Academic atmosphere, academic self-perception, and student self-efficacy: a structural model

Abstract

Background

Students’ perception of their academic environment plays a crucial role in shaping how they view their own abilities and in building their confidence to succeed academically.

Objective

To examine the relationships between students’ perception of the academic atmosphere (SPA), students’ academic self-perception (SAP), and self-efficacy (SE), and to determine the mediating role of SAP in the link between SPA and SE.

Methods

This cross-sectional study used the Dundee Ready Education Environment Measure (DREEM) scale to assess students’ perceptions of the learning environment, focusing on SPA, SAP, and SE. Data from 215 students were collected via self-administered questionnaires. The validity and reliability of the model were ensured through Cronbach’s alpha, composite reliability, average variance extracted (AVE), and heterotrait–monotrait ratio (HTMT). Structural equation modeling (SEM) was conducted to examine construct relationships, with model fit evaluated using standardized root mean square residual (SRMR), normed fit index (NFI), and chi-square (χ²). Path coefficients, indirect effects, and total effects were analyzed using SPSS and SmartPLS.

Results

SPA, SAP, and SE demonstrated strong reliability and validity, with Cronbach’s alpha, composite reliability, and AVE exceeding recommended thresholds. Discriminant validity was confirmed by HTMT values below 0.90. The model showed good fit (SRMR = 0.058, NFI = 0.86, χ² = 406.911). SPA exhibited a significant association with self-efficacy (SE) (β = 0.323, p < 0.001) and with academic self-perception (SAP) (β = 0.743, p < 0.001). Furthermore, academic self-perception was also significantly associated with self-efficacy. The model explained 55.2% of the variance in SAP and 20.3% of the variance in SE, thereby indicating meaningful associations among the constructs.

Conclusion

Students’ perceptions of the academic atmosphere (SPA) were significantly associated with both academic self-perception (SAP) and self-efficacy (SE). These findings underscore the importance of supportive academic environments and suggest that favorable perceptions of the learning atmosphere are correlated with enhanced academic self-beliefs and confidence. Longitudinal or experimental studies are necessary to establish causal relationships among these variables.

Clinical trial number

Not applicable.

Introduction

Academic achievement and professional development of nursing students are highly influenced by their own perceptions of the learning environment and self-beliefs regarding their competence [1, 2]. A positive academic climate among students not only enhances intellectual growth but also increases motivation, interest, and belief in achieving academic requirements [3, 4]. Among the most significant psychological constructs that influence learning outcomes is self-efficacy, that is the belief of a person regarding his or her capability to execute behaviors needed to bring about specific performance accomplishments [5]. In nursing education, where learners face academic and clinical difficulties, it is essential to understand the dynamics that facilitate and hinder self-efficacy [6, 7]. Yet another factor that shapes student success is academic self-perception, known as the manner in which students view their academic ability and preparedness [8, 9]. Such perception is likely shaped by their encounter with the academic climate and may also serve as a mediator for responses arising from both internal and external influences [10, 11]. While previous studies have established clear interrelationships among academic environment, self-perception, and self-efficacy [12–14], little work has been done to see how these variables interact with one another and how the intervening role of academic self-perception is involved in such interrelationships. This study attempts to fill that gap by examining how students’ perception of the academic atmosphere, academic self-perception, and self-efficacy are interconnected. Specifically, it examines whether academic self-perception mediates between the perceived academic setting and self-efficacy in nursing students.

The educational context, or educational environment, is an established determinant of the performance of students. The factors involved are teaching, institutional support, peer relationships, and the overall social and psychological climate [4]. A measurement tool like the Dundee Ready Educational Environment Measure (DREEM) has been widely used to assess the degree to which students view such an environment in various cultures and institutions [12, 15, 16]. Previous studies have shown that a positive academic environment is related to improved student engagement, motivation, and performance [1, 2]. If students undergo high levels of stress and difficult clinical settings in nursing education, then the academic climate quality is even more decisive [17].

Academic self-perception describes students’ perceptions of their academic capability and readiness to achieve [8]. Positive academic self-concept is linked with greater motivation, resilience, and general academic success. A number of studies have emphasized the importance of developing academic self-confidence in nursing students in support of their learning of essential skills [9, 18]. Moreover, academic self-perception can also be influenced by the overall education climate. Behkam et al. (2022) and Tadesse et al. (2022) found that positive conceptions of the learning environment were associated with positive academic self-perceptions, and this shows that organizational factors play a part in students’ perception of themselves academically [19, 20].

Self-efficacy is a major predictor of academic achievement and psychological hardness in nursing students [13, 21]. Studies have found a positive correlation with academic achievement, stress coping, and clinical skills [5, 6]. A growing body of studies has also explored the determinants influencing self-efficacy among nursing students, including the learning environment [7, 22] social support, and personality characteristics such as resilience [23]. Of greatest interest in this context, is the mediating role self-efficacy between external factors (e.g., the academic learning climate) and indicators such as competence and professional identity [14, 24]. Few studies have explored whether academic self-perception itself can serve as a mediator between perceived academic environment and self-efficacy. This is highly relevant to the degree that student attitudes towards academic ability predict self-efficacy and academic performance [10, 11].

Even though many studies each in isolation have supported academic environment, self-concept, and self-efficacy roles individually, little has been done to examine comprehensively how these constructs interrelate, particularly in a mediated model. Further, there is no agreement about how these dynamics operate in the case of nursing education, where academic and clinical training introduce additional layers of complexity. By investigating academic self-perception as a mediator within the academic setting and self-efficacy, this research contributes to a more nuanced understanding of psychological processes driving nursing students’ academic and career development.

The study is based on Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory, which focuses on the interactions between personal factors, behavior, and the environment. Educational self-efficacy not only results from internal thought but also external factors like the learning setting and encouragement by faculty or peers. The theoretical model hypothesizes that students’ academic view of the learning environment would affect their academic self-perception and self-efficacy, with academic self-perception serving as the mediator. Earlier research supports this model, showing that an encouraging academic climate enhances self-perception [8, 20], which in turn predicts more effective self-efficacy [10, 11].

It is important to be aware of the psychological and environmental factors leading to self-efficacy among nursing students to increase learning outcomes. Self-efficacy is essential to enhancing academic performance, clinical competence, and stress management, and should be a main target of educational interventions. Academic self-concept and ability confidence can also reduce risk for burnout, anxiety, emotional exhaustion, and loss of motivation, thereby promoting student welfare and persistence [25, 26]. Results of this research can guide curriculum and institutional policy that will enhance more supportive and effective learning environments. Also, by the exploration of academic self-perception as a mediating variable between academic climate and self-efficacy, the study fills an important gap in the literature and assists in building knowledge of how the variables interact to influence nursing students’ academic progression.

The study hypotheses are illustrated in Fig. 1 and are stated as follows:

Fig. 1.

Conceptual framework

H1

Student perception of the academic atmosphere positively affects self-efficacy.

H2

Student perception of the academic atmosphere positively affects academic self-perception.

H3

Academic self-perception positively affects self-efficacy.

Methods

Site and setting

A cross-sectional study was conducted in 2024 at the College of Nursing, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University (IAU), located in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. This study investigated critical dimensions of nursing education, practice, and health outcomes through the utilization of surveys, interviews, and observations. Ethical approval was obtained, and informed consent was secured from all participants. The findings are intended to contribute to the advancement of knowledge within the nursing discipline and to inform future policies and interventions.

Sampling

The study sample comprised nursing students and faculty from the College of Nursing at Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University (IAU) in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. This selection was intended to align with the academic context and to focus on the constructs of critical thinking, self-efficacy, and emotional intelligence. A priori power analysis conducted using G*Power was employed to determine the requisite sample size for linear multiple regression. Assuming a medium effect size (f² = 0.15), an alpha level of α = 0.05, and a power of 0.80, the analysis indicated a minimum sample size of 114. This sample size achieved a statistical power of 0.804, thereby ensuring adequate statistical power for the study.

Instruments

1. Roff and colleagues developed the Dundee Ready Education Environment Measurement (DREEM). In 1997, it was developed to evaluate the educational environment in the school of medicine, especially in medical schools [27]. It evaluates five areas: student perceptions of learning, student perceptions of teachers, student academic perceptions, student perceptions of the atmosphere, and student social perceptions. The answer is recorded on a five-point Likert scale (0 to 4), with a maximum score of 200. Higher scores indicate a positive perception of the educational environment [27]. The Students’ Perceptions of Atmosphere (SPA) scale consists of 12 items, whereas the Students’ Academic Self-Perceptions (SASP) scale comprises 8 items.

2. The Emotional Intelligence (EI) Scale, developed by Schutte et al. (1998), comprises 33 items and is grounded in the Salovey and Mayer model of emotional intelligence [28]. This instrument assesses four dimensions: emotion perception, emotion regulation, emotion utilization, and social skills. Respondents evaluate items on a 5-point Likert scale, where 1 indicates “Strongly disagree” and 5 signifies “Strongly agree,” resulting in total scores that range from 33 to 165. Higher scores are indicative of greater emotional intelligence. The scale has exhibited robust reliability, with a Cronbach’s Alpha exceeding 0.85, and is extensively utilized in psychological and educational research to investigate the role of emotional intelligence in mental health, academic performance, and interpersonal relationships [28].

Ethical considerations

The study received approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University (IAU) under approval number IRB-2024-04-090. All study procedures and surveys were reviewed and approved by the IRB prior to the recruitment of participants. The participants comprised nursing students from the College of Nursing at IAU. Prior to their involvement, they were provided with an information sheet and verbal instructions that elucidated the voluntary nature of their participation. It was emphasized that participants could withdraw from the study at any time without any repercussions on their academic standing or rights. Efforts were undertaken to ensure that participants comprehensively understood the study, including its potential risks and benefits, and they were afforded the opportunity to pose questions before providing informed consent. Furthermore, participants were assured that their confidentiality and privacy would be rigorously maintained in accordance with the study’s ethical guidelines. The information sheet clearly delineated the research objectives, significance, and potential benefits of the study.

Data analysis

This study employed SmartPLS 3 for data analysis, concentrating on Students’ Perceptions of Atmosphere (SPA), Students’ Academic Self-Perceptions (SAP), and Self-Efficacy (SE). The analysis involved the evaluation of factor loadings, composite reliability, and average variance extracted (AVE) to confirm convergent validity. Prior to the implementation of structural equation modeling (SEM), the assumptions of normality and multicollinearity were rigorously assessed. Using SmartPLS 3.0, SEM was utilized to investigate the relationships among SPA, SAP, and SE, analyzing both direct and indirect effects. Bootstrapping with 5,000 resamples and a significance level of < 0.05 was employed to establish confidence intervals and determine significance levels. The SEM results facilitated the assessment of the hypothetical model and the exploration of potential mediating effects among the constructs under study.

Results

Table 1 demonstrates that the constructs of SAP, SPA, and SE exhibit satisfactory validity and reliability. Specifically, Cronbach’s Alpha and rho_A values exceed the threshold of 0.7 for the majority of items, signifying robust internal consistency. Furthermore, composite reliability values also surpass 0.7, thereby affirming the reliability of the constructs. The Average Variance Extracted (AVE) values are greater than 0.5 for all constructs, which supports the presence of good convergent validity. Additionally, the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) values are below 5, indicating an absence of multicollinearity issues. Collectively, these findings illustrate that the constructs demonstrate strong reliability and validity.

Table 1.

Validity and reliability

Construct	Item	Loading	Cronbach’s Alpha	rho_A	Composite Reliability	AVE	VIF
SAP	D26	0.847	0.874	0.879	0.908	0.665	2.3
	D22	0.842					2.3
	D27	0.825					2.1
	D31	0.812					1.9
	D10	0.747					1.7
SPA	D11	0.867	0.917	0.929	0.934	0.672	3.0
	D12	0.778					2.1
	D23	0.625					1.5
	D30	0.891					3.5
	D33	0.85					3.3
	D34	0.882					3.8
	D50	0.814					2.3
SE	SE2	0.643	0.896	0.902	0.915	0.519	1.5
	SF1	0.692					1.7
	SF10	0.742					2.1
	SF3	0.643					1.6
	SF4	0.798					2.4
	SF5	0.772					2.2
	SF6	0.683					1.8
	SF7	0.727					1.9
	SF8	0.694					1.9
	SF9	0.787					2.4

AVE: the Average Variance Extracted, VIF: Variance Inflation Factor, SAP: Students’ Academic Self-Perceptions, SPA: Students’ Perceptions of Atmosphere, SE: Self-Efficacy

Table 2 presents evidence that the constructs SAP, SE, and SPA exhibit strong discriminant validity. The square roots of the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) for each construct exceed the threshold of 0.50, signifying sufficient convergent validity. Furthermore, the correlations among the constructs range from moderate to strong, and the Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT) values remain below 0.90, indicating that the constructs are sufficiently distinct from one another. Collectively, these findings reinforce the discriminant validity of the constructs under consideration.

Table 2.

Discriminant validity

Construct	SAP	SE	SPA
SAP	0.815	0.431	0.821
SE	0.395	0.720	0.469
SPA	0.743	0.438	0.820

The diagonal and italicized elements show the square roots of the Average Variance Extracted (AVE). The stuff below the diagonal shows the correlations between the constructs, while the numbers above the diagonal show the Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT) values

The Estimated Model demonstrates a commendable fit, as evidenced by an SRMR value of 0.058, which indicates a high degree of model accuracy. The d_ULS value of 0.847 and the d_G value of 0.338 suggest an acceptable level of fit, Chi-Square statistic was 406.911. Furthermore, the NFI value of 0.86 reflects a moderately good fit.

Table 3 presents the R² and Q² values for SAP and SE. The R² value for SAP is 0.552, indicating that the model accounts for 55.2% of the variance, which reflects a moderate level of explanatory power. The Q² value of 0.359 suggests that SAP possesses good predictive relevance. In contrast, SE exhibits a lower R² value of 0.203, which signifies that the model explains only 20.3% of the variance, indicative of a weaker level of explanation. Furthermore, the Q² value for SE is 0.099, implying limited predictive relevance. Overall, SAP demonstrates both moderate explanatory power and strong predictive relevance, whereas SE reflects weaker explanatory power and predictive relevance.

Table 3.

Model fit indices: R2 and Q2

Construct	R 2	Q²
SAP	0.552	0.359
SE	0.203	0.099

Table 4 shows the links between SPA, SAP, and SE through path coefficients, total indirect effects, and total effects. SPA has a significant direct impact on SE (β = 0.323, p < 0.001), and its total effect, including indirect influence, remains strong (β = 0.438, p < 0.001), though the indirect effect alone is not significant (β = 0.115, p = 0.096). SPA also has a strong and significant direct effect on SAP (β = 0.743, p < 0.001). However, SAP impact on SE is weak and not statistically significant (β = 0.155, p = 0.094). These results show that SPA plays an important role in influencing both SAP and SE, while SAPs contribution to SE is minimal.

Table 4.

Path coefficient, total indirect and total effect

Hypothesis	Paths	Path Coff		Total Indirect		Total Effect
		β	P Values	β	P Values	β	P Values
H1	SPA -> SE	0.323	< 0.001	0.115	0.096	0.438	< 0.001
H2	SPA -> SAP	0.743	< 0.001	-	-	0.743	< 0.001
H3	SAP -> SE	0.155	0.094	-	-	0.155	0.094

Discussion

The study aimed to investigate the relationships between students’ perceptions of the academic atmosphere (SPA), academic self-perception (SAP), and self-efficacy (SE), as well as to examine the potential mediating role of academic self-perception in the relationship between academic atmosphere and self-efficacy. The study confirmed that students’ perceptions of atmosphere, students’ academic self-perceptions, and self-efficacy exhibited strong reliability and validity, demonstrating both internal consistency and distinctiveness. The model displayed a good fit, supporting its appropriateness for analysis. SPA was found to significantly influence both SAP and SE, highlighting its critical role in shaping students’ academic perceptions and self-efficacy. However, the effect of SAP on SE was weak and statistically non-significant, suggesting that the relationship between SPA and SE is primarily direct rather than mediated by SAP. The model accounted for a substantial proportion of the variance in SAP but a smaller proportion in explaining SE, indicating that other factors beyond those examined may contribute to students’ self-efficacy.

Consistent with the literature, the learning environment significantly influenced both SAP and SE, corroborating the hypothesis that a healthy and supportive learning environment positively influences students’ views of their abilities to achieve the required skills and navigate the challenges successfully under academic and clinical stress [1, 3, 12]. Such an open, communicative, feedback-rich, and collaborative learning climate has been shown to promote student engagement and motivation, which are essential for building academic confidence and efficacy [2, 4]. Thus, it is crucial to consider the academic atmosphere in advancing the learning process.

However, contrary to expectations, the impact of SAP on SE was weak and non-significant, indicating that academic self-perception did not mediate the SPA and SE relationship in this sample. This result diverges from the results of previous studies where SAP was found to be a leading psychological determinant of self-efficacy [10, 11]. An explanation may be that in this context, students’ motivation and confidence are more directly influenced by external factors such as the available resources, learning environment, peer interaction, and faculty support, rather than their internal academic self-assessments of their capability and readiness to achieve. Another explanation may lie in how SAP is conceptualized; either as a fixed trait that cannot be changed, or as a malleable skill that can be cultivated over time. This mindset is likely a key factor in shaping students’ self-efficacy. The literature supports this view, indicating that students with a growth mindset often perceive their skills as capable of improvement, whereas those with a fixed mindset struggle to reshape their self-efficacy [29].

Furthermore, while the model explained a high proportion of the variance in SAP, it explained a lower proportion of the variance in SE. This would suggest that variables excluded from the current model, including resilience, social support, clinical exposure, and stress, are possibly more salient in students’ self-efficacy [13, 22, 23]. For instance, external interventions such as simulation-based training or peer mentoring schemes have been discovered to facilitate SE irrespective of academic perceptions [6, 20].

These results highlight the imperative role of the learning environment in facilitating both self-efficacy and academic confidence in nursing students, while also drawing attention to the complexity of these associations. Fostering a positive learning environment can exert a direct influence on students’ confidence in their competency, even when their own academic self-concepts do not entirely mediate this effect.

The findings underscore the pivotal position of the learning environment in shaping nursing students’ self-efficacy. Educational and clinical organizations have the responsibility to take the lead in creating a caring, respectful, and stimulating learning environment that fosters student confidence. Academics and clinical preceptors can empower students by providing continuous feedback, emotional support, and active involvement in both academic and clinical environments.

Since academic self-perception did not appear as a strong mediator between learning environment and self-efficacy, nursing education can benefit most from simpler and direct interventions such as skill-building workshops, simulation instruction, and structured peer support programs. Student-centered curricula that encourage autonomy, critical thinking, and positive faculty-student relationships can also enhance self-efficacy, even among students with low confidence in their ability to achieve academically. These findings highlight the need for exploring other environmental and psychological variables that might influence, particularly self-efficacy, within nursing education.

Therefore, future research needs to examine further factors such as students’ mindsets, resilience, stress, coping styles, cultural expectations, and available social support as mediators or moderators of self-efficacy. Longitudinal studies and qualitative research are equally important to capture temporal changes and gain a greater understanding of students’ experiences. This way, SE can be fostered over the course of their academic journey. Repeating the study in other institutional and cultural contexts would further increase the external validity of the findings.

Study limitations

There are several limitations to this study that should be considered when interpreting the findings. First, the sample was limited to nursing students from a single academic institution, which restricts the generalizability of the results to students in other health disciplines, universities, or cultural contexts. Second, a cross-sectional design captures perceptions at a single point in time and therefore allows only for the identification of associations between variables, not causal relationships or changes over time. Third, data were collected using self-report questionnaires, which are susceptible to recall bias and social desirability effects that may influence response accuracy. Taken together, these limitations indicate that the findings should be interpreted with caution, and future research would benefit from multi-institutional samples, diverse academic disciplines, and longitudinal or mixed-method approaches.

Conclusion

The current study aimed to examine the relationships between the academic climate, academic self-perception, and self-efficacy, as well as the mediating role of academic self-perception. The results showed that the academic climate had significant effects on academic self-perception and self-efficacy, but the mediating role of academic self-perception was not significant and statistically weak. These findings suggest that it is essential to foster a positive learning environment in order to directly affect students’ confidence and performance. Colleges and nursing faculty need to emphasize supportive learning environments and investigate targeted interventions to improve self-efficacy among students.

Author contributions

A.A. and E.S. contributed to conceptualization; A.A. to methodology; E.S. to software. All authors contributed to writing the initial draft and the final version, and all approved the submitted manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data availability

The data is available from the corresponding author upon request.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

The study received ethical approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University (IAU), Saudi Arabia (approval number: IRB-2024-04-090). All procedures involving human participants were conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their participation in the study.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Informed consent

Participation consent was secured from study participants.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.