attention due to their high nutritional value and functional properties such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer effects. Compared with conventional livestock, they offer enhanced sustainability, efficient resource use, and high-quality protein and micronutrient content. In the Republic of Korea, Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis larvae are approved as food ingredients and are increasingly applied to processed products. Incorporating these larvae into meat products, particularly chicken-based items like sausages and patties, has shown improvements in nutritional and functional quality. Unlike general reviews of edible insects, this study focuses specifically on their potential in poultry-based applications, offering a novel perspective. This targeted approach highlights their advantages as functional ingredients in health-oriented meat alternatives. Despite promising attributes, challenges such as consumer acceptance, regulatory clarity, and mass production remain. Future research should aim to optimize rearing and processing technologies and develop public education strategies to facilitate adoption. Overall, Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis larvae represent a promising alternative protein that could support sustainable food systems while reducing the environmental footprint of livestock production.

Introduction

With the integration of cutting-edge information and communication technologies (ICT), such as the Internet of Things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI), and big data—key components of the Fourth Industrial Revolution—the food industry has witnessed a rapid emergence of the food technology (food tech) sector (Jang, 2020; Yoon, 2017). Food tech is an industry that combines food and technology, encompassing innovations that can be applied across the entire value chain of the food industry, including processing, production, distribution, sales, and storage (Yong et al., 2021). In addition to its growth in the Republic of Korea, the food tech industry in countries such as the United States, China, the United Kingdom, and France is continuously evolving, with the support of large corporations, startups, and government initiatives (Jang, 2020). The global food tech market is projected to grow at an average annual rate of 9.9% from 2023 to 2030 (Grand View Research, 2024), making it a promising industry with substantial growth potential (Jang, 2020). Additionally, due to its rapid expansion in the global food market, food tech is considered a highly valuable investment sector (Jang, 2020). Currently, food tech is used in a wide range of fields, including food delivery services, online-to-offline (O2O) platforms, 3D food printing, robotic cooking and serving systems, self-service kiosks, smart farming, edible packaging materials, and alternative foods (Kim, 2021a).

Globally, meat consumption continues to rise due to rapid population growth, increasing income, and urbanization (OECD/FAO, 2023). However, the demand for meat protein is growing faster than its production, raising concerns about potential food crises (Yong et al., 2021). Additionally, environmental pollution caused by livestock manure and greenhouse gas emissions, as well as ethical concerns related to animal slaughter, have become major global issues (Jeong & Jo, 2018). To address these challenges—including food security, environmental sustainability, and animal welfare—alternative livestock-based foods have garnered significant attention (Cho et al., 2022). Alternative livestock-based foods refer to products that substitute conventional animal-derived ingredients with novel raw materials, such as plant-based proteins, microorganisms, edible insects, and cultured cells (MFDS, 2024). The alternative protein market is experiencing rapid growth due to increasing consumer demand and interest, attracting global attention (Kim et al., 2023). The global alternative protein market was valued at approximately $9.6 billion in 2018 and is projected to reach $17.9 billion by 2025 (KREI, 2019). Currently, alternative livestock-based foods primarily include products utilizing plant-based proteins, edible insects, cultured meat, microbial proteins, and seaweed-derived proteins (KREI, 2019). These products aim to replicate the taste, flavor, nutritional profile, and texture of conventional meat using diverse raw materials and advanced processing technologies (Choi & Lee, 2022). Furthermore, advancements in food tech facilitates the sustainable production of alternative livestock-based foods, contributing positively to the environment and gaining widespread attention as a potential solution to issues related to animal welfare and food security (Kim et al., 2023).

Among the alternative livestock-based foods, edible insects have garnered significant attention as a sustainable protein source due to their high nutritional value, including proteins, unsaturated fatty acids, and vitamins. Compared with conventional livestock, insects can be farmed in an environmentally friendly and cost-effective manner. Consequently, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has recognized edible insects as a potential solution to global food security challenges (Srivastava et al., 2009). Interest in the utilization of edible insects continues to grow, and the market for edible insect-based foods is expanding (Kim et al., 2021b). To date, more than 2,000 species of insects have been identified as edible worldwide, and approximately two billion people across 130 countries consume insects as part of their diet (Guiné et al., 2022). In the Republic of Korea, certain edible insects were officially recognized as livestock in 2019, and as of 2024, the Ministry of Food and Drug Safety (MFDS) approved 10 insect species as food ingredients, including Tenebrio molitor, Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis, and Allomyrina dichotoma larvae, as well as drone pupae (MFDS, 2024). Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis belongs to the Cetoniidae family of Coleoptera and is widely distributed in Korea, China, Japan, Taiwan, and Europe (Kim & Kang, 2005).

Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis larvae (PBL) are rich in chitin, vitamins, and various minerals, and they contain higher levels of unsaturated fatty acids and proteins than other edible insects, making them highly valuable from a nutritional standpoint (Cho et al., 2024; Chung et al., 2013; Kim et al., 2021b). Additionally, they exhibit various functional properties, including excellent antioxidant activity, anticancer effects, anti-inflammatory properties, and hepatoprotective effects (Lee et al., 2017, 2019; Chon et al., 2012; Fu et al., 2023). PBL are primarily used as ingredients in energy bars and cookies and are also processed into various commercial products, such as powders, jellies, and tablets (Kim, 2022a). Research is actively being conducted to analyze PBL extracts, particularly their antioxidant activity, bioactive compounds, and overall stability (Choi et al., 2021b; Ganguly et al., 2020; Kim et al., 2021a; Kwon et al., 2013). Furthermore, studies on the application of PBL in meat products are underway. According to Hyun et al. (2021), the addition of PBL powder to chicken breast sausages had positive effects on pH, cooking loss, and water-holding capacity, while enhancing the antioxidant activity of the sausages. According to Kim and Joo (2022), the production of mousse-type patties incorporating PBL showed that the larvae contained a variety of essential nutrients, including saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, while also enhancing antioxidant activity. Additionally, patties with PBL powder exhibited higher consumer acceptance than those without the larval powder did. These findings suggest that meat products incorporating PBL have significant potential for development as functional health foods.

Although previous studies have addressed the role of edible insects in replacing conventional meat sources, most of these have focused on red meat such as beef or pork. In contrast, poultry—particularly chicken—is the most widely consumed meat globally due to its affordability, digestibility, and lean protein content. However, sustainable alternatives to poultry meat remain underexplored. This review addresses this gap by introducing PBL as a functional and nutritional substitute specifically for chicken-based products. By integrating insect-derived proteins into poultry applications such as sausages and patties, this study presents a novel perspective not thoroughly covered in earlier reviews.

Alternative foods in the food tech industry

Growth of the food tech industry

In the context of developing alternative protein sources such as PBL, the integration of Fourth Industrial Revolution technologies plays a crucial role in enabling scalable production, improved processing, and consumer-ready meat alternatives (Jang, 2020). In particular, the application of advanced ICT, such as the IoT, AI, and big data, to the traditional food industry has attracted significant attention to the food tech sector (Jang, 2020; Yoon, 2017). Food tech is a compound term combining “food” and “technology,” referring to an emerging industry where ICT are applied to the food sector, covering all aspects that include production, processing, distribution, sales, storage, and services (Lee & Jo, 2023). The primary objectives of the food tech industry are to enhance the development of new food products, improve improve the efficiency of the production process, and ensure food safety (Lee & Jo, 2023). The global food tech market has grown from $211 billion in 2017 to $554.2 billion in 2020, demonstrating an average annual growth rate of 35%. Similarly, the domestic market in the Republic of Korea has expanded from 27 trillion KRW in 2017 to 61 trillion KRW in 2020, with an annual growth rate of 31% (Lee, 2023). This indicates that the food tech sector in the Republic of Korea is experiencing significant growth and is expected to continue expanding in the future.

The growth of the food tech industry is driven by a combination of factors, with environmental, technological, and socioeconomic factors playing particularly significant roles (Jang, 2020). The global population increase has exacerbated food shortages and environmental destruction caused by food production (Jang, 2020). Additionally, livestock farming generates manure and greenhouse gases that contribute to environmental pollution, and concerns regarding various livestock-related diseases continue to rise (Jeong & Jo, 2018). In response to these challenges, the food tech industry has emerged as an innovative sector aimed at addressing issues related to population growth and environmental pollution. Consequently, the demand for environmentally friendly and sustainable products, such as alternative foods, smart farming, and eco-friendly food waste processing, has steadily increased (Jang, 2020; Lee & Jo, 2023). Technological factors driving the growth of the food tech industry include innovations in distribution, such as autonomous vehicles and drones; advancements in software through AI and big data; and developments in biotechnology and genetic engineering (Jang, 2020; Lee, 2023). Among these, biotechnology and smart processing systems have enabled efficient extraction and stabilization of functional compounds from edible insects like PBL, making them more feasible for application in processed poultry meat products (Seok, 2022). These technological advancements are not only transforming existing industries but also creating new ones (Jang, 2020). Socioeconomic factors, such as aging populations, the increasing proportion of dual-income households, and the rising participation of women in the workforce, have led to a growing demand for food products that prioritize health and convenience in the market (Jang, 2020). Additionally, non-contact industries, such as O2O delivery services, have been rapidly expanding to accommodate the economic and time constraints of consumers (Choi, 2021). The SWOT analysis of the food tech industry, as shown in Fig. 1, clearly outlines the growth potential and challenges faced by the industry. This analysis provides valuable insights into the future outlook of the food tech sector and serves as a foundation for identifying future development strategies (KREI, 2019). Thus, food tech not only fosters the development of environmentally friendly systems but also provides a technological foundation for the commercialization of edible insect-based functional foods and alternative livestock products, such as those enriched with PBL.

Fig. 1.

SWOT analysis of the food tech market

Definition and necessity of alternative foods

Global population growth is one of the primary factors driving the increasing demand for food and animal feed. According to the United Nations, the global population is projected to reach 8.5 billion by 2030, 9.7 billion by 2050, and peak at approximately 10.4 billion by 2080 (UN, 2022). This population increase has led to a continuous rise in global meat consumption, which grew from approximately 180 million tons in 2000 to 270 million tons in 2020, increasing at an annual rate of approximately 2% (An, 2019). Consequently, securing sufficient protein production has become increasingly challenging, raising concerns about food security (Kim et al., 2021a). Traditional livestock farming alone is unlikely to meet the rising demand for meat associated with population growth (Park, 2021a). Additionally, issues related to environmental pollution from livestock waste and wastewater, as well as concerns over animal welfare and ethical considerations during the slaughtering process, have gained significant attention (Jeong & Jo, 2018). The livestock industry is a major contributor to global warming, with lamb and beef production generating substantially higher greenhouse gas emissions than other food sources (KREI, 2022). Producing 1 kg of beef results in 14.8 kg CO₂ emissions, whereas pork and chicken produce 3.8 and 1.1 kg CO₂ per kg, respectively (Park, 2021a). Furthermore, 70% of the world’s agricultural land is used for livestock production, and producing 1 kg of meat requires approximately 6 kg of grain and 15,000 L of water (FAO, 2016). As concerns regarding the environmental burden and sustainability of livestock production continue to grow, the development of alternative foods has become increasingly important for ensuring future food security (Kim, 2022d).

Alternative foods refer to food products designed to resemble conventional foods in form, taste, and texture while using plant-based ingredients, microorganisms, edible insects, or cultured cells instead of animal-derived raw materials (MFDS, 2024). These foods are gaining attention as next-generation food tech innovations with a high growth potential, offering solutions to the limitations of traditional livestock farming (Park, 2021a). For instance, plant-based proteins contain a lower fat and calorie content than that of animal proteins and offer health benefits due to the presence of bioactive compounds, such as polyphenols (Cho & Ryu, 2022). Additionally, cultured meat production only requires approximately 55% of the energy needed for conventional livestock farming (Jung et al., 2021). The development of alternative foods plays a crucial role in addressing population growth, environmental pollution, global warming, and water scarcity (Nam, 2019). Thus, alternative foods could contribute to securing a sustainable food supply and promoting environmental protection (Kim et al., 2024).

Current status and outlook of the alternative food market

According to a 2022 report published by a global market research agency, one of the major trends in the food and beverage industry in 2023 is that owing to the global economic crisis, consumers are expected to prefer products that offer high cost-effectiveness (Innova Market Insights, 2022). However, beyond price considerations, consumers are expected to prioritize environmentally friendly products that align with sustainable values (Innova Market Insights, 2022). Consequently, consumers who place importance on sustainability are likely to prefer plant-based alternative foods (Innova Market Insights, 2022). Figure 2 summarizes the key factors driving growth in the alternative food market. In addition to curiosity, convenience, and personalized nutrition, a growing awareness of animal welfare and ethical concerns, as well as an increasing focus on health and sustainability, are significant drivers of market expansion (KREI, 2020). With the advancement of Fourth Industrial Revolution technologies and the increasing diversity of food choices, investments in the alternative food sector have reached billions of dollars. Hundreds of new companies have entered the market, garnering worldwide attention (Kim et al., 2023). As of 2018, the global alternative food market was valued at approximately $9.62 billion and is projected to grow at an average annual rate of 10%, possibly reaching $17.86 billion by 2025 (KREI, 2019).

Fig. 2.

Growth factors in the alternative food market

The alternative food market comprises a variety of product types, including plant-based products, edible insects, and seaweed-based foods (Kim et al., 2021b). Among these, plant-based products, such as plant-based meat, eggs, milk, and beverages, account for the largest share, comprising 87.2% of the total market (KREI, 2019). From 2019 to 2025, the projected average annual growth rate for different product types is expected to be highest for edible insects (22.7%), followed by cultured meat (19.5%), seaweed-based products (8.3%), plant-based alternatives (8.1%), and microbial proteins (5.0%) (KREI, 2019). As meat consumption continues to increase and the limitations of traditional livestock farming become more apparent, the development of alternative technologies has accelerated. Consequently, the alternative food market has gained significant attention in the food tech industry (Jeong & Jo, 2018). The continued growth and increasing demand for alternative foods are expected to persist, and with advancements in food tech, improvements in taste, flavor, texture, physicochemical properties, and nutritional value are anticipated (Choi & Lee, 2022).

Types and advantages of alternative foods

The main types of alternative foods include plant-based proteins, edible insects, and cultured meat. In addition, research on the utilization of proteins extracted from microorganisms and seaweed is actively being conducted (Kim et al., 2021b). The classification and key characteristics of these alternative food sources are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1.

Categories and characteristics of major alternative food sources

Type	Characteristics	References
Plant-based meat	• Produced from plant-derived proteins (e.g., soy, pea) to mimic the taste and texture of conventional meat. • Generally lower in fat and calories than animal-derived meat. • Contains functional bioactive compounds, including polyphenols.	Cho & Ryu, 2022; Park, 2021a; You et al., 2020
Edible insects	• Consumed by more than two billion people globally, involving over 2,000 insect species. • Rich in high-quality protein, unsaturated fatty acids, vitamins, and essential minerals.	Guiné et al., 2022; Lee et al., 2021
Cultured meat	• Generated by isolating animal stem cells and cultivating them into structured muscle tissue. • Closely resembles conventional meat in structure and composition. • Can reduce energy consumption by up to 55% compared to traditional livestock farming.	Choi & Shin, 2019; Jung et al., 2021; Park, 2021a
Microbial proteins	• Derived from the cultivation of microorganisms, including bacteria, yeast, fungi, and microalgae. • Commonly classified as single-cell proteins (SCP) due to their unicellular origin.	Dalbanjan et al., 2024
Seaweed-based foods	• Developed from proteins and bioactive compounds extracted from marine algae (seaweed). • Contain well-balanced essential amino acids and various antioxidants. • Excellent source of dietary fiber, vitamins, and trace minerals.	de Souza Celente et al., 2023

Plant-based meat

Plant-based meat alternatives represent the largest segment of the alternative food market (Yong et al., 2021). Globally, many companies are actively developing and marketing various plant-based meat products, such as sausages, patties, and nuggets (Choi et al., 2015). In 2019, the global market for plant-based meat alternatives was valued at approximately $3.3 billion and is projected to grow at an average annual rate of 19.4% until 2027 (Cho et al., 2022). Plant-based alternative foods refer to proteins and their derivatives extracted from plants, with high-protein crops, such as soybeans, used to replicate the taste and texture of meat (Park, 2021a; You et al., 2020). Compared with animal-based ingredients, plant-based protein sources have a lower fat and calorie content while offering high nutritional value (Cho & Ryu, 2022). Additionally, they contain polyphenols and various bioactive compounds that contribute to positive health effects (Cho & Ryu, 2022).

Edible insects

Edible insects have gained attention as potential solutions to population growth, environmental pollution, global warming, and water scarcity (Kim et al., 2019). Globally, more than two billion people consume edible insects, and over 2,000 insect species are used as food sources (Guiné et al., 2022). Compared with livestock products, edible insects have a higher protein content and are rich in unsaturated fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals, making them a highly nutritious food source (Lee et al., 2021).

Cultured meat

Cultured meat is produced by extracting cells from living animals, isolating stem cells, and cultivating them into muscle cells (Choi & Shin, 2019). It is considered an alternative animal-derived protein that can produce meat in a form most similar to that of conventional meat while addressing various environmental issues associated with livestock farming (Park, 2021a). Compared with traditional livestock farming, cultured meat technology can reduce energy consumption by approximately 55% (Jung et al., 2021). Additionally, by controlling culture media and cultivation conditions during production, meat products can be tailored to meet consumer preferences (Jung et al., 2021).

Each of these alternative food types has distinct advantages and serves as a promising solution to the limitations of traditional livestock farming. Consequently, they are gaining attention as future food supply strategies that prioritize environmental protection and sustainability.

Edible insects

Types and characteristics of edible insects

By 2050, the global population is expected to reach approximately 9 billion (FAO, 2009). The FAO has stated that food production must double to meet this growing demand (FAO, 2009). To address this challenge, edible insects have gained attention as promising future food sources (Yun & Hwang, 2016). Over 2,000 insect species from various orders, including Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths), Coleoptera (beetles), Orthoptera (grasshoppers and crickets), Isoptera (termites), and Hymenoptera (bees and wasps), are considered edible (Guiné et al., 2022). In the Republic of Korea, 10 insect species are officially recognized as food ingredients, as listed in Table 2 (MFDS, 2024).

Table 2.

Edible insect species approved for use as food ingredients in the Republic of Korea (MFDS, 2024)

Edible insect species (Scientific name)	Common name	Approval status in Republic of Korea
Oxya japonica	Grasshopper	General food ingredient based on traditional dietary use
Bombycis corpus	White stiff silkworm
Bombyx mori	Silkworm larvae and pupae
Tenebrio molitor	Yellow mealworm larvae	Converted from temporary to general food ingredient
Gryllus bimaculatus	Two-spotted cricket
Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis	White-spotted flower chafer larvae
Allomyrina dichotoma	Rhinoceros beetle larvae
Zophobas atratus	Superworm larvae	Temporary food ingredient
Apis mellifera	Drone pupae
Locusta migratoria	Migratory locust

Globally, edible insects have been utilized in traditional medicine to treat ailments, such as stomach disorders, respiratory diseases, and wounds (Aidoo et al., 2023). In Eastern medicine, insects have been widely used for medicinal and dietary purposes (Heo et al., 2006). The Donguibogam (an ancient Korean medical book) documents 95 species of medicinal insects, whereas the Bencao Gangmu Shiyi (a supplementary volume to the Chinese Materia Medica) records 106 species (Heo et al., 2006). Edible insects have traditionally been used in medicine because of their medicinal properties (Kim et al., 2021b). Most medicinal insects are ground and consumed with medicinal plants or processed into pills for therapeutic purposes (Kim et al., 2021b).

Edible insects are excellent protein sources due to their rich nutrient content (Khampakool et al., 2020). Edible insects generally have a higher protein content and lower fat levels than those in conventional animal protein sources (Wedamulla et al., 2024). Additionally, edible insects exhibit protein and fat compositions similar to those of legumes, making them sustainable alternatives to plant-based proteins (Wedamulla et al., 2024). Furthermore, they contain essential minerals, such as phosphorus, magnesium, zinc, iron, copper, and manganese, which contribute to bone formation, dental health, blood cell production, and cellular differentiation (Baek et al., 2017; Bukkens, 1997; Pemberton, 1988; Siemianowska et al., 2013). The nutritional composition of edible insects varies depending on the species and habitat (Yun & Hwang, 2016). In contrast to conventional livestock farming, insect farming requires significantly less space, with many species capable of laying hundreds of eggs simultaneously and exhibiting short generation cycles, allowing for rapid mass production (Yun & Hwang, 2016). Additionally, insects require only one-tenth of the feed required for livestock production, making them highly efficient in terms of resource utilization (Woo et al., 2019).

Edible insects as functional foods

Research on edible insects as functional food ingredients has been actively conducted to explore their physiological activities. Edible insects have demonstrated numerous bioactive properties, including antioxidant, antibacterial, and antihypertensive effects. Moreover, several studies have reported their potential anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antidiabetic, and anti-obesity properties. A comparative summary of these functional properties and their corresponding food application potentials across representative edible insect species is presented in Table 3, based on findings from previous studies.

Table 3.

Functional properties and food application potentials of major edible insect species

Insect species	Functional properties	Food application potential	References
Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis	Antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory	Enhances water-holding capacity, textural properties, and antioxidant stability in chicken sausages and patties; shows high consumer acceptance.	Hyun et al., 2021; Jang et al., 2019; Kim & Joo, 2022; Lee et al., 2019
Tenebrio molitor	Antioxidant, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity	Source of ACE-inhibitory peptides; suitable for incorporation into functional food formulations.	Dai et al., 2013; Jang et al., 2019; Kang et al., 2017; Seo et al., 2017
Allomyrina dichotoma	Antioxidant	Investigated as a functional ingredient with hepatoprotective effects.	Chon et al., 2012; Jang et al., 2019
Gryllus bimaculatus	Antioxidant, antidiabetic	Preserves pancreatic function in diabetic models; considered for use in health-promoting meat alternatives.	Cho et al., 2019b; Jang et al., 2019
Bombyx mori	Antihypertensive, anticancer	Demonstrates peptide bioactivity; considered for application in nutraceutical meat products.	Cho et al., 2019a; Wang et al., 2011
Zophobas atratus	Antibacterial	Considered for use as an antimicrobial ingredient in meat preservation.	Shin et al., 2020

Antioxidant activity

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are generated during metabolic processes that produce energy essential for life. However, excessive accumulation of ROS can lead to severe diseases, such as Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, cancer, arteriosclerosis, stroke, and obesity (Kim & Lee, 2017). Antioxidant compounds that neutralize ROS are commonly found in plant extracts, fermentation products, and flavoring agents, typically in the form of flavonoids or phenolic compounds. However, certain animal- and plant-derived proteins also exhibit antioxidant activities (Kim et al., 2000). Several studies have investigated the antioxidant effects of edible insect extracts and demonstrated their potential as functional food ingredients. Specifically, extracts from white-spotted flower chafer larvae (PBL), rhinoceros beetle larvae (Allomyrina dichotoma), adult two-spotted crickets (Gryllus bimaculatus), and mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) have been shown to exhibit antioxidant activity (Jang et al., 2019). Hydrolysates derived from proteins isolated from both larval and adult insects effectively scavenge free radicals, further supporting their potential role as functional food components (Jang et al., 2019).

Antibacterial activity

Edible insects contain antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), which are crucial biodefense compounds of the innate immune system (Lee et al., 2016). AMPs isolated and purified from edible insects help maintain homeostasis and protect against invading bacteria, fungi, and protozoa (Lee et al., 2016). For example, protaetiamycine 2, derived from the white-spotted flower chafer (PBL), exhibits broad-spectrum antibacterial activity against gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus), gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli), and fungi (Candida albicans), highlighting its potential as an antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory therapeutic agent (Lee et al., 2019). Additionally, zophobacin 1, an AMP extracted from superworms (Zophobas atratus), has been reported to exhibit antibacterial activity (Shin et al., 2020).

Antihypertensive activity

With the adoption of Western dietary habits and an aging population, cardiovascular diseases are on the rise (KREI, 2017). Several peptides extracted from edible insects have demonstrated antihypertensive effects by effectively inhibiting angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE), a key enzyme in the renin-angiotensin system responsible for blood pressure regulation (Dai et al., 2013). Tyr-Ala-Asn, a tripeptide extracted from mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) proteins, inhibits ACE, thereby alleviating hypertension, presenting potential applications in both the food and nutraceutical industries (Dai et al., 2013). Moreover, protein hydrolysates derived from silkworm pupae (Bombyx mori) have also exhibited antihypertensive activity by preventing an increase in blood pressure (Wang et al., 2011).

Other physiological activities

Edible insects exhibit various physiological functions, including anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antidiabetic, and anti-obesity properties. For instance, extracts from mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) have shown potential anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting the expression of inflammatory markers, such as TNF-α, IL-6, and nitric oxide (NO), in a dose-dependent manner (Kang et al., 2017). Additionally, silkworm larva extracts have been found to suppress the proliferation of human hepatocellular carcinoma cells, indicating their potential anticancer properties (Cho et al., 2019a). Furthermore, extracts from the two-spotted cricket (Gryllus bimaculatus) have demonstrated antidiabetic effects by inhibiting diabetes progression in insulin-deficient mice while preserving pancreatic islet morphology and insulin secretion function (Cho et al., 2019b). Mealworm extracts have also been reported to reduce lipid accumulation in mature adipocytes and mitigate weight gain in mice with high-fat diet-induced obesity, indicating their anti-obesity potential (Seo et al., 2017).

These findings highlight the potential of edible insects not only as an alternative protein source but also as a high-value-added functional food ingredient with various bioactivities, including antioxidant, antibacterial, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antidiabetic, and anti-obesity properties.

Current domestic and international status of the edible insect industry

The global edible insect market has grown rapidly in recent years. Recognizing the need to develop the insect industry, the Republic of Korea enacted the Insect Industry Promotion and Support Act in 2010, which has facilitated its rapid expansion (Kim et al., 2022). Since the launch of the Second Five-Year Plan for Insect Industry Development in 2016, various government policies have actively supported the formation and growth of the edible insect industry (Kim, 2018b). According to a survey conducted by the Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs (MAFRA) in 2021, the total sales of edible insects in the Republic of Korea amounted to 44.6 billion KRW, with edible insects accounting for 51.8% (23.1 billion KRW), reflecting a 9% increase compared with that during the previous year (MAFRA, 2022). This indicates that edible insects play a significant role in the domestic insect industry.

The edible insect industry is rapidly expanding globally. According to Meticulous Research (2024), the global edible insect market was valued at 1.49 billion USD in 2023 and is projected to reach 1.87 billion USD in 2024 and 17.95 billion USD by 2033, with an estimated compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 28.6% from 2024 to 2033. The edible insect industry is particularly active in the Asia-Pacific region (Kim et al., 2020). In 2015, the insect market in this region was valued at approximately 12 million USD, primarily driven by lower raw material and distribution costs (Kim, 2017). Thailand is one of the leading countries in cricket farming, with approximately 20,000 farms engaged in cricket production (FAO, 2013b). Additionally, the Chinese company, HaoCheng Mealworm, produces approximately 50 tons of mealworms and superworms per month and annually exports approximately 200 tons to markets in Australia, Europe, North America, and Southeast Asia (FAO, 2013a). In Europe, countries such as the United Kingdom, Belgium, France, and the Netherlands lead the edible insect market (Kim, 2018b). Belgium was the first European country to approve 10 edible insect species for food use in December 2013 and has implemented the HACCP system to ensure the safe production of edible insect products (Kim, 2018b). The edible insect market in the United States was expected to reach approximately 380 million USD in 2024 and 901 million USD by 2029 (Mordor Intelligence, 2023). The U.S. regulates insect-based food products under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, which ensures that these products are manufactured in GMP-compliant facilities. Additionally, insect-based animal feed has been approved under the Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) status (Lähteenmäki-Uutela et al., 2021). These trends indicate that the global edible insect industry is rapidly expanding, and continued research and development is expected to drive its growth further.

Future prospects of edible insects

Edible insects are emerging as crucial alternatives for addressing global food security and environmental challenges (FAO, 2013a). As the global population continues to increase, conventional food production methods may struggle to meet the growing demand (Park, 2021a). Edible insects have been proposed as a viable solution to this challenge.

Sustainable food resource

Edible insects are highly efficient food resources that provide high-quality protein with minimal resource consumption (Khampakool et al., 2020). Compared with traditional livestock farming, insect farming requires significantly less water and feed while producing substantially lower greenhouse gas emissions (Van Huis & Oonincx, 2017). Additionally, insects can convert agricultural waste and other low-cost organic by-products into high-value food products (Fowles & Nansen, 2019). Consequently, insect farming is considered an eco-friendly approach that not only protects the environment but also contributes to solving global food shortages (Lee & Jo, 2023).

Economic growth potential

The edible insect market is rapidly expanding, showing significant growth potential in the coming years. From 2023 to 2033, the CAGR of the edible insect market is projected to reach 28.6% (Meticulous Research, 2024), demonstrating the increasing global recognition of this industry. Its growth has been particularly prominent in the Asian and European markets, highlighting the economic significance of insect-based food products as a major industry (Fortune Business Insights, 2023).

Changing consumer perception

Traditionally, insect consumption has been limited to specific regions; however, consumer perception of edible insects is changing worldwide (Kim, 2018b). This shift is largely driven by a growing awareness of the nutritional benefits associated with insects and their reduced environmental impact (Kim, 2018b). In particular, health- and environmentally conscious consumers are increasingly demanding edible insect-based products (Kim, 2020a).

Innovation driven by technological advancements

Advances in food tech have significantly improved the variety and quality of insect-based food products (Kim et al., 2006, 2021b). Research is actively being conducted on insect protein extraction, processing techniques, and the utilization of biologically active compounds (Lee et al., 2021). Additionally, improvements in food manufacturing technologies have enhanced the taste, texture, and nutritional composition of insect-based products, further promoting consumer acceptance (Kim et al., 2021b). Future technological developments are expected to enhance the efficiency and applicability of edible insects in the food industry.

Legal and institutional support

Several countries have established legal and institutional frameworks to support the edible insect industry. For example, since 2018, the European Union has recognized and regulated edible insects as novel foods, whereas in the United States, edible insects are subject to FDA regulations and must obtain GRAS status to ensure safety (Lotta, 2019). Such legal support plays a vital role in the growth and development of the edible insect industry.

Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis larvae

Biological characteristics of Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis larvae

PBL belongs to the order Coleoptera and family Scarabaeidae and is widely distributed in Korea, China, Japan, Taiwan, and some parts of Europe (Kim & Kang, 2005). Adult beetles, measuring 17–24 mm in size, are most active from early July to early August, primarily feeding on fruits, such as pears and peaches, as well as sap from oak trees and corn (Chon et al., 2012; Chung et al., 2013). PBL inhabit forested areas, especially those rich in humus, where they grow by feeding on leaves, decayed straw, and tree roots (Kim et al., 2005; Park, 2019). Before becoming adults, PBL are white to yellowish-brown, soft, and flexible, and they play a vital role in the decomposition of organic matter (Kim & Kang, 2005; Kim et al., 2005). The distribution of PBL varies depending on climate and habitat conditions, with temperature and humidity being significant environmental factors (Noh et al., 2015; Yusifov et al., 2016).

PBL share similar ecological characteristics with those of other members of the Scarabaeidae family but exhibit unique physiological traits and growth patterns during the larval stage (Kim & Kang, 2005; Yoo et al., 2022). These biological characteristics enable them to survive and adapt to diverse environments, which is crucial for their potential as food and feed sources (Kim & Kang, 2005). PBL are especially rich in proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals, making them highly valuable as food and functional health products (Chung et al., 2013).

Nutritional value of  Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis larvae

PBL possess a well-balanced nutrient profile, which enhances their value as food and functional health products (Chung et al., 2013). At the larval stage, they are high in proteins and fats, particularly containing essential amino acids, unsaturated fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals that can benefit human health (Chung et al., 2013).

Protein content

The protein content of PBL exceeds 50%, which is higher than that found in eggs, meat, and fish (Cho et al., 2024; Chung et al., 2013). PBL also exhibit a high level of protein compared with that in other edible insects, with a rich profile of essential amino acids that are easily digestible and absorbable in the human body (Chung et al., 2013; Kim et al., 2021a; Song et al., 2023). These characteristics suggest that PBL have the potential for use as protein supplements.

Fat content

PBL contain approximately 20–30% fat, most of which consists of unsaturated fatty acids (Yeo et al., 2013). This is superior to the fat content found in traditional meats, such as beef, pork, and chicken, particularly due to the high oleic acid content in PBL, which is beneficial for preventing cardiovascular diseases and strokes (Kim, 2021b). Unsaturated fatty acids help maintain cardiovascular health, and high levels of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids can reduce inflammation and manage cholesterol levels (Nam & Lee, 2007; Simopoulos, 2002; Zamora et al., 2001).

Vitamin content

PBL are rich in vitamin A, B-complex (B1, B2, B3, B5, and B12), and E (RDA, 2024). Vitamin A supports vision and maintains healthy skin and mucous membranes (Akram et al., 2011); B-complex vitamins are essential for energy metabolism and nervous system function; and vitamin E acts as a potent antioxidant that prevents cellular damage and strengthens the immune system (Kennedy, 2016; Liao et al., 2022).

Mineral content

PBL contain essential minerals, such as iron, calcium, zinc, and magnesium, that play crucial roles in bone health, blood production, and immune function (Chung et al., 2013; Nueno, 2024). Iron, a key component of hemoglobin, is vital for oxygen transport and energy production, making it indispensable for the prevention of anemia (Abbaspour et al., 2014). Zinc helps reduce oxidative stress, prevent cellular damage, and enhance the immune response (Chasapis et al., 2012).

Health benefits of Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis larvae

In addition to their nutritional value, PBL have various physiological activities that can positively impact health. The physiological functions of PBL identified in previous studies are summarized in Table 4.

Table 4.

Summary of physiological functions and health benefits of Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis larvae

Physiological function	Description	References
Antioxidant activity	• Reduce reactive oxygen species (ROS) • Prevent cellular damage and delay aging processes • Help prevent cancer and cardiovascular diseases	Choi et al., 2019; Jomova et al., 2023; Lee et al., 2017; Yoo et al., 2007
Anti-inflammatory activity	• Reduce inflammatory mediators and promote nitric oxide secretion • Help prevent and alleviate inflammatory diseases	Choi et al., 2021a; Lee et al., 2019; Lim et al., 2024
Antimicrobial and antiviral activity	• Exhibit antimicrobial effects and inhibit viral replication • Enhance immune function to help prevent infections	Ban et al., 2022; Fu et al., 2023; Zasloff, 2002
Hepatoprotective activity	• Protect liver cells from oxidative stress and improve liver function • Help prevent liver-related diseases	Chon et al., 2012; Park, 2020

Antioxidant activity

PBL possess a strong antioxidant activity, which helps reduce ROS levels, thereby preventing cellular damage and delaying the aging process (Jomova et al., 2023; Lee et al., 2017). Antioxidants also play a crucial role in cancer prevention and can reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases (Choi et al., 2019; Yoo et al., 2007).

Anti-inflammatory activity

PBL extracts have been shown to inhibit inflammatory responses (Lee et al., 2019). According to Choi et al. (2021a), AMPs extracted from PBL promote the secretion of NO, which is essential for maintaining homeostasis and reducing the expression of inflammatory mediators and cytokines. These anti-inflammatory effects can help prevent or alleviate inflammatory diseases, such as arthritis and asthma (Lim et al., 2024).

Antimicrobial and antiviral activity

PBL exhibit strong antimicrobial activity against various pathogenic microorganisms and indirectly display antiviral effects by enhancing immune function (Ban et al., 2022; Fu et al., 2023). These AMPs act by disrupting cell membranes or inhibiting viral replication (Fu et al., 2023; Hwang & Cho, 2018). This contributes to the prevention of infections and enhancement of the immune system, thereby protecting the human body (Zasloff, 2002).

Hepatoprotective activity

PBL have long been used in traditional medicine, particularly for the treatment of liver diseases (Lee et al., 2001). Recent studies have suggested that PBL can protect liver cells from oxidative stress and help improve liver function (Chon et al., 2012; Park, 2020). This implies that they could play a significant role in the prevention of various liver-related diseases.

Food products containing Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis larvae

Owing to their outstanding nutritional value and health benefits, PBL are being incorporated into various food products (Chung et al., 2013). These products have garnered significant interest for their potential as functional health foods among general consumers (Chon et al., 2012). Below are representative examples of food products containing PBL.

Energy bars and protein bars

PBL powder is high in protein and easily digestible, making it an ideal ingredient for energy and protein bars (Park, 2018). These bars help with recovery after exercise and serve as meal replacements, especially for consumers with active lifestyles (Yu, 2019). In addition to their high protein content, these bars contain a variety of vitamins and minerals, making them effective nutritional supplements (Chung et al., 2013).

Health snacks and cookies

Snacks and cookies containing PBL offer a convenient means to consume nutrients (Kim, 2013; Channel, 2014). These products are enriched with PBL powder, which increases protein content while providing a nutty flavor and crispy texture (Kim, 2021c). Their high antioxidant activity and rich unsaturated fatty acid content make them popular healthy snacks among consumers (Kim, 2021c).

Pasta and noodles

Some food manufacturers are incorporating PBL powder into pasta and noodles to enhance their protein and nutritional content (Kim, 2016). Compared with traditional wheat-based pasta, these products offer higher levels of protein and minerals, making them popular among health-conscious consumers (Kim, 2016).

Beverages and powdered supplements

PBL are also used in beverages and powdered supplements (Kim, 2020b; Son, 2019). These products concentrate the nutritional components extracted from PBL, making them easy to consume (Kim, 2020b). The addition of PBL powder to protein shakes or smoothies, especially before or after exercise, can maximize protein supplementation (Son, 2019).

Jellies, pills, and hangover remedies

PBL extracts are used in jellies, pills, and hangover remedies that emphasize health functionality. These products aim to enhance immunity, promote recovery from fatigue, exert antioxidant effects, and support liver health (Son, 2019; Yang, 2021; Jeong, 2022). Their convenient forms make them popular among a wide range of age groups, from children to adults (Ra et al., 2018).

Meat products

PBL are also being added to various meat products to enhance their nutritional value. For example, the addition of PBL powder to chicken breast sausages or patties increases their protein content and promotes antioxidant activity, thereby enhancing their health benefits (Hyun et al., 2021; Kim & Joo, 2022). Hyun et al. (2021) and Kim and Joo (2022) reported that these products showed higher consumer preference and significantly improved nutritional value compared with that of conventional meat products.

Chicken meat

Global meat consumption has steadily increased due to population growth, economic development, and urbanization (Jia et al., 2024). In particular, chicken meat is perceived as a relatively affordable and healthy source of protein when compared with other types of meat, leading to a surge in its consumption (Ederer et al., 2023; Mbajiorgu et al., 2011). Moreover, due to outbreaks of livestock diseases, such as mad cow disease, foot-and-mouth disease, and cholera, consumers tend to prefer chicken meat (Jeon et al., 2023). According to a report by the OECD/FAO, poultry was the most consumed meat globally in 2023, with approximately 140 million tons consumed. Chicken meat consumption is expected to grow by approximately 1.4% annually until 2032 (OECD/FAO, 2023). This increase is expected to be particularly significant in developing Asian and African countries (OECD/FAO, 2023). This increase in chicken meat consumption is also expected to have a positive impact on global food security and environmental sustainability.

Characteristics of chicken meat

Chicken meat, classified as white meat, contains lower fat and cholesterol levels compared with those in red meats, such as beef and pork, but has a higher protein content (Park et al., 2017). In particular, chicken breasts are low in fat and high in protein, making them an ideal food for weight management and muscle maintenance (Jung et al., 2013; Koh & Yu, 2015). The high protein content of chicken breasts provides the essential amino acids necessary for muscle formation and maintenance (He et al., 2021). However, its low fat content makes it suitable for those aiming to lose weight (Chae et al., 2002). Additionally, chicken meat is easily digestible, making it beneficial for digestive health (Kuzmina et al., 2024). The versatility of chicken meat in various cooking methods also makes it easy to incorporate into diets (Wang et al., 2023). Therefore, chicken meat is one of the most popular food choices worldwide.

Fat content

The total fat content of chicken meat is 15.1%, with 44.7% unsaturated and 29.9% saturated fatty acids, which is lower than that of red meats (Park et al., 2017; Posati, 1979). The main fatty acids present in chicken meat include oleic acid (C18:1), palmitic acid (C16:0), and linoleic acid (C18:2), which are significant components of its fatty acid composition (Park et al., 2017). The high unsaturated fatty acid content helps manage cholesterol levels, which positively affects cardiovascular health (DiNicolantonio & O’Keefe, 2018; Hunter et al., 2010).

Ease of cooking

The ease of cooking chicken meat is determined by various factors that significantly influence consumer preferences and its utility in the food industry (Park et al., 2017). Chicken meat is perceived as a healthy food due to its relatively low fat and high protein content compared with that in other meats (Connolly & Campbell, 2023). Moreover, it is suitable for various cooking methods, such as grilling, steaming, stir-frying, and frying (Lv et al., 2023). The rapid cooking time of chicken meat makes it a convenient ingredient for modern consumers (Langsrud et al., 2020).

Nutritional value of chicken meat

Chicken meat contains a variety of essential nutrients and is particularly valuable as a high-protein food (Park et al., 2017). Compared with red meats, chicken meat has a relatively low calorie and fat content, making it popular among those seeking weight management or a healthy diet (Jung et al., 2013). To contextualize this, the following section includes a comparison between white and red meats. In this context, Table 5 provides a comparative summary of the nutritional and functional properties of PBL and chicken meat.

Table 5.

Nutritional and functional comparison between Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis larvae and chicken meat

Category	Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis larvae	Chicken meat	References
Protein content	> 50%, rich in essential amino acids	Approximately 22.9%, especially high in breast meat	Chung et al., 2013; Koh & Yu, 2015
Fat content	20–30%, primarily unsaturated fatty acids	15.1%; major fatty acids: oleic, palmitic, linoleic acid	Park et al., 2017; Posati, 1979; Yeo et al., 2013
Vitamins	Rich in vitamins A, B1, B2, B3, B5, B12, and E	Rich in B6 and B12	Gwak et al., 2022; RDA, 2024
Minerals	Contains Fe, Ca, Zn, Mg	Contains Mg, Fe, P, K, Se	Chung et al., 2013; Nueno, 2024; Świątkiewicz et al., 2014
Functional properties	Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, hepatoprotective	Easily digestible; supports cardiovascular health	DiNicolantonio & O’Keefe, 2018; Lee et al., 2017; Kuzmina et al., 2024
Environmental impact	Low resource use, high sustainability	Low CO₂ emissions (1.1 kg/kg) compared to red meat	Park, 2021a; Woo et al., 2019
Product applications	Energy bars, cookies, powders, sausages, patties, processed products	Sausages, nuggets, marinated and frozen foods	Chung et al., 2013; Kim, 2018a

Protein content

Chicken meat provides high-quality protein and contains all the essential amino acids, thus playing a crucial role in muscle maintenance and recovery (Kralik et al., 2018). In particular, chicken breasts have a protein content of approximately 22.9%, which is relatively higher than that found in other chicken parts, making them widely known as a low-fat, high-protein food (Koh & Yu, 2015). This high protein content is beneficial for muscle formation and recovery, making chicken meat advantageous for individuals aiming for weight management and muscle mass gain (Kralik et al., 2018). Additionally, according to a study by Koh and Yu (2015), the essential fatty acid content of chicken meat ranges from 16.6 to 16.9%, which is approximately 1.6 times higher than that of pork and approximately five times higher than that of beef. The composition of essential fatty acids in chicken meat is nutritionally superior to that in other meat types. The abundant essential amino acids in chicken meat play a vital role in supplying amino acids that cannot be synthesized by the body (Wu, 2009). Therefore, chicken meat is considered an important component of balanced diets.

Vitamins

Chicken meat is rich in vitamins, particularly B vitamins (Gwak et al., 2022). Vitamin B6 exists in the forms of pyridoxine, pyridoxal, and pyridoxamine in foods and is essential for protein metabolism and immune function (Stach et al., 2021). Vitamin B12, or cobalamin, is vital for nerve health and red blood cell formation (Mathew et al., 2024). The presence of these vitamins makes chicken meat both a source of protein and a balanced provider of various essential nutrients.

Minerals

Chicken meat contains a variety of minerals, such as magnesium, iron, phosphorus, potassium, and selenium (Świątkiewicz et al., 2014). Magnesium is essential for nerve function and protein synthesis, and iron aids in red blood cell formation and oxygen transport (Gröber et al., 2015; Nagababu et al., 2008). Phosphorus supports bone and tooth health, and potassium regulates electrolyte balance, thereby aiding muscle function (Butusov & Jernelöv, 2013; Kang, 2020a). Selenium acts as an antioxidant that prevents cellular damage and strengthens the immune system (Youn, 2005). These minerals work harmoniously, providing chicken meat with nutritional value beyond that of a simple protein source, playing a significant role in maintaining health and preventing diseases.

Comparison between white and red meats

White and red meats differ significantly in terms of their nutritional content and health effects, providing consumers with choices based on their health goals. Table 6 summarizes the major differences in nutritional components and key characteristics between red and white meats, offering a comparative overview relevant to health-oriented dietary decisions.

Table 6.

Comparison of nutritional components and health characteristics between red and white meats

Category	Red meat	White meat	References
Protein	High in protein, but generally lower in protein density compared to white meat	High protein content (e.g., 22.9% in chicken breast) with essential amino acids; higher protein density than red meat	Park et al., 2017; Koh & Yu, 2015
Fat and cholesterol	Higher fat and cholesterol content; excessive intake is linked to cardiovascular disease.	Lower fat and cholesterol content; contains 1.6 times more essential fatty acids than pork and 5 times more than beef.	Koh & Yu, 2015; McAfee et al., 2010; Posati, 1979
Iron and vitamin B12	Rich in heme iron and vitamin B12; excessive intake may lead to iron overload.	Lower in heme iron; helps reduce the risk of iron overload.	Czerwonka & Tokarz, 2017; Kim, 2012; McAfee et al., 2010; Pereira & Vicente, 2013
Carcinogenicity	Processed red meat is classified as carcinogenic and is associated with colorectal cancer.	Not classified as carcinogenic; considered to have lower associated health risks.	IARC, 2015

Fat and cholesterol content

Red meat (such as beef and pork) generally has a higher fat and cholesterol content than white meat (chicken and turkey) does (Posati, 1979). Excessive consumption of red meat can increase the risk of cardiovascular disease, whereas white meat poses a lower risk (McAfee et al., 2010).

Iron and vitamin B12

Red meat is a rich source of heme iron and vitamin B12, playing a crucial role in the prevention of anemia (Kim, 2012; McAfee et al., 2010). However, excessive red meat intake can lead to iron overload, which is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease (Czerwonka & Tokarz, 2017). In contrast, white meat has a lower heme iron content, which helps maintain cardiovascular health without the risk of iron overload (Pereira & Vicente, 2013).

Carcinogenicity

The World Health Organization has warned that excessive consumption of processed red meat may increase the risk of certain cancers (IARC, 2015). Processed meat is classified as a carcinogen and is closely linked to colorectal cancer (IARC, 2015). Moreover, excessive red meat consumption is associated with chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases and obesity (Choi & Yang, 2017). White meat, however, poses a lower carcinogenic risk, making it a safer choice.

Types and current status of chicken-based meat products

Owing to its excellent nutritional value and ease of preparation, poultry is processed into various meat products and consumed worldwide (Park et al., 2017). Poultry-based meat products range from traditional processing methods to modern food tech applications and are gaining popularity among consumers who are increasingly focused on health (Kim, 2018a).

Chicken breast products

Chicken breasts are widely used in various meat products due to their low fat and high protein content (Koh & Yu, 2015). Canned chicken breasts are convenient products that can be stored for long periods (Yu, 2024). They are popular among people with busy lifestyles, as they can be easily used in salads, fried rice, curries, and more. Various brands offer a wide range of flavors and forms (Yu, 2024). Additionally, the canned form is convenient for outdoor activities, such as traveling and camping (Lee, 2019b).

Chicken breast sausages are healthier alternatives to traditional pork sausages due to their lower calorie and fat content (Lee, 2020). They come in various flavors, such as smoked, spicy, and cheesy flavors, making them a popular choice for convenient meals (Lee, 2020). Recently, chicken breasts have been processed into snack forms for easy consumption (Kim, 2022b). Although relatively new, these snacks are gaining popularity as a healthy option due to their crispy and mild flavor. They are also used for protein supplementation after workouts (Cho, 2021).

Frozen processed foods

Frozen processed foods are convenient for busy lifestyles, and various chicken-based frozen products are available in the market. Frozen chicken nuggets are primarily made from chicken breasts and are coated and processed for easy frying or baking (Kang, 2024b). They are popular because of their short cooking time and are enjoyed as nutritious snacks for children or as appetizers for adults (Kang, 2024b).

Marinated and ready-to-cook frozen chicken wings can be easily prepared using an oven, microwave, air fryer, or pan (Kim, 2020c). They are available in a variety of flavors and are popular as snacks or party foods (Kim, 2020c).

Frozen chicken patties are popular because of their convenience in various forms, including whole fillets and minced meat (Lee, 2018). They can be used in hamburgers, sandwiches, and other dishes, making them versatile choices for home cooking (Lee, 2019a).

Processed chicken products

Chicken-based processed meat has significantly evolved, incorporating traditional curing and smoking methods, modern automated production systems, and advanced food tech (Kim, 2018a). Various products, including chicken breasts, thighs, jerky, and seasoned chicken, have been developed to cater to consumer preferences with diverse flavors, such as spicy and smoky flavors.

Smoked chicken is known for its rich flavor and chewy texture and is used in salads, sandwiches, fried rice, and other dishes (Ahn, 2024). Its soft texture makes it popular among children and is commonly consumed as an accompaniment to beer, appealing to a wide range of consumers (Ahn, 2024).

Thinly sliced and dried chicken jerky is a convenient high-protein snack ideal for post-workouts or travel (Yun, 2018). With a lower calorie and sodium content compared with that of beef jerky, it is favored by health-conscious consumers (Yoon, 2017). It is also a popular snack for families and pairs well with light alcoholic beverages (Yoon, 2017).

Seasoned chicken marinated in various sauces and spices is a popular dish in Korea and other countries (Jeon, 2023). It can easily be prepared at home by coating fried chicken with sauce, offering a range of flavors, such as spicy and soy-based flavors (Ju, 2023; Kang, 2024a).

Health-oriented products

With the growing trend toward health-conscious consumption, high-protein and low-fat chicken products are gaining popularity (Kwon & Seo, 2015). Various products that combine taste and nutrition, including low-sodium, low-fat, and organic options, are being introduced to meet the needs of health-conscious consumers.

As interest in health continues to rise in modern society, an increasing number of consumers are seeking to maintain a healthy lifestyle by reducing fat and sodium intake from conventional poultry products (Kim, 2022c). Consequently, the development of low-sodium, low-fat poultry meat products that retain the taste and texture of traditional meats is actively progressing (Kim & Chin, 2019; Woo et al., 2024). Low-sodium and low-fat poultry products have been improved by utilizing salt and fat substitutes to maintain beneficial nutrients while enhancing flavor and texture. These advancements effectively meet health-oriented consumer demands and contribute to the expansion of healthy food options (Lee & Chin, 2010).

Consumers who prioritize healthy food choices prefer organic or antibiotic-free chicken products (Park, 2021b). These products are perceived as reliable because they are produced without the use of antibiotics or chemicals during the production process (Kang, 2015).

Development and cases of meat products containing Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis larvae

PBL are used in various meat products due to their outstanding nutritional value and health benefits. In recent years, meat products using PBL have been actively developed.

Chicken breast sausages are popular among health-conscious consumers (Lee, 2020). Products enriched with PBL powder have been developed to enhance their nutritional value (Hyun et al., 2021). According to Hyun et al. (2021), sausages containing PBL powder have a higher protein content and enhanced antioxidant activity than those of conventional chicken breast sausages. Additionally, these sausages exhibit higher water retention after heating, resulting in a superior texture (Hyun et al., 2021).

Mousse-type patties with PBL are gaining attention as alternative meat products (Kim & Joo, 2022). Kim and Joo (2022) showed that the addition of PBL powder increases the protein and unsaturated fatty acid content of patties. Moreover, these patties demonstrated higher antioxidant activity than conventional patties did and received positive evaluations in consumer preference surveys (Kim & Joo, 2022).

Recently, local governments and meat-processing companies have collaborated to develop a variety of meat products using edible insects (Kang, 2020b). High-protein, low-fat products, such as sausages and hamburger patties, with PBL are gaining attention not only for their rich and savory taste but also for their eco-friendly production methods and potential to address food security issues (Lee, 2021).

Conclusion

In conclusion, PBL represent a valuable alternative livestock-based protein not only due to their high nutritional and functional characteristics but also because of their applicability in replacing poultry meat, which holds the largest global market share. Unlike general insect protein reviews, this study emphasizes the targeted substitution of chicken-based meat products, integrating both health functionality and environmental benefits. Thus, PBL can serve as a dual-purpose ingredient—meeting rising poultry protein demand and delivering enhanced physiological benefits in functional meat products.

Despite this, several challenges remain in using PBL as alternative livestock products. First, improving consumer perception and acceptance of edible insects is essential, and overcoming cultural and psychological barriers associated with insect consumption is critical. Second, stable supply chains and mass-production systems for PBL must be established. Lastly, clear legal regulations and standardized safety assessments are required to gain consumer trust and facilitate market entry.

Future research should focus on accelerating the development of alternative livestock products using PBL and securing sustainable food resources. Consumer education programs, promotional campaigns, and media content could be employed to improve consumer awareness and education about edible insects and to promote their nutritional benefits and health effects. In addition, further research is needed to develop mass production techniques for PBL to ensure a stable supply and to improve efficiency of the rearing process, including the discovery of optimal rearing environments and feed conditions suited to the physiological characteristics of insects. Furthermore, studies should explore the development and commercialization potential of various meat products using PBL, focusing on optimizing taste texture and nutritional content to enhance consumer preferences. Moreover, clarifying the related legal regulations and safety assessment standards, as well as ensuring compliance in product development, is essential to build consumer trust and promote the growth of the edible insect market. By pursuing these research directions, the use of PBL as an alternative livestock product could be expanded, thereby establishing them as sustainable food resources.

Author contributions

Conceptualization: Kim HS. Data curation: Shin JY. Formal analysis: Shin JY. Methodology: Shin JY, Kim HS. Software: Shin JY. Validation: Kim HS. Investigation: Shin JY. Writing- original draft: Shin JY, Kim HS. Writing - review & editing: Shin JY, Kim HS.

Declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no potential conflict of interest.