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International Journal of Transgender Health logoLink to International Journal of Transgender Health
. 2025 Mar 16;27(2):917–929. doi: 10.1080/26895269.2025.2478497

Effect of short, animated storytelling, conveying the lived experiences of a mother vs a father of a trans child, on transphobia among US parents: A randomized controlled trial

M Adam a,b,c,✉, M Greuel b, S Liu d,e, J R Rogge f, A Martin g,h, D Amsalem i
PMCID: PMC13015113  PMID: 41891065

Abstract

Background

Societal transphobia fuels alarmingly high rates of suicidality among transgender and gender diverse (TGD) youth. Short, animated storytelling (SAS) videos, aimed at scaling the lived experiences of TGD youth and their families, have proven effective for reducing transphobia, while protecting the identities of the narrators. Prior research raises questions about whether gender-matching of the narrator and the viewer could impact the effectiveness of these interventions.

Methods

We recruited US parents, aged 18–50, via an online academic research platform and randomized them into three groups. The two intervention arms watched an SAS video conveying the lived experiences of either a father or a mother of a transgender child. The control group read educational materials about TGD youth. We used the Transgender Stigma Scale to measure transphobia at baseline, immediately post-exposure and 30 days later.

Results

We analyzed data from 1229 participants. We found an immediate group-by-time effect (C2 = 15.6, d.f. = 2, p < 0.001) from baseline to post-intervention, in both the father’s video group (0.88 [95% CI: 0.52, 1.25]) and the mother’s video group (0.82 [95% CI: 0.51, 1.14]), when compared with the educational control group (0.004 [95% CI: −0.34, 0.35]). Although some effect remained, this was no longer significant after 30 days. We also observed a greater effect of the father’s video on transphobia reduction in male participants (0.44 [0.25] vs 1.16 [0.21]; t = 2.2, p = 0.028), while both interventions reduced transphobia in female participants.

Conclusions

This study highlights the potential for gender-matching to enhance the effectiveness of SAS, video interventions, aimed at reducing transphobia among parents.

Keywords: Animation, lived experience, storytelling, transgender youth, transphobia, video intervention

Introduction

Societal anti-trans stigma, or transphobia, fuels alarmingly high rates of suicidality among transgender and gender diverse (TGD) youth (Austin et al., 2022; Hartig et al., 2022; Jackman et al., 2021; Trevor Project, 2023). Recent research suggests that TGD youth are 2.7–3.5 times more likely to attempt suicide than their cisgender peers (Jackman et al., 2021; Toomey et al., 2018). Globally, the rise of populist “anti-gender movements” has resulted in gender diversity being labeled a threat to “traditional family values,” creating hostile social environments in the US and around the world (Bassi & LaFleur, 2022; Kuhar & Zobec, 2017; McLean, 2021; Paternotte & Kuhar, 2017). These environments can have a profoundly toxic effect on the mental health of TGD youth (Choi, 2023; RP Team, 2024). However, there is hope: simple acts of affirmation, such as an adult consistently respecting a child’s pronouns, have been shown to significantly improve mental health outcomes for TGD youth (Ghassabian et al., 2022; Kidd et al., 2024; Malpas et al., 2022; Olezeski & Kamody, 2020; Westwater et al., 2019). For example, a recent US national survey found that affirmation reduced suicidality, with rates dropping from 21% to 12% (Trevor Project, 2023). These findings underscore the urgent need for scalable, effective interventions aimed at reducing transphobia and fostering acceptance among adults in the general public. While this is a global public health problem, it is especially urgent in the US, where recent political shifts have led to an unprecedented rise in anti- lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) legislation (Choi, 2023). In the current sociopolitical climate, fostering networks of supportive adults within the general public could be lifesaving for TGD youth.

Social contact-based interventions, that expose people to the lived experiences of TGD youth (and their families), have proven especially effective for reducing transphobia (Jankowski et al., 2023; Katz-Wise et al., 2024; Rani & Samuel, 2019; Reinke et al., 2004; Thornicroft et al., 2016). Storytelling is one of the oldest human tools for shifting public perspectives and eliciting empathy (Batson & Ahmad, 2009). Yet, scaling face-to-face interactions is impractical and disseminating video recordings of TGD youth could expose these young people to harassment or physical violence—which is one of the reasons why many TGD youth still feel unsafe revealing their gender identity (Olson et al., 2016).

Short, animated storytelling (SAS) has recently emerged as a potentially promising approach to scaling the lived experiences of TGD youth (Amsalem, Greuel, et al., 2024; Greuel, Doron, et al., 2024; Greuel, Nguyen, et al., 2024). The approach uses animation to shield the identities of TGD youth, and their families, who volunteer to share their stories. Because SAS content is short, it can readily be disseminated via social media, meeting people where they regularly consume short-form video content (Adam et al., 2020; Vandormael et al., 2021). Compelling soundtracks and visual designs boost emotional engagement (EE) and the likelihood of sharing these powerful, authentic stories. In a recent randomized controlled trial, transphobia in US adults was significantly reduced immediately after a single exposure to a 2.5-min SAS video, in which a trans boy relates his experience of coming out to his mother (Amsalem, Greuel, et al., 2024). The video features both the TGD child and his mother, engaged in a moving, authentic discussion (Adam, 2024). Of note, the effect of the video intervention was measurably different on male and female participants. Women exhibited lower levels of transphobia and more positive attitudes toward trans children than men, immediately following exposure to the SAS video (Amsalem, Greuel, et al., 2024). These findings raise interesting questions about how the gender of the narrator might differentially influence the effect of a social contact-based intervention on men vs women, and whether exposure to the story of a father of a trans child could potentially be more effective for addressing stigmatic perceptions and reducing transphobia in men (Amsalem, Greuel, et al., 2024).

Research has demonstrated that strength of identification with the narrator, or “source”, of health information significantly enhances the uptake of that information; when individuals perceive the narrator as relatable, they are more likely to engage with the content and internalize its messages (Lungu et al., 2021; Merchant et al., 2021). This phenomenon is particularly relevant in the context of health communication, where personal narratives can create emotional connections that break down barriers by boosting empathy (Batson & Ahmad, 2009). Emotional connection yields higher levels of engagement with the content—whether through emotional resonance, effective storytelling techniques, or interactive elements—and has been shown to improve retention and application of the information presented (Chen & Bell, 2022; Miller-Day & Hecht, 2013).

For those designing interventions to reduce transphobia, this raises the important question of whether enhanced identification with a narrator could increase the likelihood that audiences will adopt more supportive attitudes and behaviors toward TGD youth. For example, would a father be more likely to identify with another father, who shares his story of supporting a TGD child? Would this identification more effectively engage the viewing parent of the same gender, thereby making the intervention more effective in reducing their level of transphobia?

The objective of this trial was to measure the effect of two different SAS video interventions on transphobia in a sample of US parents. Both SAS videos, convey a parent’s lived experience of parenting a transgender child, one told by a mother and the second by a father. The effect of these two equal-length videos were compared with each other and with an informational control condition (also of equal length), then analyzed by the gender of the participants who viewed the SAS interventions.

Our first hypothesis was that exposure to both videos would significantly reduce transphobia in our participants. Efficacy of an SAS video featuring a mother’s lived experience of parenting her trans child was previously demonstrated (Amsalem, Greuel, et al., 2025), and we expected this effect to be replicated in the current study. Additionally, we hypothesized that a “gender-matching effect” would be observed, with each video having a stronger effect on transphobia in the gender-matched parent participant group. Specifically, we expected that exposure to an SAS video conveying a mother’s lived experience would more effectively reduce transphobia, and generate higher engagement, among female participants. Similarly, we hypothesized that exposure to an SAS video conveying a father’s lived experience would more effectively reduce transphobia, and generate higher engagement, among male participants.

Materials and methods

Participants and recruitment

We recruited English-speaking parents aged 18–50 residing in the US. This age range was chosen based on our previous research, which indicates that younger individuals respond more effectively to brief video interventions (Amsalem, Lazarov, et al., 2021, 2022; Amsalem et al., 2023; Corrigan et al., 2014; Janoušková et al., 2017). Other researchers have also found that adults within this age range are more likely to engage regularly and consume short-form video content on social media (Heath, 2009; Subramanian, 2018). We recruited participants between August and October 2024, on Prolific Academic, a highly regarded online academic research platform, frequently used in public health and psychology research (Douglas et al., 2023). Prolific facilitates the recruitment of nationally representative study samples. The platform ensures consistency in demographic responses over time, blocking participants who hide their location, and running regular checks to preempt the activity of bots. To enhance the validity of our results, we excluded participants who completed assessments more than once and added a timer to ensure that participants devoted sufficient time to reading the educational script (control condition) and watching the video (intervention condition) before they were allowed to move to the next study task. Participants were paid for their participation in each part of the study, receiving $3.20 after completing their assigned tasks. Ethics approval for this study was granted by the Stanford University School of Medicine Internal Review Board (IRB# 72761) on July 22, 2024. Before initiating the study, participants were provided with an information sheet outlining the purpose of the study and they were assured of anonymity, confidentiality, and their right to withdraw from the study at any point. Participants who wished to enroll in the study then indicated their informed consent by completing an online consent form. Enrolled participants were then directed to complete the study procedures on Qualtrics.com, a secure online data collection platform. The study was pre-registered on aspredicted.org, a trial registration site associated with the Wharton Credibility Lab at the University of Pennsylvania, on January 23, 2024 (#159248).

Participants were randomized, using a computer-generated sequence on Qualtrics (Weber, 2021), to watch an SAS video conveying the lived experiences of either the father or the mother of a transgender child, or to an educational control group. Using a baseline survey, we collected demographic information, including age, gender, race/ethnicity, educational level, parent status and prior familiarity with transgender or non-binary individuals. Our primary outcome was transphobia. Our secondary outcome was EE with the video, measured among those participants who were assigned to watch an SAS video. The post-intervention survey, conducted immediately after the intervention, repeated these assessments. Follow-up assessments, conducted 30 days post-intervention, included the same measurements.

SAS intervention videos

The two SAS intervention videos were the same length (5:00 min) and both followed the trajectory of a parent who, over time, had come to learn about and accept the diverse gender identity of their child. In both stories, the parent was raising a transgender son. Both the mother and father candidly expressed the challenges of supporting their child and, at a similar timepoint in each video intervention, both parents became tearful as they reflected on their child’s gender journey. In both stories, the parents ended on a positive note, expressing their unconditional love and support for their child. The mother’s story intervention video can be viewed here: https://youtu.be/SQCsVuQlk10, and the father’s story intervention video can be viewed here: https://youtu.be/WEgZjIf1oXA. These were not scripted stories, but rather spontaneous candid reflections, based on the lived experiences of two parents, when asked to describe what it was like for them to parent a TGD child. These conversations were led by the first author, who also illustrated each video. We received written permission from both parents to use the audio recordings of their stories. The parents gave feedback and participated in the design of their avatars. Figure 1 shows selected scenes, with timestamps and quotes, from the videos.

Figure 1.

Figure 1.

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Selected scenes, timestamps and quotes from the two SAS interventions videos.

Educational control

Educational control group participants read a printed information sheet titled "Transgender Youth: Understanding and Supporting Their Well-Being." The sheet provided general educational information about TGD youth, including definitions, the age of self-identification, the importance of supportive families, challenges faced in schools and social settings, mental health concerns, and available resources and organizations. Importantly, it did not include any social contact elements, such as a parent or child sharing their lived experiences.

Blinding

All co-investigators and researchers involved in data analysis remained unaware of the trial arm allocations throughout the study. Participants were unaware of the specific arm to which they were allocated.

Instruments

The primary outcome, transphobia toward TGD youth, was assessed using the Transgender Stigma Scale (TSS) developed by Madera et al. (2019). While there are no widely used, validated scales to accurately measure transphobia specifically directed toward TGD youth, we minimally adapted the TSS scale items to specifically assess transphobia toward TGD youth and we tested this adapted scale in a previous study (Amsalem, Greuel, et al., 2024). Responses were measured on a five-point Likert scale ranging from “strongly disagree” (1) to “strongly agree” (5), with higher scores reflecting greater levels of transphobia. The TSS demonstrates high reliability, with a Cronbach’s α of 0.94.

EE with the video was assessed using the Emotional Engagement Scale (de Vreede et al., 2019). The scale consisted of the following items: “It made me happy to watch this video,” “I care about the contents of this video,” and “This video had a positive impact on my mood.” Participants rated their agreement on a scale from 1 (“strongly disagree”) to 4 (“strongly agree”), resulting in total scores ranging from 3 to 12. Higher scores indicated greater EE (α = 0.88).

Data analysis

Data analysis was performed using IBM SPSS Statistics 29. Sample size calculation was based on our previous studies (Amsalem, Greuel, et al., 2023, 2024; Amsalem, Haim-Nachum, et al., 2025; Amsalem, Halloran, et al., 2022; Amsalem, Jankowski, et al., 2022; Amsalem, Lazarov, et al., 2021, 2022; Amsalem, Markowitz, et al., 2021; Amsalem, Yang, et al., 2021). We used Pearson’s chi-square and one-way ANOVA to compare demographic characteristics between the randomly assigned groups (intervention videos and educational control groups). Intervention effects were examined using generalized estimating equations (GEE), as recommended for randomized controlled trials (Vens & Ziegler, 2012; Zeger & Liang, 1986). The GEE method is a correlated, repeated-measures analysis that addresses missing data using estimated marginal means derived from the entire sample. It incorporates all participants who were randomly assigned and contributed data at least once. To manage within-subject dependencies in the analysis, an unstructured correlation matrix was used. A full factorial model was applied across the three time points (baseline, post-intervention, and 30-day follow-up) for TSS scores. Follow-up analyses included the same GEE analysis, separately for baseline to post-intervention and baseline to 30-day follow-up. Independent t-tests were used to compare baseline and post-intervention changes by gender and EE levels. All statistical tests were two-sided, with alpha set at 0.05.

Results

Sample characteristics

Data were collected from July–August 2024. After the exclusion of 40 (3%) participants who failed validity tests (e.g. attention checks or validity questions), our final sample included 1229 parents who completed the baseline assessments and were randomized into the three study groups. Of those, 1199 (98%) participants completed the post-intervention assessment. Of those who completed the post-intervention assessment, 962 (80%) also completed the 30-day follow-up assessment. Figure 2 shows the study flow.

Figure 2.

Figure 2.

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CONSORT study flow diagram.

Baseline characteristics did not differ between completers and non-completers, and demographic characteristics did not differ between study groups. Respondent age was 37.9 ± 7.3 years [Mean ± SD, here and throughout] (range 18–50), and half of the participants were male (n = 609, 50%). Eleven (1%) of participants identified as transgender or non-binary. Table 1 summarizes the participants’ age, gender, race/ethnicity, education, and familiarity with transgender or non-binary individuals.

Table 1.

Demographic characteristics of study participants at baseline.

Items Father’s video
n = 547
 Mother’s video
n = 540
 Education control
n = 264
 Total
n = 1351
 Statistic
  Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD F p
  n % n % n % n % X 2 p
Agea 37.9 7.4 38.0 7.3 38.0 7.4 37.9 7.3 0.04 0.966
Gender                 6.71 0.348
 Female 237 46 269 52 102 51 608 49    
 Male 271 52 241 47 97 48 609 50    
 Transgender/non-binary 5 1 3 1 3 2 11 1    
 Prefer not to answer 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0    
Race and ethnicity                 11.8 0.466
 Hispanic 52 10 62 12 16 8 130 11    
 Non-Hispanic Black 131 26 118 23 60 30 309 25    
 Non-Hispanic White 295 58 293 57 111 55 699 57
 Non-Hispanic Asian 19 4 25 5 11 5 55 5    
 Non-Hispanic Native American 5 1 6 1 0 0 11 1    
 Non-Hispanic otherb 9 2 6 1 4 2 19 2    
 Prefer not to answer 2 0 4 1 0 0 6 1    
Education                 10.3 0.413
 Never completed high school 8 2 5 1 1 1 14 1    
 High school graduate 60 12 52 10 17 8 129 11    
 Some college credit 142 28 169 33 51 25 362 30    
 Bachelor’s degree 179 35 172 34 84 42 435 35    
 Master’s degree 109 21 102 20 44 22 255 21    
 Doctorate degree 15 3 14 3 5 3 34 3    
 Prefer not to answer 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0    
Familiarity with a transgender or non-binary individuals 348 68 333 65 145 72 826 67 4.78 0.310
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Note: Pearson Chi-square.

aOne-way ANOVA.

bNon-Hispanic other: multiracial (n = 15), Caribbean American (n = 1), Samoan (n = 1), Native Hawaiian (n = 1), Pacific Islander (n = 1).

Video effects

Figure 3 presents changes over time between the study groups. As hypothesized, the trial arms demonstrated significantly different outcomes on TSS scores. GEE analysis revealed a significant group-by-time interaction (χ2 = 20.4, d.f. = 4, p < 0.001). Baseline mean scores did not differ significantly between the trial arms (father’s video: 25.0 ± 10.1; mother’s video: 25.6 ± 10.1; educational control: 25.4 ± 10.8). To better understand the outcome differences between video and educational control groups, we compared changes from baseline to post-intervention assessment and from baseline to 30-day follow-up. We found a significant immediate group-by-time effect (C2 = 15.6, d.f. = 2, p < 0.001) from baseline to post-intervention, in both the father’s video group (0.88 [95% CI: 0.52, 1.25]) and the mother’s video group (0.82 [95% CI: 0.51, 1.14]), when compared with the educational control group (0.004 [95% CI: −0.34, 0.35]). Although some effect remained, we found no lasting effects at the 30-day follow-up assessment.

Figure 3.

Figure 3.

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Changes in mean TSS score over time, by study group.

Gender effects

Baseline scores differed significantly between men and women, with men reporting higher transphobia levels (men: 27.2 ± 10.2; women: 23.6 ± 9.9; t = 6.1, p < 0.001). Figure 4 presents changes in TSS scores from baseline to post-intervention, by participant gender, for each of the two intervention arms. While no significant changes were observed between male and female participants in the father’s video group (mean change: 0.88 [0.2] vs 1.13 [0.2], respectively), male participants scored significantly lower in the mother’s video group, suggesting a greater effect of the father’s video on transphobia in men (0.44 [0.25] vs 1.16 [0.21]; t = 2.2, p = 0.028). We found no gender differences in the control group (−0.1 [0.30] for male vs 0.1 [0.2] for female).

Figure 4.

Figure 4.

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Changes in TSS scores from baseline to post-intervention by gender.

EE effects

Figure 5 presents the immediate change in TSS scores by EE levels. As in our previous studies (Amsalem, Fish, et al., 2024), we divided groups based on EE, defining high EE as total EE score ≥9, and low EE as total EE score <9 (range 3–12; mean 8.6, SE 0.08). High-EE immediate effect (baseline to post-intervention change: 1.45 [SE 0.15]) was significantly higher than low-EE immediate effect (baseline to post-intervention change: 0.08 [0.13]); t = 6.3, p < 0.001). While high EE was a strong predictor of the magnitude of change in transphobia, there were no observed participant-gender effects on engagement.

Figure 5.

Figure 5.

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Immediate changes in TSS scores by high vs low EE.

Discussion

This is the first randomized, controlled trial (RCT) to measure the differential effects of exposure to social contact-based video interventions, featuring the lived experiences of fathers vs mothers of TGD children, on transphobia in parents living in the US. Our first hypothesis was that exposure to both newly tested videos would reduce transphobia. Both of the 5-min video interventions significantly reduced transphobia immediately after exposure. The video featuring the mother’s lived experience replicated previously demonstrated effects (Amsalem, Greuel, et al., 2024), while the father’s lived experience video, being the first of its kind, also significantly reduced transphobia among all parents. The second hypothesis involved the gender-matching effect, with each video expected to have a stronger effect on the matched participant-gender group. Consistent with this hypothesis, the father’s lived experience video was more effective at reducing transphobia among male parents, while it also showed positive effects for all parents. The video featuring the mother’s lived experience was similarly more effective in reducing transphobia among female parents.

Our prior research suggests that stigma can be reduced when people gain empathic insights through social contact-based interventions (Amsalem, Halloran, et al., 2022). In this RCT, transphobia among female participants (US mothers) was significantly reduced immediately after watching either the mother’s story or the father’s story of raising a transgender son. This finding could be explained by proposed gender differences in the experience of empathy (Christov-Moore et al., 2014). Mothers in our trial may have experienced greater affective empathy in response to the lived experiences of any parent, while fathers may have experienced greater cognitive empathy, in response to the story of another father, with whom they experience stronger in-group ties (Cameron & Lalonde, 2001; Christov-Moore et al., 2014). Supporting this explanation, in a similar study, a brief video presented by a man, aimed at reducing moral injury and increasing treatment-seeking among civilians in conflict zones, also showed a greater effect on men (Amsalem, Haim-Nachum, et al., 2025). Evidence supporting gender differences in empathy is also found in a recent Australian vignette study, in which mothers of TGD children were generally rated more negatively than fathers (Riggs et al., 2023).

Alternatively, well-documented stereotypes about the propensity for women to be “emotional,” may have reduced the empathy that some fathers in our study experienced in response to the emotional story of a mother’s quest to accept her TGD child (Brescoll, 2016). The observation that the effect on transphobia had partially diminished after 30 days aligns with our prior research and suggests that multiple exposures to these scalable videos (regular “dosing”) may be needed to enhance the durability of the observed effect (Amsalem, Greuel, et al., 2024). However, the significant immediate effect of both short (5 min) digitally scalable SAS interventions on transphobia is encouraging and emphasizes the need for further research into targeted, possibly sequentially delivered, SAS social contact-based interventions aimed at reducing transphobia in adults in the longer term. This is especially important in the US, where the current sociopolitical climate exacerbates the challenges faced by TGD youth. In 2023 alone, over 400 anti-LGBTQ bills were introduced across state legislatures, contributing to anti-trans hostility that negatively impact the mental health of this vulnerable group (Choi, 2023). In other global regions, increasingly, the so-called “anti-gender movement” threatens the health outcomes of TGD youth (RP Team, 2024). These global cultural shifts underscore the need for effective, scalable interventions that can foster affirmation and support among adults, particularly among parents, who are most likely to engage with gender diverse youth.

Research suggests that when acceptance prevails among adults in the general public, it not only directly benefits TGD children but also the parents of TGD youth, by reducing minority-adjacent stress. Promoting acceptance and reducing transphobia within the general parent population is essential for creating a healthier, more affirming environment for all families.

In the post-pandemic era, social media has become a vital channel for public-facing health communication, offering a unique opportunity to reach populations at scale. SAS videos are emerging as a promising, readily scalable digital approach for engaging audiences and leveraging the power of lived experiences for reducing transphobia.

The findings of this study have important clinical implications for addressing transphobia and fostering greater acceptance of TGD youth, particularly among parents. The efficacy of short, social contact-based video interventions highlights their potential as a cost-effective and scalable tool for clinicians working with families of TGD children. These interventions could be incorporated into existing mental health programs, parenting workshops, and social media campaigns aimed at reducing stigma and promoting empathy for TGD individuals. Future research should explore how such interventions can be integrated into routine care for parents, particularly in pediatric and adolescent mental health settings, to support the emotional well-being of both parents and children. Additionally, further studies could assess the long-term effects of these interventions, examining how repeated exposure or integration with other therapeutic modalities might improve outcomes over time. Expanding these interventions to a wider variety of parent populations, including diverse cultural and socio-economic groups, is also a critical next step. Because of their short format, and engaging animated, storytelling approach, SAS interventions lend themselves to rapid dissemination via social media (Adam et al., 2020), and this could be an important route for integrating them into real-world public health initiatives, parenting programs and educational campaigns. Understanding how these interventions can be adapted and tailored to different communities will help ensure they are effective in reducing transphobia on a broader scale and fostering a supportive environment for TGD youth worldwide. More research is needed to help bridge the gap between research and real-world application of gender-affirming public health interventions.

Our study has several limitations. Firstly, crowdsourcing participants may differ socio-demographically from the broader US population, limiting the generalizability of our findings. Secondly, we used self-reported measurement, an approach that may be influenced by social desirability, especially following an intervention focused on transphobia. This limitation was mitigated by the fact that all respondents were assured of their anonymity throughout the trial and identified only through their Prolific ID numbers. Thirdly, both of the parent narrators in our study were raising transgender boys. Prior research from Australia suggests that parents of non-binary children may experience even greater levels of stigmatization and minority-adjacent stress (Riggs et al., 2023). More research is urgently needed on how to support non-binary youth and their parents. Fourthly, we did not collect data on how many of the participants may have themselves been raising TGD children. Parents with personal experience raising a TGD child may differ in their baseline attitudes compared to those without such experience and we were not able to control for these potential differences. Finally, while this study provides valuable insights into the potential of short, social contact-based video interventions to reduce transphobia, further research is needed to assess their long-term impact and effectiveness in real-world settings.

In conclusion, this study highlights the potential of SAS, social contact-based video interventions for reducing transphobia among parents in the US. Both the mother’s and father’s lived experiences of raising a transgender son were effective in lowering transphobia, with the father’s video showing particularly strong effects among male parents. These findings underscore the importance of gender-matching in interventions. Given the recent rise in transphobia and anti-gender movements, globally, further research is needed to explore the role of gender-matching in enhancing the effectiveness of such interventions and to determine optimal approaches for reducing transphobia across diverse parent populations.

Supplementary Material

Appendix Fig 1 IJTH.docx
WIJT_A_2478497_SM9471.docx (284.1KB, docx)

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank the parents of TGD children who bravely and authentically shared their stories in the hopes that they will contribute to a more affirming and supportive society for TGD children.

Funding Statement

Funding for this trial was awarded by the Stanford Center for Digital Health.

Ethical approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Ethics approval for this study was granted by the Stanford University School of Medicine Internal Review Board (IRB# 72761) on July 22, 2024.

Consent form

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Disclosure statement

The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

Data availability statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Supplementary Materials

Appendix Fig 1 IJTH.docx
WIJT_A_2478497_SM9471.docx (284.1KB, docx)

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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