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. 2026 Mar 20;16:9671. doi: 10.1038/s41598-026-41259-y

Silica based ZnFe2O4 nanocomposite as a novel photocatalyst for basic fuchsin dye degradation

Mohamed M Desouky 1,✉, Mamdouh El-Sayed 1, Ahmed M El-Khawaga 2,✉
PMCID: PMC13009200  PMID: 41862582

Abstract

Growing environmental problems and the threat of an energy crisis have created an urgent need for affordable and efficient photocatalysts that can work under UV light to remove pollutants. In this work, Zinc ferrite (ZnFe2O4) nanoparticles were prepared by a chemical co-precipitation method, while SiO2 nanoparticles were produced through dry mechanical milling. These materials were then combined in a 1:1 molar ratio using the same dry mechanical method to form a doped ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite. The structure and composition of the composite were analyzed using high-resolution transmission electron microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. The photocatalytic and adsorption performance of the ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite was tested under different conditions, including pH, initial dye concentration, and amount of nanocomposite used. The results showed that 0.01 g of the composite removed 95% of basic fuchsin dye at pH 11 after 150 min. The kinetic analysis revealed that the degradation process followed a pseudo-first-order model. Overall, the ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite showed excellent potential as an effective and practical material for environmental cleanup and industrial wastewater treatment.

Keywords: Photocatalysis, Nanocomposite, SiO2, Azo dye, Basic fuchsin dye, Wastewater treatment

Subject terms: Chemistry, Engineering, Environmental sciences, Materials science, Nanoscience and technology

Introduction

Dye wastewater poses an environmental concern because its complex, highly organic composition makes it difficult to treat and safely dispose of, resulting in potential harm to ecosystems1,2. Many studies have reported hazardous impacts of organic dyes in industrial wastewater on human health and the environment, including mutagenic, allergic, phototoxic, and carcinogenic effects3. Basic fuchsin, a widely used triphenylmethane dye applied in textile, paper, leather, printing, and dyeing industries, can cause serious eye and skin irritation, as well as toxic effects such as mutagenicity and carcinogenicity if inhaled4. The exposure to this dye can cause serious eye and skin irritation. Inhalation may also result in toxic effects, such as mutagenicity and carcinogenicity5,6. The release of untreated dye effluents into natural ecosystems poses severe risks to human health and environmental safety7. Basic fuchsin is highly toxic and resists biodegradation8. Therefore, it is essential to ensure the effective purification and treatment of basic fuchsin wastewater8.

For treating wastewater organic dyes, especially basic fuchsin (BF) dye, a wide range of physical, chemical, and biological techniques has been introduced during the past years9. However, the effectiveness of these methods can vary significantly. Some techniques may be more efficient in removing specific types of dyes, while others are more suited for overall wastewater treatment10. There are several ways to remove basic fuchsin dye, such as flocculation, electrochemical oxidation, catalytic degradation, biological treatment, membrane separation, and ion exchange11–15. Many of these methods are costly, complicated, and sometimes inefficient. They can also lead to secondary pollution5,16. In contrast, photocatalytic degradation of basic fuchsin at room temperature does not produce harmful by-products and provides a more sustainable and efficient option for cleaning the environment17.

Magnetic nanoparticles stand out among photocatalysts because they can be easily separated after use with a magnetic field18. Iron oxide nanoparticles are especially popular due to their strong magnetic properties, high adsorption capacity, small size, easy to recover from solutions and good biocompatibility17. However, iron oxide has some drawbacks that reduce its efficiency, including fast electron and hole recombination, low charge carrier mobility, few active surface sites, occasional instability in photocatalytic environments, and a relatively small surface area19.

Due to their extensive surface area, chemical stability, and facile separation, spinel ferrites, a category of magnetic materials, have emerged as appealing candidates for adsorption and photocatalysis. The adsorption of dyes from polluted water encompasses various mechanisms, such as electrostatic attraction, π–π interactions, van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonding, acid-base reactions, and hydrophobic interactions20–22. MFe2O4 is the general formula of the spinel ferrite, where M represents a divalent metal ion (Co, Zn, Mg, Ni, Ba, and Mn, etc.)23. These nano ferrites are highly recyclable, making them ideal for wastewater treatment photocatalysts24.

ZnFe2O4, like all spinel ferrites, shows significant photocatalytic activity and is easy to make and recover. Zn2+ greatly improves its photosensitive, gas-sensitive, wave absorption, and antioxidant properties25–27. In addition, ZnFe2O4 has better photochemical stability than iron oxides, higher porosity, and a narrower band gap (1.9 eV). ZnFe2O4 NPs are now widely used in organic dye degradation28, This property makes it a strong candidate for use as a photocatalyst29,30. Therefore, ZnFe2O4 NPs were selected here for the photocatalytic degradation of basic fuchsin in the study.

Pure ZnFe2O4 nanoparticles typically suffer from rapid electron–hole recombination, particle agglomeration, and limited accessible surface area, all of which negatively affect photocatalytic efficiency toward organic pollutant degradation21,23,31. Therefore, the presence of SiO2 in the nanocomposite will function as a high-surface-area support and dispersing matrix, physically separating ZnFe2O4 nanoparticles and suppressing magnetic and van der Waals–driven agglomeration. This dispersion increases the number of exposed active sites and improves adsorption of organic molecules near the photocatalyst surface, which is a critical Point for efficient photocatalytic degradation17,32. SiO2 will also act as a surface stabilizer, enhancing the structural and chemical stability of ZnFe2O4 under irradiation and repeated catalytic cycles as SiO2 embedding has been shown to reduce photocorrosion, limit metal ion leaching, and preserve crystallinity during photocatalytic reactions, thereby improving reusability and long-term performance33,34. Finally, at the ZnFe2O4/SiO2 interface, SiO2 will be considered as an indirect charge-management medium. Interfacial bonding (e.g., Fe–O–Si linkages) and surface hydroxyl groups on SiO2 can trap photogenerated electrons or holes, delaying recombination and prolonging charge carrier lifetimes. This interfacial effect has been widely reported in ferrite–silica and metal oxide–silica systems and is known to enhance the generation of reactive oxygen species responsible for organic dye degradation35–37. Accordingly, preparation of nano ferrites using silica-based templates is a promising approach to improve the physical and chemical properties of the ferrites and, therefore, their photocatalytic activity36.

Magnetic metal ferrite nanoparticles have been produced using a variety of techniques, including as sol-gel, hydrothermal/solvothermal, mechanochemical, and co-precipitation38. The coprecipitation method is a simple, cost-effective, and scalable technique for synthesizing ZnFe2O4 nanoparticles, offering advantages such as stoichiometric control, uniform ion distribution, and tunable particle size through process parameters39. It is also environmentally friendly and suitable for large-scale production, making it ideal for applications in catalysis, magnetic devices, and water treatment40.

The aim of this study is to design an effective and environmentally friendly photocatalyst for wastewater treatment through the synthesis of ZnFe2O4 nanoparticles using an economical co-precipitation method and SiO2 nanoparticles via dry mechanical milling, followed by the fabrication of a ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite with controlled composition and robust interfacial interaction using high-energy ball milling. The synthesized materials are thoroughly characterized with respect to their morphological, structural, chemical, and optical properties employing TEM, SEM, EDX, XRD, FTIR, and UV–Vis spectroscopy. In addition, the photocatalytic and adsorption efficiency of the ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite toward the degradation of the toxic basic fuchsin dye under UV irradiation is systematically evaluated by examining the influence of key operational parameters, including solution pH, initial dye concentration, catalyst dosage, and irradiation time. The study also aims to analyze the reaction kinetics, clarify the photocatalytic degradation mechanism, and assess the stability and reusability of the nanocomposite over successive cycles, thereby demonstrating its potential as a practical, recyclable, and high-performance photocatalyst for industrial wastewater treatment and environmental remediation.

Materials and methods

Materials

Ferric sulfate pentahydrate (Fe2 (SO4)3∙5H2O: 97%), Zinc sulfate heptahydrate (Zn (SO4)∙7H2O: > 99%), Sodium hydroxide (NaOH: 99%) were obtained from E-Merck Products. local silica sand (Coordinates: 29.573821, 32.201830), Galala Plateau, part of the Eastern Desert near the Red Sea, Egypt. Basic fuchsine (Aldrich, < = 100%), nitric acid (HNO3: 99.9%), Acetone (99.9%), hydrochloric acid (HCl: 32%), and hydrofluoric acid (HF: 40%) were obtained from High-grade analytical acids from Sigma-Aldrich. The remainder of the substances were not purified before use and had a purity comparable to analytical grade.

Purification of SiO2 powder

Local silica sand sample was collected in (Coordinates: 29.573821, 32.201830), Galala Plateau, part of the Eastern Desert near the Red Sea, Egypt. Then the sample was washed, grinded, sieved, and dried to remove physical impurities. The purification method of silica was achieved by combining acid leaching and thermal processing methods41,42.

Initially, the powder was immersed in an acid mixture of HCl and HNO₃ in a 3:2 (v/v) ratio to remove metallic impurities from the surface of the silica micrograins. Following acid treatment, the sand powder was thoroughly washed with deionized water and dried at approximately 120 °C in air. The powder was then subjected to thermal annealing in a rapid thermal processing furnace at 900 °C for one hour. The samples were subsequently treated with a leaching solution consisting of HF (5%) and HCl (4%) in a 1:7 volume ratio. All acid concentrations for the leaching process were prepared by volumetric dilution (v/v) of commercially available concentrated acids with ultrapure water.

Preparation of SiO2 NPs

In order to prepare SiO2 NPs from purified silica powder, the dry mechanical milling method was utilized43. Briefly, 10 g of the purified silica powder was mechanically grinded at 900 rpm for 5, 10, 15 h, respectively, using a high-energy planetary ball-milling Machine (Power: 1200 W, Current: 5.2–10.4 A, Serial No.: 07.5000/03102, Pulverisette7, Premium Line, Fritsch, Germany). Agat balls of 5 mm-diameter and Agat vials of 85 ml-volume were used in the mechanical milling. After grinding, the resulting fine powder was stored at room temperature for further characterization.

Preparation of ZnFe2O4 NPs

The co-precipitation technique was utilized to synthesize zinc ferrite (ZnFe2O4) nanoparticles. Stoichiometric quantities of Fe2(SO4)3∙5H2O and Zn(SO4)∙7H2O were utilized from pure raw materials to formulate the necessary solutions with the specified molarities. Following 30 min of agitation, the metal ion solution was suddenly added to a 1 M NaOH solution, heated to 80–90 °C, and agitated at 1500 rpm. The resultant colloidal solution, with a pH of 11–13, was sustained at a temperature of 80–90 °C for one hour. Subsequently, it was permitted to cool until the precipitate settled. The precipitate was retained following the meticulous removal of the clear solution. The procedure was repeated ten times with hot deionized water to ensure the removal of excess NaOH and Na2SO4 from the solution until the filtrate’s pH reached 7. Subsequently, the samples were purified with acetone and permitted to dry for 72 h at ambient temperature44.

Preparation of ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite

A dry mechanical method was utilized to prepare the ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite43. To maintain a 1:1 molar ratio, approximately 2.41 g of ZnFe2O4 NPs and 0.60 g of SiO2 NPs after 15 h - milling, equivalent to 0.01 moles of each, were combined to ensure equal molar amounts. The milling conditions previously applied for synthesizing SiO2 nanoparticles were adopted, operating at 900 rpm for 5 h. The resulting fine powder was then subjected to drying at 100 °C for 3 h, then annealing at 800 °C for 4 h.

Characterization of the prepared NPs

The synthesis and structural confirmation of SiO2 nanoparticles, ZnFe2O4 nanoparticles, and their ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite will use multiple analytical techniques. Transmission electron microscope (TEM) (JEM-2100 PLUS), at an accelerating voltage of 200 KV, was used to study the size, shape, and agglomeration status of the nanoparticles. Surface features will be examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) at 10 kV. Optical and absorption properties will be analyzed with UV–vis spectroscopy (BioWave3 spectrophotometer, USA), in the range 200–800 nm at 1 nm resolution. The crystal structure, phase purity, and average crystallite size will be determined by X-ray diffraction (XRD) using an Angstrom ADX-8000 diffractometer with CuKα₁ radiation (λ = 1.54060 Å), scanning from 20°–80° 2θ. Next, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) (Nicolet™ iS50, Thermo Fisher Scientific) will identify functional groups using KBr pellets within 400–4000 cm−1 at a 1 cm−1 resolution45.

Photocatalysis studies

BF was subjected to photocatalytic degradation at ambient temperature (25 °C ± 2°C). Adsorption-desorption equilibrium was achieved by stirring suspensions of BF and the ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite in the dark for 2 hours before the photocatalysis experiments. Subsequently, the solution was exposed to ultraviolet radiation using a high-pressure mercury lamp, PHILIPS TUV (11WG11 T5 UV-C, mean wavelength 254 nm, with ultraviolet radiation of 30.000 W/cm2). For direct photolysis assessment, BF dye was irradiated with UV light in the absence of a catalyst. On the other hand, the efficacy of adsorption in the dark was evaluated. The supernatant was sampled at fixed time intervals of 15 min using a syringe filter (pore size = 2.5 μm).

The residual photocatalyst particles were captured from the samples using a small, conventional magnet. The photodegradation of BF was measured using an Agilent Technologies Cary 60 UV-vis spectrophotometer. The device was first calibrated with deionized water as the reference46. Absorbance of BF at λmax = 546 nm was then recorded over a wavelength range of 200 to 800 nm.

The photodegradation activity of BF in the solutions was measured using Eq. (1)

graphic file with name d33e667.gif 1

where Ct represents the concentration at each time interval, while Co represents the initial concentration upon achieving the point of adsorption-desorption equilibrium.

Statistical analysis

The data were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and were presented as means ± standard error (S.E.) using IBM Corp.‘s SPSS software, version 25 (New York). The significance level was established at a P-value of less than 0.05.

Results and discussion

Characterization of ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite

Morphological study of NPs using HR-TEM and SEM

Figure 1 presents HR-TEM and SEM images used to assess the morphology and size of the synthesized nanoparticles. As illustrated in Fig. 1a, the ZnFe2O4 nanoparticles are predominantly spherical and display a high degree of size uniformity, with an average diameter close to 7 nm46. Figure 1b displays the SEM micrograph of the ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite prepared at a 1:1 molar ratio using high-energy ball milling. The image reveals a heterogeneous assembly of quasi-spherical and irregularly shaped nanoparticles, with a wide particle size distribution. This variation is attributed to the ball-milling process, which promotes agglomeration due to elevated surface energy and magnetic interactions between particles47.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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TEM image of (a) ZnFe2O4 NPs, (b) SEM image shows the surface morphology of ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite, (c) ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite with an inset electron diffraction pattern shows the polycrystalline structure of the nanocomposite, and (d) zoom-in panel from (c) showing ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite with inset showing size distribution with average peak diameter 18.8 ± 1.0 nm.

Figure 1c presents a TEM image of the ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite, revealing nearly spherical nanoparticles. The darker contrasts in the image correspond to zinc ferrite due to its higher electron density, while the lighter, diffuse background represents the amorphous SiO2 matrix, which serves to inhibit particle aggregation and maintain structural separation48. The selected area electron diffraction (SAED) pattern in the inset of Fig. 1c shows concentric rings, which are typical of a polycrystalline structure. Additionally, the particle size distribution, illustrated by the histogram inset in Fig. 1d, indicates an average particle diameter of 18.8 ± 1.0 nm. This morphology and size consistency reflect effective nanoscale dispersion and controlled growth of the nanoparticles, suggesting that the ball-milling method successfully embedded the ferrite particles within the silica network48.

Elemental mapping by EDX, shown in Fig. 2a, confirms the uniform distribution of elements throughout the ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite, indicating successful synthesis and strong interfacial integration between the ferrite and silica components34. In Fig. 2b, the Si (Kα) map exhibits a uniform orange coloration, signifying a continuous silica phase enveloping the ferrite nanoparticles, which likely contributes to the prevention of agglomeration32. The Zn (Lα) and Fe (Kα) elemental maps in Fig. 2c and d demonstrate closely overlapping distributions, supporting the formation of a single-phase spinel ZnFe2O4 structure without detectable secondary phases such as ZnO or Fe2O348. The O (Kα) map (Fig. 2e) shows a consistently intense magenta signal, indicative of oxygen coordination within both the ferrite and silica components. Quantitative elemental analysis in Fig. 2f reveals atomic percentages of oxygen (56.34%), iron (23.62%), silicon (12.88%), and zinc (7.16%), which align with the expected stoichiometry of ZnFe2O4 embedded in a SiO2 matrix49.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

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EDX color mapping: (a) overall mapping, (b) silicon, (c) zinc, (d) iron, (e) oxygen, (f) Atomic Fraction table, and (g) EDX spectrum of ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite.

The EDX spectrum provided in Fig. 2g features well-defined peaks corresponding to oxygen (O Kα), silicon (Si Kα), iron (Fe Kα and Fe Lα), and zinc (Zn Kα and Zn Lα), confirming the presence of all key constituents in the composite. The prominent Fe Kα peak near 6.4 keV and Zn Kα peak around 8.6 keV are consistent with the formation of the ZnFe2O4 spinel phase and suggest proper stoichiometric integration of the metal ions50. Meanwhile, the Si and O peaks in the 1–2 keV range further confirm the incorporation of an amorphous silica matrix surrounding the ferrite domains, ensuring extensive interfacial contact area. This structural configuration maximizes the number of Fe–O–Si bonding sites and shortens the diffusion distance for charge carriers to reach reactive surface sites, thereby improving photocatalytic efficiency34. The overall spectrum therefore demonstrates the chemical purity and compositional uniformity of the nanocomposite.

Structural study of NPs using X-ray diffraction and FT-IR analysis

The crystallinity of the SiO2 powder was evaluated using X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. Figure 2a displays the XRD pattern of the purified SiO2 powder, which exhibits distinct peaks corresponding to the Miller indices (100), (101), (110), (102), (111), (200), (201), (112), (103), (211), and (212). These results are consistent with previous studies and align with the standard JCPDS card (No. 46-1045). The observed peaks confirm the presence of a hexagonal quartz phase of SiO2. The average crystallite size is 45.3 ± 2.9 nm. This calculation was determined using Scherrer’s Formula Eq. (2)

graphic file with name d33e930.gif 2

where: D: Average crystallite size (nm) & θ: Bragg angle in radians = 2θ° / 2 & k: shape factor ≈ 0.9 and λ: X-ray wavelength (Cu Kα) = 0.15406 nm and β: FWHM (Full Width at Half Maximum) in radians ≈ θ° * (π/180).

Figure 3b, represents a zoom-in panel exhibiting the broadening of the most intense peak, shown in Fig. 3a, due to a decrease in crystallite size as SiO2 powder was grinded via mechanical milling at different time intervals51. The average crystallite size for grinded SiO2 powder at 5, 10, and 15 h, respectively, was also calculated by Scherrer’s Formula, giving an average crystallite size of 25.4 ± 0.8, 21.7 ± 2.4, 19.3 ± 1.2 nm, respectively. Szewezak et al. have reported that the maximum size reduction limit for a particle is equivalent to the size of tough-brittle transition which led to plastic deformation rather than breakage of particle and it is accompanied by the growth of structure distortions52. the mechanical milling process not only causes size reduction but also produces important changes in the physiochemical properties of solid, and therefore leads to structural alteration because of loss of regularity in the crystalline network51. In addition, it was observed that crystallite sizes decreased rapidly in the initial time of milling and then a slow gradual decrease in the crystallite size was noticed. As a result, the crystallite size of SiO2 at 15 h of 19.3 ± 1.2 nm has been selected in this study to avoid high lattice strain due to long time of mechanical milling with high speed that may cause growth of structure distortions.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

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(a) XRD of SiO2 (0, 5, 10, 15 h), respectively and (b) Zoom-in Panel from (a) showing the broadening of the most intense peak due to a decrease in crystallite size through mechanical milling at different time intervals.

On the other hand, The XRD pattern of the ZnFe2O4 NPs exhibits distinct broad diffraction peaks at (220), (311), (400), (422), (511), and (440) planes, respectively, as shown in Figure 4a. These reflections are characteristic of a spinel cubic structure of ZnFe2O4 and are consistent with standard JCPDS card no. 22-1012, confirming the successful synthesis of the ferrite phase53. An average crystallite size of ZnFe2O4 NPs of 7 ± 0.6 nm was calculated according to Scherrer’s Formula, which is consistent with the TEM result. The resulting XRD pattern of ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite retains prominent peaks from both ZnFe2O4 and SiO2 phases at (100), (101) for SiO2 NPs and (220), (311) for ZnFe2O4 NPs, suggesting the coexistence of both components. However, the intensity and slight broadening of peaks, particularly the (101) plane for SiO2 in the nanocomposite. Such peak broadening is indicative of reduced crystallite which is commonly induced by the mechanical forces involved in high-energy milling54. The combination of these features demonstrates successful composite formation and hints at potential synergistic effects in physical properties such as magnetism or catalytic activity.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 4

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(a) XRD pattern & (b) FTIR pattern of ZnFe2O4 NPs, SiO2 NPs, and ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite.

Figure 4b presents the FTIR spectra of ZnFe2O4 NPs, SiO2 NPs, and the ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite provide compelling evidence for successful composite formation through distinct vibrational features. The FTIR spectrum of ZnFe2O4 NPs shows prominent absorption bands that confirm the formation of the spinel ferrite structure. The characteristic peak observed at approximately 560 cm−1 corresponds to the stretching vibrations of Fe–O bonds in the ZnFe2O4 lattice. The absorption band at approximately 1625 cm−1 is due to the asymmetric and symmetric bending vibration of C = O respectively. Broad band at 3428 cm−1 is commonly attributed to the bending vibration of O–H bonds from adsorbed molecular water on the surface of the NPs. This is especially typical for ferrite NPs synthesized via aqueous-based routes like the chemical Co-precipitation method, as they often retain surface moisture and hydroxyl groups due to their high surface area55. Such typical FTIR absorption bands of ZnFe2O4 NPs were reported before in another study56. The FTIR spectrum of the SiO2 NPs reveals a vibrational band at 790 cm−1 that is attributed to symmetric Si–O–Si stretching, and the shoulder at 690 cm−1 arises from Si–O bending vibrations. The most dominant feature appears at 1077 cm−1, corresponding to the asymmetric stretching vibrations of Si–O–Si bridging bonds. A broad absorption band centered at 3428 cm−1 is attributed to the stretching vibrations of surface hydroxyl groups (O–H), while the band at 1632 cm−1 corresponds to the bending vibrations of water (H–O–H), which is typical for nanostructured oxides with high surface area. These absorption bands of SiO2 NPs were aligned with those of another study for SiO2 NPs prepared by a similar method57. The FTIR spectrum of the ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite confirms the successful integration of zinc ferrite nanoparticles within the silica matrix through several key spectral features. The retention of characteristic ZnFe2O4 bands at 560 cm−1 and 790 cm−1 further confirms the presence of the spinel ferrite phase within the nanocomposite. Notably, the strong Si–O–Si asymmetric stretching band of silica, originally at 1077 cm−1, shifts to 1106 cm−1 in the composite, indicating a possible chemical interaction or structural change due to the incorporation of ZnFe2O4, through Fe–O–Si bonding or interfacial effects that introduce electronic and structural effects that influence charge carrier dynamics34. The peak at 1632 cm−1 corresponds to H–O–H bending vibrations. The broad absorption band around 3428 cm−1, observed in both individual components and the composite, is attributed to O–H stretching vibrations from surface hydroxyl groups and adsorbed water. Similarly, these spectral modifications collectively suggest that C nanoparticles are well dispersed and physically or chemically embedded within the SiO2 matrix, leading to a structurally integrated nanocomposite with combined functionalities.

Optical study using UV-Vis spectroscopy

The optical properties of the prepared samples were investigated using UV–Vis spectroscopy. Figure 5a shows the absorbance spectra that reveal distinct behaviors for SiO2 NPs, ZnFe2O4 NPs, and the ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite. Pure SiO2 NPs exhibit weak absorption in the UV region with an edge near 202 nm. ZnFe2O4 NPs show strong absorption with a leading edge near 208 nm, indicating its semiconducting ferrite character. The ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite integrates the optical characteristics of both constituents, displaying absorption edges in the range of 217–280 nm. This behavior indicates improved light utilization and suggests electronic interaction between the ferrite phase and the silica matrix58.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 5

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(a) UV-visible absorption spectra of prepared NPs in the wavelength range of 200–800 nm, and (b) Tauc’s plot of (αhν) 2 versus photon energy (hν) and the linear extrapolation of each curve shows the value of band gap energy (Eg).

The band gap values were determined using the Tauc method59. Through linear extrapolation of the Tauc plot, we can accurately estimate the bandgap energy by examining how light is absorbed by the material, using Eq. 3.

graphic file with name d33e1209.gif 3

where α represents the absorption coefficient, h is Planck’s constant, ν is the Frequency, A is a Material constant, Eg is the band gap energy, and n is the exponent that depends on the types of transition (n = 2 for a direct allowed transition).

The extrapolated Tauc plots as illustrated in Fig. 5b. show that SiO2 possesses a band gap of ~ 4.24 eV. In comparison with pure ZnFe2O4 (band gap ≈ 3.23 eV), the nanocomposite shows a shifted absorption edge and an intermediate band gap of approximately 3.79 eV. This modification does not correspond to the formation of a classical semiconductor heterojunction but arising from the interfacial interactions between ZnFe2O4 and SiO2 through Si–O–Fe bonding that reflects changes in the electronic states near the band edges. These results confirm that ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite forms a hybrid system with modified optical Properties58.

Photocatalytic degradation of BF dye using ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite

The photodegradation of BF dye using the bare ZnFe2O4, SiO2 and ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite is demonstrated in Fig. 6a. The results revealed that ZnFe2O4/SiO2 sample enhances the degradation activity of BF compared to bare ZnFe2O4 and SiO2 nanoparticles, with nearly 89.2% of BF, in contrast to just 53.0% removal with bare ZnFe2O4 NPs and 43.0% with SiO2 NPs, after 150 min at solution pH 7.0.

Fig. 6.

Fig. 6

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(a) Photodegradation of BF using bare ZnFe2O4 (black line), SiO2 (Red line), ZnFe2O4/SiO2 (blue line), effect of photolysis without catalyst (green line), and (b) UV-Vis spectrum of MB (λmax = 546 nm at 0 time and after 150 min).

Figure 6a also illustrates the impact of BF photolysis in the absence of a catalyst. The graph demonstrates that, without a catalyst, the photolysis of BF was only 2.9% over 150 min, suggesting that BF is structurally stable and that photolysis may be considered negligible. Figure 6b illustrates the photodegradation of BF under UV light exposure at λmax = 546 nm following 150 min of UV irradiation.

Effect of solution pH

One of the main parameters that influences the photodegradation process is the solution pH. Figure 7a shows the variation in photodegradation of BF over time at five different pH values (3.0–11.0).

Fig. 7.

Fig. 7

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(a) % removal of BF dye (10.0 mg/L) by ZnFe2O4/SiO2 (10.0 mg) at 25 °C at different solution pH values (3.0–11.0), and (b) The PZC of ZnFe2O4/SiO2.

The maximum photodegradation of BF occurred at a solution pH of 11. Following 150 min of UV irradiation, the percentage of BF elimination using ZnFe2O4/SiO2 at various solution pH values (3.0–11.0) was 60.1%, 71.0%, 89.2%, 93.2%, and 98.0%, respectively.

The PZC of ZnFe2O4/SiO2 was 5.1, as shown in Fig. 7b. This result confirms that the highest degradation rate of BF dye occurs at solution pH 11.0, as demonstrated in Fig. 7a. The photodegradation process is augmented at a solution pH of 11.0, since the negative charge on ZnFe2O4/SiO2 attracts the positively charged molecules of the cationic BF ions. Nonetheless, due to the opposing surface charges of the ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite and the BF ions, the photocatalytic reduction of BF ions diminishes when the pH drops below 5.1.

Effect of different initial BF concentration and ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite dosage

The effect of ionic strength on BF dye was evaluated by varying the initial BF concentration while keeping other factors constant. The ionic strength, which refers to the total concentration of ions in solution, can influence reaction rates during photodegradation. This parameter is essential for the photodegradation process64. Figure 8a shows the percentage removal for initial BF concentrations ranging from 5.0 to 20.0 mg/L over time. Results demonstrate that the ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite efficiently degrades BF dye under UV irradiation, even at higher concentrations. The photodegradation rate increases as BF concentration rises. After 150 min, removal percentages were 96.0% for 5.0 mg/L, 89.2% for 10.0 mg/L, and 71.3% for 20.0 mg/L.

Fig. 8.

Fig. 8

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(a) % removal of BF ions at different initial concentrations (5.0–20.0 mg/L), (b) effect of different doses of (10.0–50.0 mg) ZnFe2O4/SiO2, and (c) the corresponding pseudo-first-order models.

Equation 4 can be utilized to calculate the rate of BF ions photodegradation:

graphic file with name d33e1479.gif 4

where (t) is the photodegradation time, (k) is the constant removal rate, and (Ct and Co) are the appropriate initial and final concentrations of BF ions.

Figure 8b shows the effect of varying amounts (10–50 mg) of ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite on removal efficiency for the BF dye with a fixed concentration (20 mg/L), at UV light. The photodegradation process was found to increase with increasing photocatalyst amount. Furthermore, a maximum removal efficiency of 95.5% was recorded after 150 min in the presence of a photocatalyst dosage of 50 mg/L at 25 °C and pH 7.0. The increase in photodegradation activity can be ascribed to more active sites and availability of large surface area on ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite60. Figure 8c illustrates the correlation between (-ln Ct/Co) and time. The findings suggest that the degradation process dynamics adhere to pseudo-first-order rate laws44,61.

Recyclability of ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite

Photocatalysts used in environmental remediation must be recovered and recycled as waste management improves. Photocatalysts should demonstrate stability and prolonged photocatalytic efficacy during use62. The ZnFe2O4/SiO2 that was washed three times with deionized water and then dried in a hot air oven at about 90 °C for 8 h before being used again. Further study for the reusability of ZnFe2O4/SiO2 on BF ions removal under UV irradiation was performed. After six cycles, the photodegradation performance of ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite decreased by 70% as shown in Fig. 9.

Fig. 9.

Fig. 9

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Recyclability of ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite for BF ions reduction under UV irradiation.

Mechanism of photodegradation of BF by ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite

Figure 10 depicts the viable process of the photodegradation of BF dye. Upon irradiation of ZnFe2O4/SiO2 with light (hv), photons are absorbed, resulting in the excitation of electrons from the valence band (VB) to the conduction band (CB). This process produces an electron-hole pair: Inline graphic (an electron in the conduction band) and Inline graphic (a hole in the valence band), as seen in Eq. (5). Furthermore, as demonstrated by Eq. (6), the positive hole Inline graphiccan oxidize the ZnFe2O4/SiO2, resulting in the formation of a cationic species (ZnFe2O4/SiO2+). The oxidation process can augment the reactivity of the photocatalyst. The cavity may also interact with hydroxide ions (OH−) in the solution, producing hydroxyl radicals (OH·) as indicated in Eq. (7). These radicals are highly reactive entities that are essential in the breakdown of organic contaminants. Equation (8) demonstrates that hydroxyl radicals (OH·) can react with BF, resulting in their breakdown into smaller, less deleterious compounds. It is worth noting that, at present, only a few studies have examined the degradation products of BF. Consequently, further research employing analytical techniques such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is essential for a more comprehensive analysis of the degradation products of BF.

graphic file with name d33e1646.gif 5
graphic file with name d33e1650.gif 6

Fig. 10.

Fig. 10

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The supposed mechanism of photodegradation of BF under UV light irradiation using ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite.

Or

graphic file with name d33e1656.gif 7
graphic file with name d33e1660.gif 8

XRD analysis (Fig. 11) was employed to assess the structural stability of the ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite. The XRD patterns recorded before and after photocatalysis show that all characteristic diffraction peaks of the spinel ZnFe2O4 phase and the SiO2 component are retained, with no appearance of new impurity phases or peak shifts. This confirms that the nanocomposite preserves its crystalline structure during the photocatalytic process, indicating good structural and chemical stability under UV irradiation.

Fig. 11.

Fig. 11

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XRD pattern of ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite before and after photocatalytic degradation.

The observed increase in peak intensity and sharpening after photocatalytic degradation can be attributed to slight improvement in crystallinity or surface rearrangement induced by prolonged UV exposure, rather than morphological collapse or phase transformation. Such behavior has been widely reported for ferrite–silica photocatalysts subjected to irradiation and repeated catalytic cycles and does not necessarily imply significant changes in particle morphology21,32.

The active species involved in the photocatalytic reduction process were identified by evaluating the impact of scavengers on the degradation efficiency. Isopropanol and benzoquinone were employed to capture the hydroxyl radical (OH·) and superoxide radical (− O2·), respectively. The photocatalytic degradation of BF by the ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite under UV irradiation is presented in Fig. 12, showing the degradation efficiency with and without the scavengers at a 5 ppm concentration.

Fig. 12.

Fig. 12

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Effect of scavengers on BF dye photodegradation using ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite.

In the presence of benzoquinone and isopropanol, efficiency decreased from 95% to approximately 75% and 35%, respectively. A similar decrease in the removal of BF by ZnFe2O4/SiO2 was observed, with isopropanol reducing the efficiency to 33%, indicating that the OH· radical is the primary contributor to the degradation of BF. Moreover, the addition of benzoquinone reduced the degradation rate by 75%, highlighting the significant role of the − O2· radical in BF degradation. The effectiveness of the synthesized ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite for sustainable environmental applications is further demonstrated by comparing its photodegradation performance with results from the existing literature, as summarized in Table 1.

Table 1.

A comparative study of the photocatalytic properties of ZnFe2O4-based nanocomposites for the degradation of various organic dyes, including the present study.

Photocatalyst Synthesis method Particle size (nm) Light source Dye/pollutant Time (min) Degradation rate (%) Ref.
ZnFe2O4 Co-precipitation – UV–Vis Rhodamine B 150 60 63
TiO2/ZnFe2O4 hydrothermal 5–15 nm UV Rhodamine B 150 99.7 29
TiO2/ZnFe2O4 Reverse micelle and hydrolysis 10–20 nm UV Methyl Orange 420 80 64
ZnFe2O4/ZnO Solution combustion method 8.6–36.8 nm UV Methylene Blue 360 90 65
AgZnCu Sol-Gel 26.4 UV MG 360 90.66 66
ZnFe2O4 Green synthesis 25.03 nm UV Methylene Blue 45 99.8 67
ZnFe2O4/SiO2 co-precipitation and mechanical milling 18.8 nm UV BF 150 95 This study
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Conclusion

In this study, the ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite was synthesized using dry mechanical method with 1:1 molar ratio between ZnFe2O4 and SiO2 NPs. The formation of the synthesized nanoparticles has been supported by the crystalline phase that was derived from the XRD data. TEM and SEM images confirmed the doping of ZnFe2O4 with SiO2 nanoparticles. Two spectroscopic studies such as FTIR and UV-Visible also supported the formation of these synthesized materials. The ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite showed better photocatalytic activity for the degradation of BF dye in 150 min when compared to virgin ZnFe2O4 NPs and SiO2 NPs. In a particular period of time, the ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite, ZnFe2O4 NPs and SiO2 NPs showed 89.2%, 53.0 and 43.0% BF dye degradation efficiency, respectively. Additionally, 0.01 g of ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposite eliminated 95.0% of BF in 150 min at a pH of 11.0. ZnFeO4/SiO2’s reusability in removing BF ions under UV light was investigated. The ZnFeO4/SiO2 photocatalytic efficacy dropped to 70% after six cycles. In conclusion, the synthesized ZnFe2O4/SiO2 nanocomposites offer a biocompatible solution for wastewater treatment.

Author contributions

A.E., M.D, and M.E., (with equal contribution): Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Formal analysis, Data curation, Writing-Original Draft, Writing-Review and Editing. Availability of data and materials: The data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.

Funding

Open access funding provided by The Science, Technology & Innovation Funding Authority (STDF) in cooperation with The Egyptian Knowledge Bank (EKB).

Data availability

Availability of data and materials: The data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.

Declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Footnotes

The original online version of this Article was revised: In the original version of the Article, Figure 9 was a duplicated version of Figure 10.

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Change history

4/21/2026

A Correction to this paper has been published: 10.1038/s41598-026-47898-5

Contributor Information

Mohamed M. Desouky, Email: Mohamed.mousa@gu.edu.eg

Ahmed M. El-Khawaga, Email: Ahmed.Elkhawaga@gu.edu.eg

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Data Availability Statement

Availability of data and materials: The data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.

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