Abstract
蛋白质磷酸化是调控链球菌(Streptococcus)细胞壁合成的关键机制之一。丝氨酸/苏氨酸激酶(serine/threonine kinase, STK)与双组分系统通过磷酸化修饰,动态调控肽聚糖的合成与组装,深刻影响细菌的形态维持、分裂过程及耐药性。研究表明, STK通过磷酸化DivIVA、GpsB等关键支架蛋白,构成调控细胞壁稳定性的核心网络,这使其成为开发新型抗菌药物的重要潜在靶点。尽管研究已取得显著进展,该磷酸化网络的时空动态调控规律及其与乙酰化、泛素化等修饰系统的互作仍有待深入解析。未来研究需整合高通量蛋白质组学与人工智能结构预测等前沿技术,以期全面阐明这一复杂调控体系,为应对耐药性挑战提供新策略。
Keywords: 链球菌, 细胞壁合成, 蛋白质磷酸化, 丝氨酸/苏氨酸激酶, 双组分系统, 综述
Abstract
Protein phosphorylation is a key mechanism regulating cell wall synthesis in Streptococcus. Serine/threonine kinases (STKs) and the two-component system dynamically regulate peptidoglycan synthesis and assembly through phosphorylation, profoundly influencing bacterial shape maintenance, division, and drug resistance. Studies indicate that serine/threonine kinases form a core network regulating cell wall stability by phosphorylating key scaffold proteins such as DivIVA and GpsB, making them important potential targets for novel antimicrobial agents. Despite significant research progress, the spatiotemporal dynamics of this phosphorylation network and its interactions with other modification systems, such as acetylation and ubiquitination, remain to be thoroughly elucidated. Future research should integrate frontier technologies such as high-throughput proteomics and AI-based structural prediction to comprehensively elucidate this complex regulatory system, thereby providing novel strategies to address antimicrobial resistance challenges.
Keywords: Streptococcus, Cell wall synthesis, Protein phosphorylation, Serine/threonine kinase, Two-component system, Review
链球菌(Streptococcus)作为一类广泛分布的革兰氏阳性细菌,在医学和兽医学中具有重要意义,尤其以肺炎链球菌(Streptococcus pneumoniae)和猪链球菌(Streptococcus suis)为代表。肺炎链球菌是导致人类致命性感染的第四大微生物,是引发肺炎、脑膜炎及中耳炎的主要病原体[1–3]。猪链球菌是一种重要的人畜共患病原菌,主要在猪群中传播,也可通过接触感染人类,引起脑膜炎、败血症和关节炎等严重疾病[4–6]。
蛋白质磷酸化是一种重要的翻译后修饰机制,通过激酶将磷酸基团转移至蛋白质的特定氨基酸残基(如丝氨酸、苏氨酸或酪氨酸)上,从而改变蛋白质的构象与功能。在细菌中,蛋白质磷酸化通过调控酶的活性、蛋白质的亚细胞定位以及蛋白质复合物的形成,影响细胞壁合成、细胞形态维持和致病性等重要生理过程[7–9]。例如,肺炎链球菌丝氨酸/苏氨酸激酶(serine/threonine Kinase, STK)通过磷酸化作用调控转肽酶的功能,直接影响细胞壁的合成和组装[10]。随着磷酸化蛋白质组学、基因编辑技术及生物信息学工具的快速发展,研究人员能够更精确地鉴定磷酸化位点并解析其功能[11]。这些发现深化了我们对链球菌细胞壁合成调控机制的理解。此外,细胞壁是许多抗生素(如青霉素和万古霉素)的作用靶标,深入了解其合成机制将为新型抗菌药物的研发提供重要理论基础[12–15]。
1. 链球菌的细胞壁合成
链球菌的细胞壁是其生存和致病的关键结构,主要由肽聚糖、磷壁酸和表面蛋白等成分构成。其中,肽聚糖是细胞壁的核心成分,由N-乙酰葡糖胺(NAG)和N-乙酰胞壁酸(NAM)交替连接并通过肽桥交联形成稳定的网状结构,赋予细胞壁极高的机械强度,为其抵抗细胞内的高渗透压,维持细胞形态和完整性具有重要作用[16-17]。磷壁酸是革兰氏阳性菌特有的组分,贯穿肽聚糖层并延伸至细胞表面,不仅利于细胞壁结构稳定性,还可通过结合宿主细胞受体,促进细菌的定植、组织入侵和免疫系统逃逸。此外,分布细胞壁表面的多种蛋白通过与宿主细胞受体结合,直接参与细菌的致病机制的调控。
细菌细胞壁的合成是一个复杂的过程,涉及多个酶的协同作用,主要包括3个阶段[17]:细胞质中的前体合成、膜上的脂质载体转运以及细胞壁上的聚合和交联。首先,在细胞质中,Mur连接酶家族合成肽聚糖的前体分子UDP-NAM五肽。随后,MraY与MurG酶将磷酸化 NAM五肽转移到脂质载体上(如十一碳二烯磷酸酯)并完成糖基化修饰,生成二糖脂质II。最后,脂质II被转运到细胞膜外侧,通过转糖基酶和转肽酶的催化作用,聚合形成肽聚糖链。转糖基酶负责将脂质II中的二糖单元连接到正在生长的肽聚糖链上,而转肽酶则催化肽链之间的交联,形成稳定的网状结构。这一过程受到严格的时空调控,以确保细胞壁的完整性和功能性。
链球菌的细胞壁合成机制具有独特的空间组织和调控方式。链球菌的肽聚糖合成过程与细胞分裂紧密协调,主要发生于细胞中部区域。在细胞分裂初期,肽聚糖合成蛋白首先聚集到子细胞赤道处的FtsZ环上,其为细菌分裂的关键结构[18–20]。在肽聚糖合成过程中,细胞壁的扩展通过伸长模式和分裂模式2种模式进行。伸长模式发生在细胞中部区域,新的侧壁肽聚糖被插入到现有细胞壁中;而在分裂模式下,肽聚糖的合成则集中在细胞的内膜区域,驱动细胞的分裂。细菌的伸长和分裂分别由称为伸长复合体(elongasome)和分裂复合体(divisome)两类不同的蛋白质复合体负责[21-22]。以肺炎链球菌为例,伸长复合体由RodA、MreC、MreD、RodZ 以及某些青霉素结合蛋白构成,这些蛋白共同负责肽聚糖的合成和细胞壁的延伸,从而促进细胞的伸长[23];分裂复合体则包含FtsZ、FtsW、ZapA、ZapB、DivIVA等蛋白,这些蛋白在细菌细胞分裂过程中形成 FtsZ环并参与细胞膜和肽聚糖合成,完成细胞分裂(表1)。随着隔膜的最终形成和细胞分裂的结束,肽聚糖合成蛋白会迁移到新形成的子细胞赤道处的FtsZ环上,从而确保子细胞的完整性和功能性[24]。
表 1. Proteins involved in cell growth and division in Streptococcus pneumoniae and their functions.
Streptococcus pneumoniae中参与细胞生长和分裂的蛋白质及其功能
| Proteins | Function |
| Elongasome | |
| RodA[25] | Synthesis of peripheral peptidoglycan |
| RodZ[25] | Synthesis of peripheral peptidoglycan |
| PBP2b[21] | Synthesis of peptidoglycan |
| PBP1a[21] | Synthesis of peripheral peptidoglycan |
| MreC[23] | Synthesis of peripheral peptidoglycan and effects on PBP1a localization or activity |
| MreD[23] | Synthesis of peripheral peptidoglycan and effects on PBP1a localization or activity |
| Divisome | |
| FtsZ[26] | Formation of the Z-ring and coordination of peripheral and septal peptidoglycan synthesis |
| FtsA[24] | Proper positioning of FtsZ and coordination of peripheral and septal peptidoglycan synthesis |
| ZapA[20] | Z-ring regulatory factor |
| FtsW[24] | Synthesis of septum peptidoglycan |
| PBP2x[23] | Synthesis of septum peptidoglycan |
| DivIVA[27] | Synthesis of peptidoglycan |
| GpsB[27] | Synthesis of peptidoglycan |
2. 蛋白质磷酸化调控链球菌细胞壁合成
2.1. 链球菌磷酸化调控系统
自1954年研究者首次发现蛋白激酶催化酪蛋白磷酸化以来,蛋白质磷酸化被认为是最重要的翻译后修饰之一。蛋白质磷酸化广泛存在于生物体中,通过激酶将ATP上的磷酸基团转移到蛋白质的特定氨基酸残基上,从而调控蛋白质的功能[28]。当细胞感知外部刺激时,激酶首先发生自身磷酸化,随后将磷酸基团转移至底物蛋白,实现信号传递。这种可逆的蛋白质磷酸化机制能够将环境信号转化为细胞内响应,进而引起细胞中蛋白质表达或活性的变化[29]。
在链球菌中,蛋白质的磷酸化主要通过丝氨酸/苏氨酸磷酸化系统、双组份系统等途径实现[30]。丝氨酸/苏氨酸磷酸化系统在链球菌中广泛存在,其核心组分是STK。STK通常是一种跨膜蛋白,其细胞外结构域包含一个或多个PASTA基序(青霉素结合蛋白和丝氨酸/苏氨酸激酶相关结构域),可感应外界刺激(如肽聚糖片段)并传递信号[10]。STK细胞质结构域由激酶结构域和跨膜结构域组成,激酶结构域与真核生物的丝氨酸/苏氨酸激酶同源[31]。在猪链球菌中,STK通过作用于多条信号通路,对细菌的生长、分裂、毒力因子表达以及抗氧化应激等发挥重要的调控作用[32]。双组分系统是原核生物中最经典的信号转导机制,由组氨酸激酶(histidine kinase,HK)和反应调节蛋白(response regulator,RR)共同组成[33-34]。链球菌中约存在 20 种不同类型的双组分信号系统[35],其中VicRK系统与细胞壁的合成和细胞分裂密切相关[36]。
2.2. 蛋白质磷酸化调控链球菌细胞壁合成的分子机制
细胞壁是细菌维持细胞形态、抵抗渗透压和外界机械压力的关键结构,其合成过程受到蛋白质磷酸化的严格调控。链球菌依赖STK通过磷酸化调控DivIVA、GpsB、FtsZ及磷酸葡萄糖胺变位酶 GlmM等细胞分裂蛋白,精细控制肽聚糖的合成(图1)[8]。JIANG揭示了 DivIVA 在调节猪链球菌隔膜肽聚糖合成中的作用,并确定了一个关键的互作蛋白MltG[37]。DivIVA通过磷酸化影响 MltG定位维持细胞的正常形态,终止初始阶段外周肽聚糖的合成。形态学研究发现,DivIVA的缺失会导致细胞伸长受阻,表现为细胞缩短和圆形化,而GpsB的缺失则引起细胞分裂受阻并触发细胞伸长。GpsB是一种六聚体蛋白,参与调节肺炎链球菌中细胞的隔膜和外周肽聚糖合成。STAUBEROVA等[8]证实GpsB通过与STK信号通路中的关键组分相互作用,直接增强STK的活性,确保STK被招募到复合物中并具有底物特异性。DivIVA和GpsB构成分子开关,通过细胞分裂蛋白EzrA连接到FtsZ,协调外周(细胞伸长)和隔膜(细胞分裂)肽聚糖的合成,以维持肺炎链球菌的卵形形态特征[8]。在细胞分裂后期,N-乙酰葡萄糖胺酶LytB通过切割肽聚糖骨架中的NAG-β(1,4)-NAM糖苷键发挥关键作用。LytB失活可导致肺炎链球菌形成长链状的子细胞。研究表明,STK的胞外结构域通过与LytB相互作用激活其酶活性,从而调控隔膜肽聚糖的厚度并影响细胞分离[38]。猪链球菌中, STK介导的磷酸葡萄糖胺变位酶GlmM磷酸化可影响其细胞壁合成和细菌毒力[9]。glmM 缺陷菌株和 glmM S101A 点突变菌株均表现出细胞体积增大、无荚膜、渗透压耐受性降低等表型,并在小鼠感染模型中显示致病性显著减弱[9]。此外, STK依赖性的MacP磷酸化可调控PBP2a的细胞壁合成活性。MacP定位于肺炎链球菌的分裂位点,与青霉素结合蛋白PBP2a形成复合物,其功能丧失会导致细胞大小异常和肽聚糖合成量降低。遗传分析进一步揭示PBP2a的活性发挥同样需要GpsB的参与。
图 1.
Pattern of peptidoglycan synthesis in Streptococcus
Streptococcus肽聚糖合成的模式图
The serine/threonine kinase STK (blue), together with two penicillin-binding proteins, PBP2x and PBP2b (green), and two lipid flippases, FtsW and RodA (yellow), forms a complex responsible for peptidoglycan synthesis. GpsB and DivIVA act as a molecular switch, assembling peptidoglycan with the assistance of EzrA. The serine/threonine kinase phosphorylates proteins such as DivIVA, GpsB, MacP, and GlmM, further regulating peptidoglycan synthesis. The phosphatase PhpP (orange) dephosphorylates these proteins, thereby reversely regulating their activity to maintain the precision of cell division.
在变异链球菌(Streptococcus mutans)中,由 pknB 和 pppL 编码的丝氨酸/苏氨酸激酶和磷酸酶对共同调控细胞生长、抗逆性、生物膜形成和龋齿发生等过程。pknB突变体的细胞形态异常,并对酸、氧化和渗透应激更为敏感;pppL突变体虽保持正常细胞大小,但分裂不规则。全基因组转录组分析显示,PknB调节外周肽聚糖合成相关基因(mreC、mreD)及肽聚糖水解酶基因SMU_984的表达,这可能是pknB和pppL突变体中观察到的细胞形态变化的分子基础。
在革兰氏阳性菌中,双组分系统VicRK系统已被证实为肺炎链球菌和变异链球菌等链球菌生存所必须的 [39]。转录组学研究显示,肺炎链球菌中VicRK介导了多个细胞壁水解酶基因的激活,如pcsB、lytB、lytN等。PcsB蛋白对多种致病性链球菌的细胞形态具有显著影响。在变异链球菌中,pcsB突变体细胞形状多样,细胞壁内陷,对渗透压敏感性增强;在无乳链球菌(Streptococcus agalactiae)中则导致细胞长链的形成,甚至出现隔膜肽聚糖的合成的错位。尽管细胞壁生物合成步骤与 PcsB功能之间的直接联系尚未完全证实,但由PcsB耗竭引起的形态学和细胞壁合成缺陷与由VicRK双组分调节系统耗竭所观察到的表型高度相似,提示VicRK双组分系统可能通过正向调控PcsB表达发挥作用[39]。
此外,在化脓性链球菌(Streptococcus pyogenes)中,VicRK系统还参与调控细胞壁代谢(通过调节pcsB同源物)、营养吸收和对渗透胁迫的抵抗力。VicRK系统在不同链球菌属中功能的差异性,可能反映了各种Streptococcus细胞壁代谢的内在差异。
3. 结论和展望
近年来,蛋白质磷酸化在链球菌细胞壁合成中的调控作用日益受到关注。虽然已有研究揭示了STK、细胞分裂蛋白DivIVA、适配蛋白GpsB等通过蛋白质磷酸化调控肽聚糖合成的机制,但许多关键问题仍有待阐明。尤其是不同激酶和磷酸化蛋白在不同种属链球菌中的差异及其在耐药性等方面的具体机制尚未系统解析,其仍然是当前研究的重点方向;其次,磷酸化调控网络的复杂性完全解析,其与乙酰化、泛素化等其他翻译后修饰之间的相互作用仍需探索。
未来研究应整合高通量蛋白质组学、单细胞技术及系统生物学方法等多技术平台深入探讨磷酸化调控网络的复杂性。同时,质谱分析、X射线晶体学、蛋白质的人工智能计算和结构预测等技术,将有助于解析磷酸化在细菌细胞壁合成过程中的空间和时间精细调控。随着对磷酸化调控机制理解的深入,蛋白质磷酸化通路中相关激酶或通路有望成为新的药物靶点。因此,深入蛋白质磷酸化调控链球菌细胞壁合成的研究不仅具有重要的理论价值,也为解决抗生素耐药性提供了新的研究方向。
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作者贡献声明 易思梦负责初稿写作,彭显负责论文构思和审读与编辑写作,王诗达负责论文构思和经费获取。所有作者已经同意将文章提交给本刊,且对将要发表的版本进行最终定稿,并同意对工作的所有方面负责。
Author Contribution YI Simeng is responsible for writing--original draft. PENG Xian is responsible for conceptualization and writing--review and editing. WANG Shida is responsible for conceptualization and funding acquisition. All authors consented to the submission of the article to the Journal. All authors approved the final version to be published and agreed to take responsibility for all aspects of the work.
利益冲突 所有作者均声明不存在利益冲突
Declaration of Conflicting Interests All authors declare no competing interests.
Funding Statement
国家自然科学基金青年科学基金(NO. 82201047),四川省国际科技创新合作/港澳台科技创新合作项目(NO. 2023YFH0070)和四川省中央引导地方科技发展专项项目(NO. 2023ZYD0068)资助
Contributor Information
思梦 易 (Simeng YI), Email: 1031924259@qq.com.
诗达 王 (Shida WANG), Email: shidawang@scu.edu.cn.
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