The transition to motherhood: a qualitative study of new mothers’ experiences of loneliness and associated challenges

Abstract

Purpose

Motherhood is widely recognized as a profound developmental life event, encompassing physical recovery, life and identity reorganization, and new caregiving responsibilities, but the emergence of loneliness in new mothers remains under-researched. The aim of this study was to explore new mothers’ experiences of loneliness and associated challenges.

Methods

A qualitative exploratory design and content analysis were conducted. Interviews were conducted with ten first-, second- and third-time mothers.

Results

The analysis generated three main categories: 1. Social dimensions of loneliness, 2. Emotional dimensions of loneliness, 3. Existential dimensions of loneliness.

Discussion

Loneliness among new mothers is a multidimensional experience encompassing social, emotional, and existential dimensions. Loneliness may arise from changes in social relationships, challenges within partner relationships, and the profound identity transition associated with becoming a mother. Additionally, participants described existential aspects of loneliness, including feeling overlooked as individuals and experiencing a disruption in their sense of self during the transition to motherhood.

Conclusion

As seen in our findings, social, emotional, and existential loneliness can be associated with becoming a new mother. Preventive measures should be considered, such as low-threshold counseling services for new mothers and partners, aimed at supporting the well-being of the entire family.

Introduction

The transition to motherhood is widely recognised as a profound developmental life event involving significant psychological, social, and identity transformation (Mercer, 2004) and can be experienced as chaotic and overwhelming (Thorstensson et al., 2015). It encompasses rapid physical recovery, the reorganisation of daily life and identity, and the assumption of new caregiving responsibilities, making the early postpartum period a time of heightened vulnerability as well as opportunity (Zhang et al., 2025). Transition is understood as a dynamic, evolving process involving identity shifts and ongoing adaptation over time, rather than a fixed movement between discrete states (Meleis et al., 2000; Schumacher & Meleis, 1994). Early motherhood is increasingly conceptualised as a major developmental stage characterised by profound psychological and relational transformation (Nijssens et al., 2018; Sanders et al., 2021). It is a life stage during which an individual is extra vulnerable and mixed emotions may be experienced (Thorstensson et al., 2015), while bodily experiences can shape emotional understanding (Zaides et al., 2021). New mothers can be defined as women transitioning into a new life stage marked by profound psychological, social, and identity changes (conceptualised as a “transition to motherhood” that encompasses physical, psychological, social, and relational changes that happen to a woman after pregnancy and birth) (Hwang et al., 2022). They must quickly learn to interpret and respond to their infant’s needs while negotiating the formation of a new parental identity (Wood & Eagly, 2000). This emerging identity must align with both one’s previous sense of self and broader social norms and cultural expectations (Chung & Son, 2022; De Leersnyder et al., 2014; Lee et al., 2019; Lévesque et al., 2020; Rayburn et al., 2021; Sanders et al., 2021; Stavrova & Fetchenhauer, 2014), reflecting an interplay of internal psychological factors and external social pressures.

This period typically spans the postpartum period (from birth to roughly the first year), during which women adjust to the demands of caring for an infant while renegotiating their sense of self (Mercer, 2004; Nijssens et al., 2018; Sanders et al., 2020). Recent qualitative research has deepened understanding of how new mothers navigate this transition, highlighting recurrent themes including social isolation, inconsistent professional support, the influence of cultural practices on postpartum care, and the emotional complexity of changing roles and expectations (Abdul-Fatah et al., 2024; Zhang et al., 2025).

The transition to motherhood can be both joyful and rewarding (Hughes et al., 2020; Sanders et al., 2021) but also stressful (Don et al., 2022; Fillo et al., 2015; Hughes et al., 2020; Mangialavori et al., 2021; Nijssens et al., 2018; Rayburn et al., 2021; Rosen et al., 2020; Sanders et al., 2021). It involves significant physiological, psychological, and social adaptations (Nijssens et al., 2018), including relationship challenges, difficulties with emotional adjustment, coping with common infant behaviours such as crying or sleep issues (Don et al., 2022; Mihelic et al., 2018), increased responsibilities, new behavioural expectations and social norms, changes in social status (Rayburn et al., 2021), and often unfamiliar childcare tasks (Fillo et al., 2015).

During this transition, mothers may experience loneliness (Lee et al., 2019), defined as an unpleasant feeling arising from quantitative or qualitative deficiencies in social relationships (Perlman & Peplau, 1998) and often triggered by major life changes (Nowland et al., 2021; Perlman & Peplau, 1998). Mansfield et al. (2021) further describe loneliness as a subjective, negatively experienced state characterised by a perceived lack or inadequacy of meaningful social connections, which can vary in intensity and is not necessarily alleviated by being physically surrounded by others. Loneliness is influenced more by the quality and perceived significance than the quantity of social relationships, reflecting a psychological and emotional evaluation of one’s social connectedness. Loneliness can occur even in the presence of social contact, highlighting the role of perceived relational sufficiency in this complex phenomenon. Humans have a fundamental need to belong (Baumeister & Leary, 1995), possibly rooted in genetic and survival mechanisms (Strang, 2014), which may help explain why loneliness can manifest in different forms.

Loneliness can be social, emotional, or existential (Strang, 2014; Weiss, 1973). Social loneliness arises from the absence of a network, lack of belonging, or role changes, while emotional loneliness stems from absent close attachments (Perlman & Peplau, 1998; Weiss, 1973). Existential loneliness, often linked to life transitions such as becoming a parent, reflects a deep sense of separation from others or the world, involving suffering and sometimes considered an inevitable aspect of human existence (Bolmsjö et al., 2018; Ettema et al., 2010; Yalom, 1980).

Maternal loneliness can be linked to dissatisfaction with life or partner relationships (Luoma et al., 2019). Partner relationship distress, role conflicts, identity stress, fatigue, and mood disorders can increase during this stage (Linville et al., 2017; Mihelic et al., 2018; Salo et al., 2021; Zaides et al., 2021). Even with professional support, new mothers may feel lonely, abandoned, or burdensome (Thorstensson et al., 2015). First-time mothers may face unexpected role difficulties, fewer social interactions, or vulnerable relationships, all increasing loneliness (Lee et al., 2019). Lee et al. (2019) identified three central themes in first-time mothers’ experiences: unfavourable comparisons with idealised motherhood norms, reduced social interaction, and lack of empathic relationships. Loneliness was described as internal and emotional rather than physical, evoking feelings of inadequacy and separation from one’s identity.

Despite growing interest in new mothers’ experiences, relatively few studies have examined loneliness during the postpartum period (Dyrdal & Lucas, 2013; Nowland et al., 2021). Although caring for an infant may provide emotional fulfilment, many new mothers report increased social isolation during this stage (Nowland et al., 2021). High-quality social relationships are a well-established foundation for mental health and overall well-being (World Health Organisation, 2021), yet new mothers often experience reduced social contact precisely when support is most needed (Sanders et al., 2021). Maternal loneliness is longitudinally associated with depressive symptoms and children’s adjustment problems (Luoma et al., 2019). For new mothers, loneliness is increasingly understood as a multidimensional experience encompassing emotional, social, and cultural dimensions (Onishi, 2024), and protective factors such as social support, resilience, and healthy sleep may buffer its negative effects (Onishi, 2024). Nevertheless, much remains unknown about how loneliness emerges among new mothers. Greater understanding is needed to support them in creating safe, emotionally warm, and encouraging environments for their children’s social, emotional, and cognitive development (cf. Junttila et al., 2013).

Studies highlight that loneliness among new mothers frequently stems from identity transitions, altered relationships, and insufficient support. Migrant and immigrant mothers may experience intensified loneliness due to loss of family, cultural roots, and social networks, sometimes creating new communities to cope (Delacroix & Hayoz, 2023; Jongenelis et al., 2022; Wilkins et al., 2022). Societal expectations and self-comparisons with ideal motherhood images further contribute to loneliness (Chung & Son, 2022; De Leersnyder et al., 2014; Lee et al., 2019; Lévesque et al., 2020; Sanders et al., 2021; Stavrova & Fetchenhauer, 2014). Conversely, fathers appear less affected by these pressures (Lee et al., 2019).

Certain groups are particularly vulnerable, including older first-time mothers, those with few peers, negative self-thoughts, or limited social support, as well as mothers of extremely premature babies (Aasheim et al., 2014; Baraldi et al., 2020; Nowland et al., 2021). Overall, challenges and loneliness among new mothers remain under-researched (Dyrdal & Lucas, 2013; Nowland et al., 2021), underscoring the importance of further exploration.

Aim of the study

The aim of this study was to explore new mothers’ experiences of loneliness and associated challenges.

Theoretical framework

The theoretical framework is based on the view of loneliness seen in the theory of caritative caring (Eriksson, 2018; Lindström et al., 2018). In caritative caring, loneliness is linked to longing, dignity, and suffering, with suffering considered inherent to human life (Eriksson, 2015). While loneliness can become a suffering when human beings become too lonely in their loneliness, not all loneliness entails suffering (Eriksson, 2015). Some human beings can be surrounded by others yet feel alone or forsaken, while others can live in solitude and yet not feel lonely or abandoned (Eriksson, 2015). For some, suffering can be linked to not being able to be an individual in their own right or to be alone. Unbearable loneliness is described as loneliness that human beings experience when they are deprived of something they would like to have or have had (Eriksson, 2015).

One of the essential steps for caring communication is the ability to express one’s lament and find a language for one’s suffering (Eriksson, 2015). Many today find it difficult to describe their suffering, partly due to the lack of a language to express their innermost feelings and suffering (Eriksson, 2015). Instead, suffering is frequently expressed through physical pain and distress or the language of illness (Eriksson, 2015). That many lack an opponent in their suffering is emphasised alongside the role that fellow human beings play in encounters with suffering (Eriksson, 2015). Affirming the other’s suffering conveys that the other is seen, which can bring comfort for the suffering human being. Not acknowledging or disregarding the other’s suffering can often cause further suffering. The acknowledgement of suffering entails not abandoning the other but instead indicating that one is nearby and giving the other time and space (Eriksson, 2015). The role of suffering in health is also emphasised (Eriksson, 1997). Suffering can moreover give meaning to health if the human being becomes aware of the contrasts that exist in life, and it can provide the human being with different opportunities regarding their own inner resources. Through suffering, human beings can assign a meaning to their suffering that they perceive to be meaningful for themselves and their lives (Eriksson, 2015).

Materials and methods

The aim of this study was to explore new mothers’ experiences of loneliness and associated challenges. This qualitative study used an inductive approach and was based on interview texts from new mothers.

Setting, participants, and data collection

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with ten participants: first-, second- or third-time mothers living in Finland with at least one child aged 0-3 years (for an overview of the participants, see Table I).

Table I.

Overview of the participants.

Participant number	Age	Gender	Marital status	Number of children	First-time mother (FTM)/Second-time mother (STM)/Third-time mother (TTM)	Age of the youngest child
P1	30	Female	Cohabitant	1	FTM 1	1 year
P2	31	Female	Married	2	STM2	youngest child 7 months
P3	29	Female	Married	1	FTM1	9 months
P4	32	Female	Married	1	FTM1	2, 8 years
P5	33	Female	Married	3	TTM3	youngest child 10 months
P6	35	Female	Married	1	FTM1	9 months
P7	29	Female	Married	1	FTM1	1 year
P8	30	Female	Married	1	FTM1	1 year
P9	29	Female	Married	1	FTM1	1 year
P10	30	Female	Married	1	FTM1	2 years

The focus of the interviews was on new mothers’ experiences of loneliness. Examples of interview questions were: “Tell us about your experience of this new phase in your life as a new mother?”, “Do you have your parents or your partner's parents present to provide you support in your daily life?”, “Have you participated in any parenting activities where you met other parents in the same situation?”, “Have you felt that you have received support from someone?”, “As a new mother, can you talk openly with friends or family about all the feelings (both positive and negative) that the new stage of life entails?”, “Has this new life stage of becoming a mother affected your relationship in any way?”, “Have you felt support from your partner?”, “What kind of support would you have wished for, and from whom?”. “Have you experienced loneliness during this new life phase as a new mother, and if so, what kind of experiences of loneliness can you describe?”, “If you have experienced loneliness, can you describe what kind of situations triggered the feelings of loneliness in this new life stage as a new mother?”, “What kind of emotions have you experienced in connection with loneliness during motherhood and what do you usually think about during those moments?”, and “Can you describe how you tend to feel if you experience loneliness nowadays, describe for example a specific situation?” The inclusion criteria were: mothers (single or partnered) of children up to 3 years of age. All participants were women aged 29–35 years, Finnish nationals, with Swedish as their mother tongue (Finland has two official languages, Finnish and Swedish), with the same socio-economic middle class background. The number of first-time parents was eight (80%), the number of second-time parents was one (10%) and the number of third-time parents was one (10%). The average age of the children was about 1 year (13.9 months) and the median age was 12 months (1 year old).

A total of 11 individuals initially expressed interest in the study. Of these, 10 participated while one individual who had contacted us via social media later withdrew for personal reasons. Participants were recruited through two main channels: four via social media (Facebook and various Facebook groups for mothers of young children) and six via family agencies/services and groups for new mothers. Recruitment occurred through self-selection, i.e., those who wished to participate in the study were asked to contact the researchers. The interviews were conducted by a researcher in health sciences, who also had a background as a public health nurse with extensive clinical experience in interviewing and discussing matters with new mothers. The majority of the interviews (six) were conducted via videoconference (Zoom), while four took place in person. The choice of format was influenced by the participants’ circumstances as mothers of young children, which made videoconferencing more convenient, e.g., when a child was napping. The interviewer also observed that participants often felt more comfortable discussing sensitive topics during videoconferences than in person. All in-person interviews were conducted in the participants’ homes. The semi-structured interviews lasted between 55 and 90 minutes (conducted during November–December 2022), with videoconference interviews on average being slightly longer than the in-person ones. A Dictaphone was used to record the audio during all interviews. For the video interviews, only audio was recorded using a digital audio recorder. The interview guide and questions were identical across both formats, and transcription and coding were carried out consistently. The transcribed material comprised 102 A4 pages.

Data analysis

In accordance with Graneheim and Lundman (2004), we used qualitative content analysis with an inductive approach to analyse the data as participants’ experiences formed the basis for analysis. To ensure study validity, the first and third researchers conducted the data analysis. These two researchers first conducted individual analyses followed by a joint discussion, after which the final analysis was generated. During analysis meaning units were derived from the data, condensed, coded, and sorted into categories and subcategories. Main categories and subcategories were thereafter formed to describe the meaning of the collected data. The first and third researchers approached, read, and analysed the data with openness. To enable an understanding of the substance in the data material, during interpretation the researchers performed a constant balancing act, juggling and maintaining subjectivity in relation to objectivity. Data saturation was achieved after interviewing ten new mothers, as the same kind of data results started to emerge in the last three interviews as in the previous ones. No data were excluded. Data manipulation was conducted by coding and categorising the qualitative data as described in the data analysis section. No software programme (e.g., NVivo or similar) was used. The researchers’ preunderstanding was that new mothers may experience loneliness and multiple challenges during the transition to motherhood. In accordance with Gadamer’s (2004) philosophical hermeneutics, the researchers’ preunderstanding was continuously put into play, challenged, and engaged in dialogue with the text throughout the interpretative process. To achieve a deeper and more nuanced understanding, the researchers engaged in a hermeneutic movement between the parts and the whole, remaining open to being addressed by the phenomenon and allowing their pre-understandings to be challenged in a process of horizon fusion. The researchers’ pre-understanding—each having experience as a mother of several children—was that new mothers may experience loneliness, particularly social and emotional loneliness, during the transition to motherhood. This pre-understanding was continuously put into play throughout the analysis and was challenged by repeatedly articulating and reflecting on it in dialogue with the interview texts. Through this hermeneutic process, the horizon of understanding was broadened to include an existential dimension of loneliness among new mothers, as well as a deeper understanding of the situations in which the different dimensions of loneliness occur and the challenges associated with them. For an example of the analysis, see Table II.

Table II.

An example of the analysis.

Meaning unit	Condensed meaning unit	Code	Category	Main category
Because we probably have an extremely small [support network], even though we are close with our families. Then we still do not have that tangible help in daily life. It is immediately seen as that feeling of loneliness.	Close with families but still no tangible help in daily life and seen as a feeling of loneliness.	Tangible help in daily life	Social loneliness
That maybe more that private, social life to get together with friends like. So, it has been a, a process to understand that now many already have children. Now everyone’s social life has changed, it is not anymore like that you meet and have a drink like, instead you meet and have a baby with [you]. You have a play date… it is not me and [the baby] like, instead it is us. It is so automatic that the child comes along…	Private social life changes. Everyone’s social life changes. You meet and have the baby with [you], it is not me and [the baby], instead it is we.	Changes in one’s social life	Social challenges	Social dimensions of loneliness

The first and third researchers approached, read, and analysed the data with openness. To enable an understanding of the substance in the data material, during interpretation the researchers performed a constant balancing act, juggling and maintaining subjectivity in relation to objectivity. Data saturation was achieved after interviewing ten new mothers, as the same kind of data results started to emerge in the last three interviews as in the previous ones. No data were excluded. Data manipulation was conducted by coding and categorising the qualitative data as described in the data analysis section. No software programme (e.g., NVivo or similar) was used. The researchers’ preunderstanding was that new mothers may encounter multiple challenges and experience loneliness during the transition to motherhood. In accordance with Gadamer’s (2004) philosophical hermeneutics, the researchers’ preunderstanding was continuously put into play, challenged, and engaged in dialogue with the text throughout the interpretative process. To achieve a deeper and more nuanced understanding, the researchers engaged in a hermeneutic movement between the parts and the whole, remaining open to being addressed by the phenomenon and allowing their pre-understandings to be challenged in a process of horizon fusion.

Ethical considerations

The guidelines of the Finnish National Advisory Board on Research Ethics TENK (Finnish National Advisory Board on Research Ethics TENK, 2023) have been followed throughout all stages of the research. Ethical approval was applied for and granted by the Research Ethics Committee at Åbo Akademi University on 27 October 2022. Written and oral informed consent for participation was obtained from all participants.

Results

We sought to explore new mothers’ experiences of loneliness and their associations with other challenges. Previous research has conceptualised loneliness as a multidimensional phenomenon comprising social, emotional, and existential dimensions (Hemberg et al., 2022). Social loneliness refers to a lack of social networks or sense of belonging, emotional loneliness involves the absence of close, meaningful emotional connections, and existential loneliness reflects a deeper sense of alienation or lack of meaning in life. Similarly, our findings indicate that new mothers’ experiences of loneliness can be understood across these dimensions, and the analysis generated three main categories: 1) Social dimensions of loneliness, 2) Emotional dimensions of loneliness, 3) Existential dimensions of loneliness (see Table III).

Table III.

Overview of the results.

Social dimensions of loneliness	Emotional dimensions of loneliness	Existential dimensions of loneliness
-Social loneliness causing a sense of “missing out”. -Social loneliness experienced due to outsidership and/or exclusion. -Social challenges due to change in one’s social group. -Social challenges due to change in one’s encounters with others.	-Emotional loneliness experienced due to being in an unfamiliar or unexpected situation. -Emotional loneliness experienced due to bearing responsibility for the newborn. -Emotional loneliness experienced in specific situations (soothing the newborn, alone at home). -Emotional loneliness experienced when breastfeeding. -Emotional loneliness experienced due to lack of tangible help. -Emotional challenges due to feeling scared. -Emotional challenges due to feeling insecure. -Feeling uncertain. -Feeling stressed. -Feeling fatigued.	-Existential loneliness because of a feeling of needing to perform. -Existential loneliness due to a sense that one is forgotten. -Existential loneliness due to social interaction emanating from the child’s needs. -Existential loneliness due to a sense that one is a single (parent-child) entity. -Existential loneliness due to a feeling of loneliness being taboo. -Existential challenges due to questioning of the self.

Social loneliness emerged from changes in social networks, feelings of exclusion, and reduced freedom to engage in social interactions, emphasising the importance of support networks. Emotional loneliness was linked to the demands of caring for a newborn, including breastfeeding, fatigue, and the need for emotional support within the partner relationship, often creating a sense of being alone even when others were present. Finally, existential loneliness reflected a deeper sense of being overlooked or bound by the new role, a questioning of self-identity, and the perception that loneliness as a new mother is socially taboo, leading to isolation that goes beyond social or emotional aspects.

Experiences of loneliness during new motherhood appear to be complex, subjective, and often intertwined with other challenges. Some participants described situational or transient loneliness, while others experienced a more constant, underlying sense of loneliness. Coping strategies varied: some sought support through groups or counselling, while others reported that their sense of loneliness diminished as they gradually adjusted to motherhood.

Social dimensions of loneliness

Participants in this study described various challenges that we interpreted as being linked to social dimensions of loneliness. For example, one participant explained how she experienced a sense of outsidership and exclusion linked to parental groups.

Well, maybe it was mostly the kind of isolation where you felt in some way left out. That… you have… a group of people like you had in school. You have a group of friends. In the same way there are parenting gangs, which you somehow are not part of because you do not go to all the activities. One of these feelings of outsidership (P6).

Participants’ sense of outsidership or exclusion could arise from, e.g., missing social events and/or happenings, changes to one’s social group or framework, a lack of social interaction, or a sense of not being free to do as one pleases. I feel like an outsider, I feel like I am missing out on some things… (P10). They strongly emphasised the importance of having a good foundation and support network (family ties, friendships, etc.) when becoming a new mother. One participant posited that a lack of social interaction could have influenced her sense of social loneliness as a new mother. We did not have such [social] interaction so I probably felt lonely. Just those first few months, then you had time to think about it, then you would probably just occasionally feel lonely (P2). Still another described a lack of social interaction and the sense that outside interaction and/or stimuli were needed. I became a little half-crazy when I could not talk with any other adult than my [partner]... and I was like… now it would probably be time to have some other topics of conversation than baby diapers and bottles and so on... (P6). Participants even described experiencing various changes to their social framework.

The loneliness felt like, how long is this going to take? Will this pass? But I would probably say that it was mainly one of those strong ‘fear of missing out’ feelings. It was summer, and during the summer you [‘should’] do a lot. And I could not do so much because I had a wound [from a caesarean section]. This sense of loneliness brought up [this fear]—that I could not do anything (P2).

For many participants, becoming a new mother even entailed changes to one’s social group or framework, e.g., encounters with others. One participant noted that With the first child you basically had to build up a whole new circle of friends with a lot of other parents, or mothers (P1). The participants also perceived that their relationships with friends could change.

With old friends, I was probably expecting it, but still I was a little surprised that certain friends, we are of course still friends, but you do not have the same contact in the same way anymore after you [have] had children. It is a shame, I do not know how it happened, but some ‘misconnection’, that [what you have in common] is missing, both are busy and you do not have so much time together (P2).

Participants even noted that becoming a new mother required a singular focus on their newborn’s needs, which could make, e.g., interaction with friends in a different life situation challenging. I experienced that when I was on parental leave and the only thing that one’s everyday life revolved around was the baby, that when you met friends it felt like you could not talk about anything else, because you did not have anything else to say (P4). They even experienced that their social interactions with friends who also had children could change, because generally children were present during interactions.

It has been a, a process to understand that now many already have children. Now everyone’s social life has changed, it is no longer that you meet and have a drink; instead you meet and have a baby with you. You have a play date. And it is not me and [the baby], but like, instead it is us. It is automatically so that the child comes along when you meet friends who have children. (P6)

Participants also experienced that not having the freedom to do as they please could be a challenge. It is incredible to notice that you no longer have that, that you cannot just ‘drop’ everything and take three hours and just head off to [do something]... Goodbye! (P10). Particularly in-person “meet-ups” with friends were experienced as being a new and challenging situation when one needed to care for a newborn simultaneously.

There will be diaper changes and feeding and different routines during the meet-up when you see someone. If the babies do not sleep then you cannot concentrate... It is like you are always somewhere else even though you are with your friend. Even though you of course know, both know, that okay, I am not really present, and both understand that. But it is a really new [one], I experienced it, as a completely new situation actually. To notice, that, hey I am actually trying to be present. But someone is taking up my concentration (P10).

Having a good foundation and support network during this new life stage was furthermore strongly emphasised—a lack thereof could comprise a challenge and a sense of social loneliness. One participant related that she had reflected and understood how important it is to have such a foundation only when she had moved back to her hometown when she became a mother. That is of course what I thought when we moved here... I have [a] foundation here, but those who do not have it of course become completely isolated. Should someone move here who does not have what I have...Then you have nothing (P1). Another participant explained her lack of and need for a support network as the need for tangible help in everyday life. …one of the things that has come up during the baby year… that we do not have such a support network, someone really close here, someone that you can just ask ‘I have to walk the dog’, [can] you come and be with the baby in the meantime, for a little while (P2). One participant even experienced that the form that social support takes could differ between cultures.

[Grandparents] are just much more active [in southern Europe]. Already from the beginning… you go home and eat with your parents all the time. … here perhaps you do not go home to your parents several times a week, the entire [extended] family and eat… even though you are close, so it is not the same thing. Family is strong there. There, the [grandparents] are more present, but I feel that I am very close to my parents and my partner’s [parents]. But it is just this cultural difference. (P5)

Emotional dimensions of loneliness

Nearly all the participants described experiencing what we interpret as emotional loneliness. This was associated with breastfeeding, a lack of tangible help, being in an unfamiliar or unexpected situation, specific situations (soothing the newborn, alone at home), or bearing responsibility for the newborn. Also the pair relationship or a lack of time to oneself could constitute emotional challenges. They moreover reported, e.g., a sense of fear, insecurity, uncertainty, or being stressed or fatigued relevant to their new role, which could lead to a sense of emotional loneliness.

Many participants experienced that breastfeeding could be isolating. I experienced loneliness, for example when I was breastfeeding. I was in principle solely responsible for the baby’s food. The way it turned out, I must take care of it, it cannot be separated from me (P6). Despite some having support networks and/or being close to others, many participants highlighted that a lack of tangible help in daily life could result in a sense of emotional loneliness.

Because we probably have an extremely small [support network], even though we are close with our families, we still do not have that tangible help in daily life, it is immediately experienced as a sense of loneliness… Everyone has their own lives and even though you ask for help, it does not always work (P10).

Some participants even experienced a sense of emotional loneliness linked to the new, unfamiliar situation of being a new mother. Loneliness probably comes from that you are extremely alone in a new situation (P5). One participant described how she had anticipated that being a new mother would be different and expressed a sense of disappointment and loneliness about the reality of the role. …it is unfair. Things were not as I had imagined. It did not turn out the way I had thought it would, I had not expected that you would be alone so much... in some way (P8).

Another participant conveyed how specific situations could lead to a sense of emotional loneliness. Still others had a sense that they alone carried all responsibility for comforting the child. In a way I felt so alone because you have this situation that you have a child who is crying and you cannot do anything about it... and that tiredness, which starts to feel quite heavy after a few months... (P5). One participant experienced emotional loneliness linked to not having anyone physically at home with her. It is difficult to explain how you feel when you feel alone, that you would want to have someone next to you. …just that he or she would just listen and maybe give you a hug, or just say that hey yep we are thinking together, or hey we can do this (P3).

One participant described the emotional loneliness she felt upon realising that she was now completely responsible for her baby.

You can feel so alone... Alone in that you try to breastfeed, you try to make [the baby] feel well, and you try, and... Even in that moment you can feel loneliness. It can feel like is there no one else who does this? Is there no one else who can take over? …The responsibility for the baby was actually quite transformative. ... wow... Am I the one who will try to keep this baby alive now? (P10).

Another highlighted that bearing responsibility for all things related to childcare elicited a sense of emotional loneliness. I think about everything. …what time we should get up so that we have the time to [do things], what she should eat... and such things... So in this way I have felt extremely, extremely alone. Because I have taken care of everything, all the time (P3).

Many participants also reported a sense of emotional loneliness in their pair relationship. This was often linked to a lack of balance, e.g., that time together with their partner or understanding of the other’s situation was lacking. I certainly think about loneliness... I feel that we have not had time during all this time, the transition to become a parent, with the balance in the pair relationship… Loneliness is that you do not have time for each other (P5). Another participant described how in order to prevent emotional loneliness as a new mother the pair relationship could need more work, e.g., one might need to focus on spending time together. …you need to [make time for the pair relationship] in a different way than before you had children (P10).

Participants even highlighted that being a new mother could lead to changes within the partner relationship and thereby loneliness. …my brain became so filled with daily baby life, from morning to evening—when should the baby eat, when sleep, when should the baby this and that. So for me that partner relationship disappeared for a while. It was one hundred percent focus on the baby (P6). Some even experienced a lack of mental support from their partner, which could constitute a challenge for the partner relationship. We were probably not a team previously [when the baby was small]... Just that you do not get away and that you do not have that type of ‘emotional support’... It challenges a partner relationship so much, to become a parent (P5).

Moreover, some participants related how the absence of their partner, for various reasons, could awaken a sense that they were solely responsible for childcare, which in turn could lead to loneliness. One participant described the emotional loneliness she felt when her partner was busy first with work and then with other activities. He went to work early, then he exercised. So he was not at home so much. That is probably what made me feel so alone (P8). Another described emotional loneliness as not understanding the other’s experience. You do not have any understanding of the other at the time, I did not even have time to think about something like that, because my whole concentration was just on surviving, or taking care of someone. So I did not think so much… (P5).

Still other participants explained how a lack of time for oneself, separate from the caregiver role, could lead to the sense that one needed time alone to recharge, even in the partner relationship.

I have not wanted to cuddle with [my partner]… when I finally have gotten the baby [to sleep]. Then that is not the first thing I want, like crawl under the covers and hug. Instead it is more like ahhh, finally I get to be a little… time on my own… for a little while until [the baby] wakes up again (P6).

Participants perceived that their newborn’s well-being was the primary priority while their well-being was secondary. I was so scared and insecure, I thought that now the baby will die if [my partner] is gone (P1). Some participants described the uncertainty they experienced as new mothers. One participant’s uncertainty was linked to feeling stress and making mistakes when stressed. I probably thought that I did something wrong and that I do [things] wrong when I stress. I am such a person that I do not want to disturb others and I get way [too lost in my own thoughts] (P3). Another participant described how her uncertainty as a new mother resulted in her not being truthful if someone asked how she was doing.

I felt so uncertain and this uncertainty of course does not help if there is someone who asks: How are you? Then you can just swallow and answer that it is going [really] well. Or [you] then just… Open up… Pull back your curtain and just say that Hey you know, this feels really difficult. How does everyone [make this work]? (P10).

Many participants related experiencing fatigue as a new mother, finding new motherhood to be a frequent challenge. Many perceived that there was a direct link between fatigue and perceived loneliness. Sometimes you are just so tired that you feel really alone (P3). Some experienced that fatigue could cause their sense of perceived loneliness to increase, which could then make it difficult for them to leave the house and/or engage in social activities.

Immediately if I am really tired, or perhaps have not managed to [exercise] or something, I feel energetic and strong [from exercise], then the loneliness grows in my head and it feels like hey this… will be nothing... Where is everyone else? But you do not have the energy to go out, naturally you often have some [thing] you could go to, but then you do not always go (P10).

Participants even experienced that caring for a newborn often entailed resting while the baby slept; they had neither the energy nor the opportunity to do much else.

Now that you think about it we probably could have [done things], but you do not think about that the days were spent on being tired, and then during the day while the baby slept, you too rested. Then you were again in [that space] with breastfeeding and changing diapers. Then there was no room to have the energy to do much else (P2).

Existential dimensions of loneliness

Participants also expressed what we interpret as existential loneliness: the need to perform, the sense that one is forgotten, social interaction emanating from the child’s (not mother’s) needs, the sense that one is a single (mother-child) entity, or that the feeling of loneliness is taboo. Existential loneliness could also include a questioning or loss of the self.

Many articulated a sense of being “bound” by breastfeeding, which could be experienced as a longing for the self. [The baby] did not take the bottle, at all. So this made me totally bound with the baby. I could not... Yeah—I was not me. I was me, plus my child if we were going to do something (P4). Some participants also noted that becoming a new mother could awaken a sense of loss if one’s parents were not present. No one can replace your own mother. That is just the way it is. And perhaps that feeling has been stronger than ever. And that feeling was so tangible in the daily baby life in the beginning. How I experienced it (P10).

One participant described the pressure to “perform” in daily life; the sense that one should be more machine than human being. Yes, the entire daily life has just been one of these ‘that you must perform.’ That you are just a machine that should work, but still you cannot do it, or cannot manage those tasks (P5). Another related how the routine of daily life could cause her to be “forgotten” as a person in the parental role. You are forgotten as a parent, because you are so busy all the time, then maybe others do not think that there can be a loneliness in that because daily life is never ending, …, there is thing after thing that must be taken care of (P6). Still another explained that she experienced a sense of being “set aside” during a child antenatal check-up, describing how immediately after birth focus switches from the mother to the child and that during such activities one is overlooked as a person, which gave rise to a sense of existential loneliness.

It was so clear, especially with the first child, how the focus swings from [being about one’s] self to the child when the child is born. Then you become one hundred percent [focused on] the child and the mother becomes a little on the side, it was certainly interesting. It was probably something I thought a lot about at the time. Then you went to some pointless [child antenatal] check-up... and the first time I thought that… you felt like being pretty much ‘on your own’ (P4).

One participant explained how attending organised mother-baby groups, offered as part of locally organised antenatal care and where the only common denominator is that one is a new mother, could result in a sense of existential loneliness.

In these mommy groups, and with other mothers... And in such situations. Where I may have felt alone as this [is] the only thing you have in common, really, at least in the beginning...... sometimes I have thought about that… It is not superficial... but still... Everyone really just seeks such meet-ups so you should not sit alone all day with your babies, and go alone for walks and such... (P2).

Another participant noted a sense of anxiety associated with not being able to decide over one’s own time as a new mother, that the newborn’s needs took priority and determined one’s actions.

There is an anxiety, or unfamiliarity... that you cannot do what you want to. Someone else controls how, where, and when you should do things. That has been the most difficult. Not the baby itself... Just this being so bound. And I have also been bound when my partner has been away so much (P8).

Some participants even described how their sense of self changed when they became a mother, that boundaries were blurred and they experienced that they became a single mother-baby entity.

We were a package, me and the baby. There was no separate. There were only we from the beginning. Perhaps I felt more alone in the sense of do I exist in it all? You must change into a new person. There was no me, there is only me and the baby. That change was extremely hard for me in any case. [Like] you understand that you will never again be alone, and have your own time. Not for many years in any case (P6).

One participant stated that she perceived experiencing loneliness as a new mother to be a somewhat “taboo” topic in modern society, noting that she questioned whether she was alone in having such a feeling of existential loneliness …loneliness is a little taboo in today’s world. But then again you must of course remember that some do not experience that feeling. But I would say that... I certainly felt pretty lonely in that loneliness—Does no-one else think like this? (P10).

Many also experienced that becoming a new mother entailed a “questioning” of the self, i.e., questioning who one is as a person. Such self-examination (introspection) often came vis-à-vis the new mother role and the need to adjust one’s own needs to the needs of one’s newborn.

It is a big change to go from knowing exactly what you are doing, how your body works, what you like to eat, how you like to eat, how you like to sleep.... then you must adjust your whole being to following the baby’s needs, everything came at the same time. How you breastfeed, how you change diapers, how you sleep in stages instead of sleeping a whole night. That probably influenced how I am as a person, what I like to do. For a long time you could not do anything just for yourself, just for your own sake, everything was just for the baby’s sake. You always come last (P6).

Discussion

We explored new mothers’ experiences of loneliness and associated challenges. As seen in the results, there are social, emotional, and existential dimensions to the experience of loneliness as a new mother. We found that social loneliness was associated with a sense of missing out and feelings of social outsidership and/or exclusion. Social loneliness refers to the subjective and psychological distress arising from the absence or inadequacy of adequate social networks and community engagement (Perlman & Peplau, 1998). Mansfield et al. (2021) highlighted that a perceived lack or inadequacy of meaningful social connections can vary in intensity and may occur even in the presence of others. Loneliness can even be considered a form of suffering according to caritative caring theory, which was the theoretical framework in this study (Eriksson, 2018). Social support is a determining factor in whether new parents flourish (Hughes et al., 2020), because fewer social interactions can lead to experiences of loneliness or greater dissatisfaction with social interactions (Lee et al., 2019). Support from family members and friends may play a central role in preventive work against loneliness among new parents (Abdollahi et al., 2016; Chavis, 2016; Eskandari et al., 2016; Hughes et al., 2020; Rayburn et al., 2021; Sanders et al., 2021; Song et al., 2021). We found that being a new mother also could be associated with other challenges that could result in social loneliness, e.g., a change in one’s social group or encounters with others. Transient life phases, during which change affects social connections, are associated with increased loneliness (Nowland et al., 2021). We also saw that having a foundation and support network can support new mothers and thereby protect against loneliness. Regardless of life stage, social connection has a positive influence on physical and mental health and, as such, is important for well-being (Seppälä, 2014).

We saw that the transition to motherhood is a vulnerable life stage and can entail fewer social interactions, dissatisfaction with social interactions, and engagement in non-fulfilling social contexts or not meeting social norms. Such factors can contribute to the experience of loneliness among new mothers (Abdollahi et al., 2016; Howarth & Swain, 2020; Lee et al., 2019; Widarsson et al., 2017). The transition to motherhood is a major life event during which significant physiological, psychological, and social adaptations occur (Lee et al., 2019; Nijssens et al., 2018), and individuals are extra vulnerable (Thorstensson et al., 2015). In accordance with caritative caring theory, loneliness is both a form of suffering and a natural part of life (Eriksson, 2015). Previous research has revealed loneliness among younger mothers, with 43% feeling often or always lonely and 82% feeling lonely at least some of the time (Co-op, 2018), while others have shown that new mothers aged 16 to 24 most frequently report loneliness (Pyle & Evans, 2018). First-time mothers can value peer support greatly (Prince et al., 2017), while second- and third-time mothers appear to have more established social networks and more confidence in their parenthood as well as better support systems for reducing feelings of loneliness (Hsieh, 2015). For example, community-based programmes, peer support groups, and accessible parenting resources can play a crucial role in supporting new mothers.

The experiences of emotional loneliness that the participants in this study described were associated with breastfeeding, a lack of tangible help, being in an unfamiliar or unexpected situation, specific situations (soothing the newborn, alone at home), and bearing responsibility for the newborn. Many of the participants additionally often related a sense of loneliness linked to the partner relationship. In this study we found that emotional loneliness or feeling emotionally disconnected from others may also occur when living with a partner. Loneliness can arise from dissatisfaction with the quality of an existing relationship (Perlman & Peplau, 1998). As seen in the theory of caritative caring, many individuals lack another human being in their suffering, and it is through affirmation of the other’s suffering that comfort for the suffering person can be given (Eriksson, 2015). This entails recognising the other’s suffering, giving time and space yet not abandoning, conveying that the other is seen, and showing that one is close at hand (Eriksson, 2015). Our study also reveals that there were emotional challenges associated with being a new mother, e.g., feeling scared, insecure, uncertain, stressed, or fatigued. Previous research indicates that new mothers can experience various challenges, such as difficulties with emotional adjustment (Don et al., 2022; Mihelic et al., 2018). The changes experienced during, e.g., early motherhood, can influence self-esteem (McDonald et al., 2017) and thereby the mothers’ own perceptions of competence and perceived stress (Ngai & Chan, 2011). Additionally, we found that being a new mother could be associated with changes within the partner relationship. Many of the participants in this study described a lack of emotional support from their partner as being a challenge. Parents’ relationship satisfaction and reflective ways of functioning as a couple can influence infants’ socioemotional development (Salo et al., 2021). Decreased relationship and sexual satisfaction can be associated with the unequal distribution of housework, breastfeeding, and less time together with one’s partner (Rosen et al., 2020). New parents whose partners are more involved in childcare adapt better to the new parenting role and view the postnatal time more positively (Powell & Karraker, 2019). Parental-couple separation during the transition to parenthood can be associated with lower perceived relationship quality, weaker sense of coherence, and limited social support, indicating that diminished individual and relational resources increase vulnerability within the partnership (Gamgam Leanderz et al., 2021). Participation in preparatory parental support may function as a protective factor (Gamgam Leanderz et al., 2021), which underscores the importance of relational and psychosocial support during early parenthood in welfare-oriented contexts.

We discerned in this study that existential loneliness was associated with a perceived obligation to perform, a pervasive sense of being overlooked, social interaction primarily shaped by the child’s (rather than the mother’s) needs, the experience of existing as a single mother–child entity, and the perception that expressions of loneliness are socially taboo. The participants described how their sense of self changed when they became mothers and how they could feel overlooked in favour of their newborns. In earlier research existential loneliness has been characterised as a profound, negative emotional state linked to periods of personal growth and transformation, particularly during life transitions when individuals reflect on the meaning and meaninglessness of existence (Ettema et al., 2010). Such loneliness has also been described as an inherent or inevitable aspect of human existence, reflecting a deep sense of separateness that can persist even in the presence of others (Yalom, 1980). From the perspective of caritative caring theory, loneliness can become a form of existential suffering that affects the human being at a fundamental level (Eriksson, 2015). Still, suffering may also contribute to perceived health and meaning when individuals become aware of life’s contrasts and mobilise their inner resources (Eriksson, 1997).

We also found that existential challenges were associated with being a new mother, seen as a questioning of the self. Becoming a mother is a fundamental life-changing event (Thorstensson et al., 2015) during which profound lifestyle changes take place (Ngai & Chan, 2011). Despite prenatal preparation, many may be unprepared for the realities of early parenthood (Benzies et al., 2020; Pålsson et al., 2018). The participants in this study noted that the transition to motherhood entailed the adjustment of their needs to the needs of their newborns. Life was no longer solely about them as individuals; instead the child’s needs came first. The participants described feeling “bound” by breastfeeding, seen as a longing for the self. Previous research has also found a connection between loneliness and breastfeeding (Lee et al., 2019; Pålsson et al., 2018; Sanders et al., 2021), with new mothers feeling they are physically limited (Lee et al., 2019). The energy and time required for breastfeeding can lead to feelings of loneliness or the need for more emotional and practical support from one’s partner (Pålsson et al., 2018). Breastfeeding can even be linked to anxiety or other issues, e.g., insufficient nutrition, staying up alone at night, or having to isolate from others to breastfeed (Lee et al., 2019).

The participants in this study additionally revealed that the absence of their own mothers could awaken a sense of loss. Given the recommendations from agencies such as the World Health Organisation (World Health Organisation, n.d.) to exclusively breastfeed infants under 6 months and continue up to two years of age or beyond, public health nurses should bring up this issue with mothers and strive to provide support that can alleviate such feelings. If mothers experience suffering such as loneliness during breastfeeding, they might be likely to stop unnecessarily early and consequently not meet recommendations. In fact, despite WHO recommendations that breast milk is the ideal food for infants, less than 50% of all children in the world under 6 months old are exclusively breastfed.

We believe that one novel contribution of this study is the finding that mothers felt forgotten as human beings and reduced to “machines” during the postpartum period. This resonates with clinical observations of depersonalisation and identity disruption in the early postnatal phase (Dekel et al., 2017). According to Eriksson (2018), losing one’s sense of self can be experienced as existential suffering or being “homeless in life”—a phenomenon described in the context of existential suffering and loss of coherence (Hilli and Eriksson, 2019). It is important for mental health practitioners and other healthcare professionals to recognise this form of existential loneliness among new mothers and to differentiate it from, e.g., depressive anhedonia, which is characterised by a diminished ability to experience pleasure and interest in activities and is a core symptom of depressive disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2013, p. 160). This distinction is critical because existential loneliness reflects an altered sense of self and relational meaning, whereas anhedonia is primarily a mood-related symptom with different clinical implications (Treadway & Zald, 2011).

Literature on matrescence—the identity transition associated with becoming a mother—may provide a useful conceptual framework for understanding the identity disruptions and existential challenges reported by the participants in this study (e.g., Mercer, 2004). Matrescence emphasises the ongoing evolution of maternal identity, integrating biological, psychological, and sociocultural dimensions. This aligns with our findings that the transition to motherhood involves profound shifts in self-perception and relational meaning.

Given that the participants in this study highlighted the taboo nature of loneliness, professionals working with new mothers should not rely solely on standard screening tools for depression, which do not explicitly assess existential loneliness. We suggest instead that professionals should consider asking new mothers questions such as: “Do you feel you have lost yourself or are disconnected from whom you used to be?”, “Do you sometimes question your purpose or the meaning of your day-to-day life as a mother?”, “Do you ever feel invisible or forgotten as a person, not just as a mother?”, or “Do you feel lonely even when you are with other people?”

Lastly, we acknowledge that it is important to consider how broader sociocultural factors may have shaped the participants’ experiences. The participants all belonged to Finland’s Swedish-speaking population, a linguistic minority group. It is plausible that the participants’ perceived challenges and experiences of loneliness were intensified by minority-related stress processes, whereby being part of a socially nondominant group increases exposure to stressors, e.g., marginalisation and identity-related strain (Meyer, 2003). Research also suggests that, compared to Finnish-speaking Finns, Swedish-speaking Finns possess distinct patterns of structural and cognitive social capital, which are linked to health and psychological well-being (Nyqvist et al., 2008). Yet it is also understood that, among those in a linguistic minority group, psychosocial outcomes can be influenced by variations in social capital. Thus linguistic minority status can be associated with both unique social resources and stress experiences, which in turn may influence how loneliness and other psychological phenomena are experienced.

Strengths and limitations

A limitation of this study is that only female participants were included. Including fathers or partners could have broadened the understanding of how new parents experience loneliness. Furthermore, all participants belonged to a minority group (Swedish-speaking Finns), which may limit the transferability of the findings to more heterogeneous populations. Additionally, some participants reflected on experiences that had occurred more than three years earlier, which may have introduced recall bias and influenced how loneliness was described. The relative homogeneity of the study participants may have influenced the transferability of the findings. While a fairly homogeneous sample can strengthen the depth of understanding within a specific context, it may also limit variation in experiences and thereby restrict the breadth of perspectives captured. Most participants had similar numbers of children and socioeconomic background and shared comparable marital status, which may have further limited the diversity of perspectives and, consequently, the transferability of the findings. The richness of the data, however, as demonstrated by the inclusion of illustrative quotations, enhanced the study’s credibility. Trustworthiness was further strengthened through collaborative analysis with an experienced qualitative researcher and through ongoing discussions among all authors until agreement on the final themes was reached. The researchers’ clinical experience in interviewing parents within healthcare settings may also have facilitated depth and sensitivity during the interviews.

Conclusions

As seen in our findings, social, emotional, and existential loneliness can be associated with becoming a new mother. Social loneliness was linked to changes in one’s social framework, a sense of missing out, and experiences of outsidership and exclusion. Emotional loneliness was associated with fear, insecurity, uncertainty, stress, fatigue, breastfeeding, lack of tangible support, being in an unfamiliar or unexpected situation, specific situations (e.g., soothing the newborn or being alone at home), and bearing responsibility for the newborn. Existential loneliness was related to questioning the self, perceived pressure to perform, feeling forgotten, social interactions structured around the child’s needs, a sense of being a single entity, and the perception that loneliness is taboo.

We suggest that these findings contribute to a deeper understanding of perceived loneliness and may enable social welfare and healthcare professionals to better support new mothers. This could involve asking more direct questions about loneliness and in particular existential loneliness, which may be difficult to detect. To promote well-being during this transitional and vulnerable period, greater awareness of the vulnerability of new mothers is needed, alongside a responsive approach that incorporates social support networks. Preventive measures should also be considered, such as low-threshold counselling services for new mothers and partners, aimed at supporting the well-being of the entire family.

Future research could explore what types of interventions from social and healthcare professionals are most effective in alleviating experiences of loneliness among new mothers. Longitudinal studies following mothers’ experiences of loneliness over time would also provide valuable insights into how such experiences evolve throughout the transition to motherhood.

Biographies

Martina Meyer-Österlund, MSc, PHN, RN, Åbo Akademi University, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Department of Health Sciences, Vaasa, Finland. Research has focused on new mothers’ loneliness.

Pia Nyman-Kurkiala, PhD in Social Sciences, Docent in Sociology, Researcher in Youth Sciences, Faculty of Education and Welfare Studies, Åbo Akademi University, Vaasa, Finland. 2020-2024 one of the project leaders at the Centre of Expertise NUOSKA - Youth Work at Schools and Educational Institutions, managed by the Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture. Leaders of several research projects on, for example, the ethnic identity of minority young people, loneliness, and well-being among adolescents, and multiprofessional collaboration in a school context concerning health-promoting student care for children and youth.

Jessica Hemberg, PhD in Health Sciences, PHN, RN, Associate Professor, Senior Lecturer, Department of Health Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Vaasa, Finland. Subject leaders in pedagogical studies for teachers in Health Sciences Didactics. Among other projects, the leader of a research project on loneliness, suicidality, cyberbullying and well-being among adolescents and young adults and of a research project on multiprofessional collaboration in a school context concerning health-promoting student care for children and youth. Other areas of expertise include well-being, suffering, loneliness among older adults, ethical issues and compassion in caring, and ethical leadership.

Funding Statement

None.

Disclosure statement

The authors report there are no competing interests to declare.

Data availability statement

No data were shared owing to ethical issues and the protection of the individuals who participated in this study.

Prior dissemination of the ideas and data appearing in the manuscript

The preliminary findings of this study were presented at a national conference in Finland in 2023 at Nuorisotutkimuspäivät 2023 at the Finnish youth research society, Finnish youth research network.

Study preregistration

This study’s design was not preregistered.

Availability of the study material

The study materials are not available.