Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants in Dabat District, Ethiopia

Abstract

Background

Wild edible plants (WEPs) have long supported rural livelihoods in Ethiopia by contributing to food security, nutrition, and cultural identity. Despite their importance, many of these plants and the indigenous knowledge associated with them are increasingly overlooked due to environmental degradation, agricultural expansion, and socio-economic changes. This study aimed to document the diversity, indigenous knowledge, and cultural importance of WEPs in Dabat District, northwestern Ethiopia.

Methods

A total of 136 informants participated in the study, which was conducted from January to November 2025 in eight selected kebeles of Dabat District. Informants were selected using purposive sampling for key informants and simple random sampling for general informants to ensure inclusion of knowledgeable community members. Ethnobotanical data were collected through semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, guided field walks, and direct observations. Voucher specimens were collected and identified using standard botanical procedures and authenticated herbarium references. Quantitative ethnobotanical analyses, including relative frequency of citation, preference ranking, and direct matrix ranking, were used to evaluate the cultural importance and multipurpose value of species. Descriptive statistics and inferential analyses were performed using R software to assess patterns of knowledge distribution across socio-demographic groups.

Results

The study documented 52 wild edible plant species belonging to 41 genera and 27 botanical families. These species were mainly consumed as fruits, leafy vegetables, and tubers. Ximenia americana L. was identified as the most preferred species, followed by Syzygium guineense (Willd.) DC., Cordia africana Lam., Morus alba L., and Rosa abyssinica R.Br. ex Lindl., which were valued for their taste, accessibility, and frequent use. Direct matrix ranking indicated that Cordia africana Lam. had the highest multipurpose value due to its roles in food provision, fuelwood, construction materials, income generation, and farm tool production. Species such as Vachellia seyal (Delile) P.J.H.Hurter and Vachellia abyssinica (Hochst. ex Benth.) Kyal. & Boatwr. were also highly valued for energy supply, fencing, and marketable products. WEPs played an important role in supplementing household diets, particularly during seasonal food shortages. Traditional knowledge of WEPs varied significantly (P < 0.005) among informants, with older individuals, men, and respondents with lower levels of formal education demonstrating greater familiarity with these resources. Major threats identified included agricultural expansion, habitat degradation, overgrazing, and declining intergenerational transmission of ethnobotanical knowledge.

Conclusions

WEPs remain an important component of local food systems and cultural traditions in Dabat District. Their continued use contributes to dietary diversity and provides a safety net during periods of food scarcity. Strengthening documentation, conservation, and sustainable management of WEPs, while promoting the transmission of indigenous knowledge, will enhance their role in supporting rural livelihoods and food security.

Background

Wild edible plants (WEPs) represent an indispensable component of rural livelihoods in Ethiopia, where they function not only as supplementary foods, but also as vital resources during periods of food scarcity [1, 2]. Beyond their nutritional contribution, these plants are deeply embedded in indigenous knowledge systems and serve as important cultural and nutraceutical resources. In many Ethiopian agroecological settings characterized by seasonal food shortages and limited market access, WEPs contribute significantly to dietary diversification, improved micronutrient intake, and enhanced household food security [3, 4]. These species are typically harvested from diverse landscapes, including forests, woodlands, farmlands, and riparian habitats, and their use is shaped by ecological conditions, cultural traditions, and socio-economic factors [2, 3].

Recent ethnobotanical studies conducted across Ethiopia have highlighted the considerable taxonomic diversity of WEPs and their multiple roles in local food systems [5–7]. For example, investigations in northwestern Ethiopia documented more than 50 species used for edible fruits, leaves, tubers, and other plant parts, while also identifying increasing anthropogenic pressures on important species such as Cordia africana Lam., Carissa spinarum L., and Ximenia americana L. due to agricultural expansion, overgrazing, and fuelwood extraction [3, 8, 9]. Similarly, research in the Benishangul-Gumuz region recorded 54 wild edible species belonging to 33 botanical families, many of which are consumed as complementary foods or during periods of food shortage, highlighting their role in bridging seasonal food gaps and supporting rural nutrition [3, 10]. Comparable findings have been reported from central and southwestern Ethiopia, where underutilized WEPs contribute not only to household diets but also to local markets, income generation, traditional medicine, and ecosystem services [4].

The knowledge and practices associated with WEPs are not uniform across communities but vary according to ethnolinguistic background, gender roles, age groups, and individual experience. These factors influence plant recognition, harvesting strategies, preparation techniques, and cultural preferences. Previous studies indicate that different ethnic groups may utilize distinct plant parts or incorporate specific species into unique culinary and cultural traditions, reflecting deeply rooted traditional ecological knowledge systems [11]. Such diversity demonstrates that WEPs contribute not only to nutritional well-being but also to cultural identity, social resilience, and the transmission of knowledge across generations.

Globally, WEPs are increasingly recognized as valuable components of sustainable food systems, particularly in rural communities where cultivated crops alone may not adequately meet nutritional needs. Many WEP species possess rich nutritional profiles, including vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, and dietary fiber, making them important in combating hunger and improving health outcomes [12–14]. Their wide ecological distribution across temperate and tropical ecosystems further highlights their potential as accessible food resources that require minimal agricultural inputs [15–19]. In many indigenous societies, WEPs also carry medicinal, cultural, and spiritual significance, reinforcing their multifunctional role in sustaining livelihoods and cultural traditions [20–25]. However, the expansion of monoculture-based agricultural systems has marginalized many of these species, contributing to declining dietary diversity and increasing dependence on a limited number of staple crops [26–29].

Despite their importance, WEPs in Ethiopia remain underutilized and are often perceived mainly as famine foods rather than integral components of everyday diets. Nevertheless, these plants provide essential nutrients, including proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals, particularly in dryland regions where conventional agriculture is constrained [22, 30]. Indigenous knowledge plays a crucial role in identifying, harvesting, and managing these resources sustainably, thereby supporting both food sovereignty and ecological balance [31–33]. However, modernization, changing livelihoods, and declining intergenerational knowledge transmission increasingly threaten the continuity of these traditional systems [34, 35].

In Ethiopia, agricultural policies have historically focused on the promotion of cash crops and improved crop varieties, resulting in limited policy attention to wild food resources despite their significant contribution to food security and climate resilience [5, 36]. Meanwhile, climate change, deforestation, soil erosion, and habitat degradation are accelerating the decline of WEP resources in many parts of the country [3, 8–10]. These challenges highlight the urgent need for systematic documentation and conservation of both WEP diversity and the indigenous knowledge associated with their use.

Against this backdrop, ethnobotanical research in relatively under-documented areas such as Dabat District is particularly important. The district’s diverse topography and ecological variability provide suitable habitats for numerous wild edible plant species. However, increasing human pressure and environmental changes are contributing to the decline of these resources. Therefore, systematic documentation of WEP diversity and traditional knowledge in this area is essential.

This study investigates the diversity and use of WEPs in Dabat District, northwestern Ethiopia. Specifically, it documents vernacular names, life forms, edible parts, habitats, seasonal availability, and methods of collection, preparation, and consumption of WEP species in order to characterize their contribution to local food systems and seasonal food security.

The study also examines the distribution of indigenous knowledge and the use of WEPs across different socio-demographic groups, including gender, age categories, education levels, and livelihood systems. In addition, quantitative ethnobotanical indices are used to assess the cultural importance of key species. The diversity and utilization patterns of WEPs documented in Dabat District are further compared with findings from other regions of Ethiopia to identify both common trends and locally specific practices.

Finally, the study identifies major environmental and socio-economic threats affecting WEP resources and documents community-perceived conservation priorities. By integrating ethnobotanical documentation with quantitative analysis, this research provides evidence relevant to food security, cultural heritage preservation, and the sustainable management of wild edible plant resources in Ethiopia.

To achieve these goals, the study addresses the following specific objectives: (i) to document the diversity and traditional uses of WEPs in Dabat District; (ii) to assess variations in ethnobotanical knowledge across gender, age groups, and education levels among local informants; (iii) to evaluate the cultural importance and utilization patterns of WEP species using quantitative ethnobotanical indices; (iv) to compare the diversity and utilization of WEPs in Dabat District with findings from other regions of Ethiopia; and (v) to identify major threats affecting WEP resources and document locally perceived conservation priorities.

The study was guided by three main hypotheses. First, traditional knowledge of WEPs is expected to vary significantly across demographic groups within Dabat District. Second, plant species with multiple uses are likely to experience greater harvesting pressure and therefore face higher levels of threat. Third, the diversity of WEPs in Dabat District is anticipated to be comparable to that reported from other regions of Ethiopia, although these resources are increasingly vulnerable to anthropogenic disturbances such as land-use change and overexploitation.

Materials and methods

Description of the study area

The present study was carried out in Dabat District, located in the North Gondar Zone of the Amhara National Regional State in northwest Ethiopia (Fig. 1). The district lies approximately 814 km northwest of Addis Ababa, about 75 km from Gondar town, and 25 km from Debark. Geographically, Dabat extends between 12° 50′ 00″–13° 20′ 00″ N latitude and 37° 30′ 00″–38° 00′ 00″ E longitude, with an altitudinal range of 1500 to 3200 m above sea level. The district is bordered by Debark to the northeast, Tegedie to the northwest, Armachiho to the west, and Wogera to the south [37].

Fig.1.

Map of the study area (generated by ArcGIS 10.8.1)

Dabat District covers a total area of approximately 122,328.25 hectares, characterized by diverse topography, including rugged landscapes (10%), plains (30%), mountainous terrain (55%), and hilly areas (5%) (Dabat district Office of Agriculture, 2024). The district exhibits varied soil types, predominantly black loamy and sandy soils, which are essential for agricultural productivity. These soils provide favorable conditions for crop cultivation due to their balanced capacity for water retention and drainage, supporting the livelihoods of local communities [38].

The district’s landscape is ecologically diverse, consisting of highland, mid-highland, and lowland zones, classified according to elevation. This altitudinal variation creates distinct microclimatic conditions that influence vegetation distribution, farming systems, and settlement patterns. Cooler highland areas are mainly used for cereal production, while mid-highlands serve as transitional agricultural zones. In contrast, warmer lowlands are more suitable for livestock grazing and the cultivation of crops adapted to higher temperatures. Such ecological diversity plays a crucial role in shaping land use practices and natural resource management across the district [39].

Climatically, Dabat is influenced by its broad elevation range and is categorized into three major agro-ecological zones: Dega (52%, above 3200 m), Woyna Dega (14%, between 1500 and 3200 m), and Kola (34%, below 1500 m). The district receives a mean annual rainfall of 1000–1400 mm, which supports both crop farming and livestock production (Dabat district Office of Agriculture, 2024). The average annual temperature is around 20 °C, providing generally moderate conditions conducive to year-round agricultural activities. Variations in rainfall and temperature across agro-ecological zones also affect vegetation cover, water availability, and seasonal livelihood strategies, with lowland areas often facing challenges such as soil erosion and water scarcity (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2.

Climadiagram of Dabat District

According to the Central Statistical Agency report, Dabat District has a total population of about 143,500, with nearly 80% of residents living in rural and suburban areas (CSA, 2017). The population includes approximately 82,611 males and 60,889 females. The district is predominantly inhabited by the Amhara ethnic group, and Amharic is the main language spoken. Orthodox Christianity is the dominant religion, although other faiths are also represented [38].

The local economy is largely based on subsistence agriculture, with major crops including barley, wheat, beans, peas, lentils, oats, and teff. Livestock husbandry particularly cattle, sheep, goats, and poultry also form an important component of household income. Small-scale trade provides additional economic opportunities for some families. Basic health services are available through local facilities; however, respiratory infections and waterborne diseases remain common health concerns, reflecting broader rural health challenges in the district [37].

Vegetation in Dabat is shaped by its climatic and topographic diversity. The dominant ecosystem type is a dry evergreen forest and grassland complex, consisting of both natural and cultivated plant communities. Natural vegetation includes remnant forests, shrublands, and grasslands, while cultivated areas are mainly occupied by agricultural crops. Common indigenous tree species in the lowland (Kola) zone include Diospyros mespiliformis, Ximenia americana, Flueggea virosa, and various Vachellia species. In the highland (Dega) zone, species such as Eucalyptus globulus, Dovyalis abyssinica, and Vachellia species are more prevalent. These vegetation types are vital for biodiversity conservation and provide essential resources for local communities [38].

Despite this ecological richness, vegetation in the district has been increasingly affected by anthropogenic pressures. Deforestation for agricultural expansion, overgrazing, and unsustainable extraction of forest resources have contributed to habitat degradation and fragmentation of native plant communities. Remaining natural vegetation often persists only in scattered patches, making it vulnerable to further environmental stress. Nevertheless, ongoing efforts aimed at land rehabilitation and sustainable resource management are being implemented to improve vegetation cover and ecological resilience in the district [37].

Methods

Sampling procedure

Reconnaissance survey, site, and informant selection

A reconnaissance survey was conducted from 19 to 29 December 2024 to obtain preliminary information about the distribution and utilization of WEPs in Dabat District, northwestern Ethiopia. The survey aimed to identify potential study sites, understand local vegetation patterns, and determine communities with substantial reliance on wild plant resources.

Preliminary information regarding vegetation types, commonly used WEPs, seasonal harvesting areas, and resource-dependent kebeles was obtained from the Dabat District Office of Agriculture. This information was further complemented through informal discussions with local elders, kebele administrators, agricultural extension officers, forest guards, and other knowledgeable community members. These consultations helped identify key areas where WEPs are frequently collected and consumed, and they provided contextual insights into traditional plant-use practices within the district.

Dabat District was purposively selected for this study due to several scientifically relevant factors. Previous reports from the district agricultural office and regional biodiversity assessments indicate that the area retains relatively rich natural vegetation and supports diverse wild plant species that are commonly used by local communities for food and medicinal purposes. In addition, limited previous ethnobotanical documentation exists for the district, making it an important site for generating baseline information on WEP diversity and traditional knowledge.

Administratively, Dabat District consists of 25 kebeles, which represent the smallest administrative units in Ethiopia. From these, eight kebeles (about 32% of the total) were selected as representative study sites based on vegetation cover, accessibility, and recommendations from local authorities and community elders regarding the presence of knowledgeable residents and frequent WEP utilization. The selected kebeles were Bera, Dara, Kenta, Defiya, Sebentara, Chila, Doka, and Adi Tewlenyi (Table 1).

Table 1.

Sampled study sites: altitude, coordinates, agro-ecology, number of households, and sociodemographic characteristics of informants

Name of study sites	Altitude	GPS coordinates		Gender		Ethnicity	Age categories			Language	Occupation	AE	NH
		Latitude (N, S)	Longitude (E, W)	M	F		20–30	31–50	51–78
Bera	2032 m	12° 57′ 40" N	37°38′44"E	9	8	Am	5	6	7	Amc	Far, Mer, HW, Stu, Tch	Highland	5509
Dara	2582 m	12°55′44"N	37°46′05"E	9	8	Am	5	6	6	Amc	Far, Mer, HW, Stu, Tch	Highland	3644
Kenta	1726 m	13°07′05"N	37°37′26"E	9	8	Am	5	6	6	Amc	Far, Mer, HW, Stu, Tch	Midland	3801
Defiya	2528 m	12°57′44"N	37°53′12"E	9	8	Am	5	5	5	Amc	Far, Mer, HW, Stu, Tch	Highland	6844
Sebentara	1459 m	12°58′55"N	37°34′10"E	8	9	Am	5	5	5	Amc	Far, Mer, HW, Stu, Tch	Lowland	6663
Chila	2609 m	12°57′23"N	37°44′12"E	8	9	Am	6	5	5	Amc	Far, Mer, HW, Stu, Tch	Highland	3447
Doka	2677 m	13°03′11"N	37°50′56"E	8	9	Am	6	5	5	Amc	Far, Mer, HW, Stu, Tch	Highland	4023
Adi Tewlenyi	1578 m	13°16′13"N	37°33′32"E	8	9	Am	6	5	5	Amc	Far, Mer, HW, Stu, Tch	Midland	4057
Total				68	68		45	45	46				37,988

Key: Am = Amhara, Amc = Amharic, M = male, F = female, NH = number of households, Far = farmer, Mer = merchant, HW = house wife, Stu = student, Tch = teacher, AE = agroecology

Informant sampling

A total of 136 informants (68 males and 68 females) participated in the study. Informants were drawn from all eight selected kebeles, with around 17 respondents selected from each kebele. Informant selection involved a combination of simple random sampling and purposive sampling techniques.

General informants were selected using simple random sampling from household lists obtained from kebele administrative records. First, households were listed for each kebele, and a numbering system was applied. Random numbers were then generated to select households, and one adult member from each selected household was invited to participate in the interview. Using this approach, 82 general informants were identified.

The remaining 54 participants were selected as key informants using purposive sampling based on their recognized knowledge and experience related to wild edible plants. Recommendations for key informants were obtained from community elders, local authorities, agricultural development agents, and forest guards. These key informants included experienced plant collectors, elders known for their traditional ecological knowledge, women responsible for household food preparation, market vendors involved in selling wild edible products, and hunters who rely on wild plants during extended stays in forested areas. Including individuals from these diverse livelihood groups helped capture both commonly shared knowledge and specialized expertise regarding WEPs.

Socio-demographic characteristics of informants

Basic demographic information was recorded to better understand how knowledge of WEPs varies across social groups. Informants naturally clustered into three age groups: young adults (16–30 years), middle-aged adults (31–50 years), and elders (51–80 years). These groups represented 33.2%, 33.2%, and 33.6% of respondents, respectively. The relatively high proportion of elders highlights their important role as custodians of traditional ecological knowledge related to wild edible plants.

Gender representation was balanced in the study, with equal numbers of male and female informants. This balance was considered important because plant gathering, processing, and food preparation activities in rural Ethiopia are often divided along gender lines, meaning that both men and women possess different but complementary knowledge about WEPs.

Educational background and livelihood activities were also documented to provide context for understanding knowledge distribution. About 61% of respondents were illiterate, while 39% had received some level of formal education. The main livelihood activities included crop farming (52.4%), livestock keeping (21.9%), small-scale trade (11.6%), and charcoal or firewood production (14.1%), with a small proportion engaged in other income-generating activities. This diversity of livelihoods helped provide a broader understanding of how knowledge and utilization of WEPs vary across different socio-economic groups within the district.

Ethnobotanical data collection and plant identification

Data collection methods

Ethnobotanical data were collected from January to November 2025 across the eight selected kebeles of Dabat District. Standard ethnobotanical research techniques combining qualitative and participatory approaches were employed to document community knowledge and practices related to WEPs. The principal data collection methods included semi-structured interviews, guided field walks, focus group discussions, and market surveys. These complementary approaches enabled the documentation of plant diversity, traditional uses, seasonal availability, harvesting practices, and perceived threats to WEP resources.

Semi-structured interviews

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 136 informants using a checklist that was initially prepared in English and later translated into Amharic, the local language, to ensure clarity and cultural appropriateness. The interviews gathered socio-demographic information such as age, gender, education level, and livelihood activities, along with ethnobotanical information including vernacular plant names, edible parts, preparation methods, modes of consumption (fresh, cooked, dried, or stored), and seasonal availability.

All interviews were carried out in Amharic, and when necessary, local assistants helped facilitate communication to ensure accurate interpretation of responses. Interviews were conducted at times and locations convenient for the participants in order to promote open discussion and reliable information sharing. In addition to individual interviews, some small group conversations were held to explore knowledge transmission, seasonal food practices, market involvement, and community perceptions regarding the availability and management of WEPs.

Focus group discussions

To complement individual interviews, eight focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted, one in each selected kebele. Each discussion involved purposively selected key informants who were recognized within their communities for their extensive knowledge of local plant resources.

These discussions provided an opportunity to validate information obtained during interviews and to capture shared community perspectives regarding the identification, use, and management of WEPs. Key discussion topics included vernacular naming of plants, edible parts used, preparation techniques, seasonal availability, cultural importance, and local conservation practices.

Guided field walks

Guided field walks were conducted with knowledgeable informants to locate and document WEPs within their natural habitats. During these walks, informants assisted researchers in identifying plant species while explaining their local names, growth forms, ecological habitats, edible parts, preparation techniques, and periods of availability.

Plant specimens were photographed and detailed field notes were recorded to capture morphological characteristics and habitat information. Informants were encouraged to list all edible plant species known to them in order to ensure comprehensive documentation of WEP diversity in the study area.

Guided field walks also provided opportunities to discuss perceived threats to WEPs, traditional conservation practices, and intergenerational transmission of ethnobotanical knowledge. This participatory approach helped strengthen the reliability of plant identification and contextual understanding of plant use.

Market surveys

To assess the economic importance of WEPs, market surveys were conducted in five local marketplaces within the district. Semi-structured interviews were carried out with vendors selling wild edible plant products.

The surveys documented the types of WEPs traded, quantities available, sources of collection, seasonal availability, market prices, and consumer demand. Observations were also made regarding harvesting methods and potential impacts on the natural habitats of the species. These market surveys provided valuable insights into the commercial value of WEPs and their contribution to local household livelihoods.

By integrating ethnobotanical field data with market observations, the study captured both the cultural and economic dimensions of WEP utilization in Dabat District.

Plant specimen collection and identification

Voucher specimens of all reported plant species were collected during guided field walks with informants and trained assistants. Plant samples were pressed, air-dried, properly labeled, and preserved using heater-drying and deep-freezing techniques. The specimens were then deposited at the Mini Herbarium of the University of Gondar.

Preliminary field identification was followed by detailed taxonomic verification at the National Herbarium (ETH), Addis Ababa University, using the Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea, authenticated herbarium collections, and standard botanical identification keys [40, 41].

To ensure consistency with current botanical nomenclature, additional verification was conducted using internationally recognized botanical databases such as World Flora Online, African Plant Database, Plants of the World Online, JSTOR Global Plants, and Flora Finder. Digital plant identification tools, including PlantSnap and Google Image Search, were also used as supplementary aids during preliminary verification [1, 5, 7].

Final taxonomic identification and confirmation of scientific names were conducted by Dr. Getinet Masresha, a botanist and plant taxonomist affiliated with the University of Gondar, whose expertise includes plant systematics and herbarium-based species identification. All verified voucher specimens were deposited at the Mini Herbarium of the University of Gondar under reference number UoG0232025.

Quantitative ethnobotanical analysis

To complement the qualitative findings, a range of quantitative ethnobotanical approaches was applied to assess the cultural significance, distribution of knowledge, and conservation concerns associated with WEPs in the study area. These analytical tools helped provide a more objective understanding of the relative importance of species and patterns of similarity with other ethnobotanical studies conducted in Ethiopia.

Jaccard Similarity Index

The Jaccard Similarity Index (JSI) was used to compare the composition of WEP species recorded in Dabat District with those documented in other regions of Ethiopia. This index quantifies the degree of similarity between two study areas by measuring the proportion of species shared relative to the total number of species reported in both locations. The JSI therefore offers insights into floristic overlap, regional variation in plant use, and the extent to which ethnobotanical knowledge and resource availability differ across landscapes. The index was calculated using the standard formula:

$$\text{JSI}=\frac{c}{a+b-c}\times 100,$$

where JSI denotes the Jaccard Similarity Index, which quantifies the degree of resemblance between two study areas in terms of their recorded wild edible plant species. In this context, a represents the total number of plant species documented in the present study area, b refers to the number of species reported from another comparative study site, and c indicates the number of species shared by both areas. The index ranges from 0 to 1, where a value of 1 reflects complete similarity in species composition, while a value of 0 indicates no overlap between the compared regions. For easier interpretation, JSI values may also be converted into percentages by multiplying the index by 100, allowing a clearer representation of similarity levels between ethnobotanical datasets [42, 43].

Relative frequency of citation

The relative frequency of citation (RFC) was used to assess the local importance of each wild edible plant species by determining how frequently it was mentioned by informants during interviews. RFC values range from 0, indicating that a species was not cited by any participant, to 1, representing the highest level of recognition or reliance within the community. Species with higher RFC values are considered culturally more significant and are often those most widely used or valued for food, nutrition, or related purposes [44]. The RFC for each species was calculated using the following formula:

$$\text{RFC}=\frac{\text{FC}}{N},$$

where FC = the number of informants citing the use of the species and N = the total number of respondents participating in the survey.

Preference ranking

Preference ranking was employed to evaluate community perceptions regarding the most valued WEPs in the study area. This analytical method followed standard ethnobotanical procedures described in previous studies [45, 46]. A group of knowledgeable key informants participated in the ranking exercise in order to identify the most preferred species based on their experience with local plant resources. To reduce respondent confusion and minimize potential bias during the evaluation process, a simplified three-point scoring system was used. Informants assessed selected WEP species based on criteria such as taste, availability, ease of collection, cultural importance, and potential contribution to household income. Each species was assigned a score of 0, 1, or 2, where 0 represented species that were rarely used or not preferred, 1 indicated moderately preferred species that were occasionally consumed, and 2 represented highly preferred species that were frequently used and valued by the community. The scores provided by each informant were then summed to produce an overall preference score for each species. Species with higher total scores were interpreted as having greater cultural importance and higher preference among local communities.

Direct matrix ranking

Direct Matrix Ranking (DMR) was applied to evaluate the multifunctional roles of selected wild edible plant species. In many rural areas, WEPs serve several purposes beyond food consumption, including medicinal use, fodder for livestock, firewood, construction materials, charcoal production, fencing, and furniture making. To capture this multifunctionality, ten commonly reported multipurpose plant species were selected for analysis following established ethnobotanical procedures [45, 46]. Six key informants with extensive knowledge of local plant use participated in this evaluation. Each informant assessed the importance of the selected species across the different use categories using a scoring scale ranging from 0 to 5, where 0 indicated that the species was not used for a given purpose and 5 indicated very high use value. Scores assigned by the informants for each use category were averaged and subsequently summed to generate a total use-value score for every species. Species with higher cumulative scores were interpreted as having greater multifunctional importance within the local livelihood system. The Direct Matrix Ranking analysis also helped identify species that are subject to multiple harvesting pressures due to their diverse uses, which may increase their vulnerability to overexploitation and highlight the need for conservation attention.

Data analysis

Collected data were systematically organized, including local and scientific names, botanical families, life forms, edible parts, and habitats. Records were maintained in Microsoft Word 2019, and descriptive statistics were used to summarize patterns of WEP use. Frequency distributions were visualized through tables, pie charts, and bar graphs. Quantitative analyses were performed using R software (version 4.3.2).

Data normality was assessed using the Shapiro–Wilk test before conducting parametric analyses. Independent t-tests evaluated differences in WEP knowledge between genders, educational levels, and participants with or without prior WEP experience. One-way ANOVA was applied to examine variations in knowledge across age groups, and Pearson’s correlation was used to assess the relationship between age and the number of species reported [1, 5, 30].

Ethical considerations

Prior to fieldwork, official permission was obtained from the Department of Biology, University of Gondar, and endorsed by the administrative offices of Dabat District. The study adhered to the International Society of Ethnobiology (ISE) Code of Ethics. Informed consent was obtained from all participants, who were fully briefed on the objectives, scope, and significance of the research. Participation was voluntary, and the study was conducted solely for academic purposes without any commercial intent.

Throughout the study, cultural values and traditional knowledge systems were respected. Informants were informed that their contributions would support the documentation and preservation of ethnobotanical knowledge, which is vital for local food security, cultural identity, and biodiversity conservation. Emphasis was placed on the sustainable use of WEPs to benefit both current and future generations.

Results and discussion

Taxonomic diversity of wild edible plants in the study area

The ethnobotanical survey conducted in Dabat District, Northwestern Ethiopia, revealed a rich diversity of wild edible plant species traditionally used by local communities. In total, 52 wild edible plant species belonging to 41 genera and 27 botanical families were recorded (Table 2). This relatively high taxonomic richness reflects the strong reliance of rural households on wild plant resources for dietary supplementation and as coping mechanisms during periods of seasonal food scarcity. Similar levels of wild edible plant diversity have also been documented in other parts of Ethiopia, including Chilga, Konso, and Quara, where wild plants remain essential components of traditional food systems and rural resilience [9, 10, 47]. Comparable findings have further been reported across East Africa, such as in Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania, suggesting that communities in ecologically diverse landscapes maintain broad ethnobotanical knowledge and depend heavily on wild food resources [48–50].

Table 2.

Wild edible plants recorded in Dabat District, Ethiopia

Family	Scientific name	Local name	Habit	Parts used	Mode of consumption	Condition	Preparation/use description	Period of consumption	Method of collection	Season of availability	Voucher No
Acanthaceae	Acanthus polystachyus Delile	Kusheshlia	Shrub	Flower	Raw	Fresh	Nectar sucked directly by children	Occasional snack	Hand-picked flowers	Rainy season	UOGTK001
	Acanthus sennii Chiov	Kusheshlia	Shrub	Flower	Raw	Fresh	Nectar sucked directly from flowers	Occasional snack	Hand-picked flowers	Rainy season	UOGTK002
Amaranthaceae	Amaranthus viridis L.	Aluma	Herb	Leaf	Cooked	Fresh	Leaves boiled and eaten as vegetables	Regular during rainy months	Collected from fields	Rainy season	UOGTK003
Anacardiaceae	Searsia pyroides var. pyroides	Qimo	Shrub	Fruit	Raw	Fresh	Ripe fruits eaten directly	Seasonal snack	Gathered from wild stands	Dry season	UOGTK004
Apocynaceae	Carissa spinarum L.	Agam	Shrub	Fruit	Raw	Fresh	Sweet ripe fruits eaten fresh	Seasonal snack	Picked by hand	Dry season	UOGTK005
Arecaceae	Phoenix reclinata Jacq	Zembaba	Shrub	Fruit	Raw	Fresh	Ripe fruits eaten directly	Seasonal	Collected from wild palms	Dry season	UOGTK006
Boraginaceae	Cordia africana Lam	Wanza	Tree	Fruit	Raw	Fresh/Dried	Fruits eaten fresh or stored	Seasonal and supplementary	Gathered from trees	Dry season	UOGTK007
Cactaceae	Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill	Belles	Shrub	Fruit	Raw	Fresh	Ripe fruits eaten after peeling	Seasonal snack	Harvested by hand	Dry season	UOGTK008
Combretaceae	Combretum indicum (L.) DeFilipps	Dumbulu	Herb	Tuber	Raw	Fresh	Tuber eaten directly	Occasional during scarcity	Dug out using tools	Rainy season	UOGTK009
Cucurbitaceae	Momordica foetida Schumach	Yayit duba	Climber	Fruit	Raw	Fresh	Ripe fruit eaten fresh	Seasonal snack	Collected from forest edges	Rainy season	UOGTK010
Dioscoreaceae	Dioscorea praehensilis Benth	Yefiyel anijet	Herb	Tuber	Raw	Fresh	Tubers eaten raw after digging	Emergency food	Excavated manually	Rainy season	UOGTK011
	Dioscorea villosa L.	Yebrie egocha	Herb	Tuber	Raw	Fresh	Tubers eaten directly	Occasional	Dug up by hand	Rainy season	UOGTK013
Ebenaceae	Euclea racemosa L.	Dedeho	Shrub	Fruit	Raw	Fresh	Ripe fruits eaten directly	Seasonal snack	Gathered by children	Dry season	UOGTK014
	Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A.DC	Serkin	Tree	Fruit	Raw	Fresh	Fruits eaten fresh when ripe	Seasonal	Collected from trees	Dry season	UOGTK015
Fabaceae	Cassia abbreviata Oliv	Goradie	Shrub	Fruit	Raw	Fresh	Fruits eaten directly	Seasonal	Picked from shrublands	Dry season	UOGTK016
	Vachellia abyssinica (Hochst. ex Benth.)	Bazra girar	Tree	Gum	Raw	Fresh	Gum chewed as snack	Year-round	Gum collected by incision	Dry season	UOGTK017
	Vachellia seyal (Delile)	Nech girar	Tree	Gum	Raw	Fresh	Gum chewed directly	Year-round	Collected from bark	Dry season	UOGTK018
	Dichrostachys cinerea (L.)	Gorrgoro	Shrub	Gum	Raw	Fresh	Sticky gum chewed	Seasonal	Scraped from stems	Dry season	UOGTK019
	Pueraria montana (Lour.) Merr	Yeberie-kolet	Herb	Tuber	Raw	Fresh	Tubers eaten raw	Food shortage period	Dug from soil	Rainy season	UOGTK020
Lamiaceae	Lamium purpureum L.	Embachilit	Herb	Tuber	Raw	Fresh	Tubers eaten directly	Occasional	Collected by digging	Rainy season	UOGTK021
	Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R.Br	Mitimita	Herb	Flower	Raw	Fresh	Nectar sucked by children	Occasional snack	Hand-picked flowers	Rainy season	UOGTK022
Loganiaceae	Strychnos innocua Delile	Tinkuhaye	Shrub	Fruit	Raw	Fresh	Fruits eaten ripe	Seasonal snack	Gathered from bushland	Dry season	UOGTK023
Malvaceae	Grewia flavescens Juss	Betre musie	Shrub	Fruit/Seed	Cooked	Fresh/Both	Fruits eaten ripe	Regular seasonal food	Hand-picked	Dry season	UOGTK024
	Corchorus olitorius L.	Mloukheyeh	Herb	Whole plant	Cooked	Fresh	Leaves boiled as vegetables	Regular in rainy months	Collected from herbs	Rainy season	UOGTK025
	Grewia ferruginea Hochst. ex A.Rich	Lenqata	Shrub	Fruit	Raw	Fresh	Ripe fruits eaten fresh	Seasonal snack	Hand-picked	Dry season	UOGTK026
	Adansonia digitata L.	Diza	Tree	Fruit	Raw	Fresh	Pulp eaten directly	Seasonal supplement	Collected from trees	Dry season	UOGTK027
	Hibiscus trionum L.	Yezgra kolo	Herb	Whole part	Cooked	Fresh	Young leaves and shoots eaten	Regular rainy-season food	Gathered from fields	Rainy season	UOGTK028
	Sterculia setigera Delile	Darlie	Tree	Gum	Raw	Fresh	Gum chewed as snack	Seasonal supplement	Scraped from bark	Dry season	UOGTK029
Meliaceae	Ekebergia capensis Sparrm	Aberkiha	Tree	Fruit	Raw	Fresh	Ripe fruits eaten directly	Seasonal	Collected from forest trees	Dry season	UOGTK030
Moraceae	Ficus sur Forssk	Shola	Tree	Fruit	Raw	Fresh	Fruits eaten ripe	Seasonal snack	Gathered from trees	Dry season	UOGTK031
	Ficus vasta Forssk	Warka	Tree	Fruit	Raw/Dried	Both	Fruits eaten fresh or dried for storage	Seasonal and stored use	Picked and sun-dried	Dry season	UOGTK032
	Ficus sycomorus L.	Kodo	Tree	Fruit	Raw/Dried	Both	Fruits eaten fresh or dried	Seasonal	Collected from trees	Dry season	UOGTK033
	Morus alba L.	Enjori	Shrub	Fruit	Raw	Fresh	Fruits eaten ripe	Seasonal	Hand-picked	Dry season	UOGTK012
	Ficus carica L.	Banbulieda	Tree	Fruit	Raw	Fresh	Ripe fruits eaten directly	Seasonal snack	Hand-picked	Dry season	UOGTK034
Myrtaceae	Syzygium guineense (Willd.) DC	Dokma	Seed	Tree	Raw	Fresh	Seeds eaten when ripe	Seasonal	Gathered from forest	Dry season	UOGTK035
Olacaceae	Ximenia americana L.	Enkuaye	Shrub	Fruit	Raw	Fresh	Fruits eaten ripe	Seasonal snack	Picked from shrubland	Dry season	UOGTK036
Orchidaceae	Phalaenopsis amabilis (L.) Blume	Yehaya jero	Herb	Tuber	Raw	Fresh	Tubers eaten directly	Occasional during scarcity	Dug from moist soils	Rainy season	UOGTK037
Oxalidaceae	Oxalis obliquifolia Steud. ex A.Rich	Mchamcho	Herb	Whole part	Raw/Cooked	Fresh	Leaves eaten raw or roasted	Seasonal snack	Gathered from grassland	Rainy season	UOGTK038
Phyllanthaceae	Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Royle	Ayihada	Shrub	Fruit	Raw	Fresh	Ripe fruits eaten directly	Seasonal snack	Hand-picked	Dry season	UOGTK039
Polygonaceae	Rumex abyssinicus Jacq	Mekemko	Herb	Stem	Raw	Fresh	Liquid sucked from young stem	Occasional snack	Collected from wetlands	Rainy season	UOGTK040
	Rumex nervosus Vahl	Embacho	Shrub	Stem	Raw	Fresh	Juicy stems sucked by children	Occasional snack	Hand-collected	Rainy season	UOGTK041
Portulacaceae	Portulaca oleracea L.	Lamucho	Herb	Leaves	Cooked	Fresh	Leaves cooked as vegetables	Regular rainy-season food	Gathered from fields	Rainy season	UOGTK042
Rosaceae	Rosa abyssinica R.Br. ex Lindl	Kega	Shrub	Fruit	Raw/Dried	Both	Fruits eaten fresh or dried	Seasonal and stored	Picked and sun-dried	Dry season	UOGTK043
Rubiaceae	Vangueria madagascariensis J.F.Gmel	Yemaryam mesenqo	Shrub	Fruit	Raw	Fresh	Fruits eaten ripe	Seasonal snack	Gathered from woodland	Dry season	UOGTK044
Rutaceae	Clausena lansium (Lour.) Skeels	Ashama	Shrub	Fruit	Raw	Fresh	Fruits eaten fresh	Seasonal	Hand-picked	Dry season	UOGTK045
Salicaceae	Dovyalis abyssinica (A.Rich.) Warb	Koshim	Shrub	Fruit	Raw	Fresh	Ripe fruits eaten directly	Seasonal snack	Picked from wild shrubs	Dry season	UOGTK046
Sapotaceae	Mimusops kummel Bruce ex A.DC	Kummel	Tree	Fruit	Raw	Fresh	Fruits eaten fresh when ripe	Seasonal supplement	Collected from trees	Dry season	UOGTK047
Solanaceae	Physalis peruviana L.	Nech aweti	Herb	Fruit	Raw	Fresh	Ripe berries eaten directly	Seasonal snack	Gathered from fields	Rainy season	UOGTK048
	Solanum nigrum L.	Yewusha komedero	Herb	Fruit	Raw	Fresh	Ripe fruits eaten directly	Seasonal snack	Collected from herbs	Rainy season	UOGTK049
	Datura stramonium L.	Astenagre	Herb	Flower	Raw	Fresh	Nectar sucked by children	Occasional snack	Hand-picked flowers	Rainy season	UOGTK050
Vitaceae	Ampelocissus schimperiana (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Planch	Agamshro	Shrub	Stem	Raw	Fresh	Liquid sucked from young stem	Occasional	Cut and collected manually	Rainy season	UOGTK051
Zygophyllaceae	Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile	Mekie	Tree	Fruit	Raw	Fresh	Ripe fruits eaten directly	Seasonal snack	Gathered from dry woodland	Dry season	UOGTK052

Among the recorded families, Malvaceae was the most dominant, followed by Fabaceae, Moraceae, and Dioscoreaceae (Fig. 3). The prominence of Malvaceae and Fabaceae highlights their ecological abundance and their nutritional importance, as these families provide widely consumed leafy vegetables, edible fruits, and gums. Similar family-level dominance has been observed in West African countries such as Nigeria and Ghana, where Malvaceae and Fabaceae frequently contribute the largest proportion of edible species due to their adaptability and multipurpose value [51–53]. In addition, Fabaceae species are highly valued in South Africa and Burkina Faso not only for food provision but also for their role in improving soil fertility and supporting agroecosystem sustainability [54–56]. These patterns suggest that the dominance of these families in Dabat District reflects both environmental suitability and long-term cultural selection of useful edible taxa.

Fig. 3.

Most dominant families of WEPs in Dabat District

At the genus level, most genera were represented by a single species, indicating that knowledge of edible plants is distributed across diverse taxonomic groups rather than concentrated in only a few lineages. However, the genus Ficus was represented by four species (F. sur, F. vasta, F. sycomorus, and F. carica), underscoring its importance as a key source of seasonal wild fruits. Ficus species are widely used across Africa and Asia, including Ethiopia, Kenya, and Cameroon, where they contribute significantly to household nutrition and are often associated with cultural and medicinal roles [21, 57, 58]. The prominence of wild figs in Dabat also aligns with reports from other Ethiopian districts such as Arsi and Bullen, where Ficus fruits are commonly cited as important famine and supplementary foods [8, 59, 60].

Similarly, the genus Dioscorea contributed three tuber-producing species, emphasizing the critical role of wild yams as emergency food resources. Underground tubers are particularly important during drought periods, crop failure, or seasonal hunger gaps when cultivated foods become limited. Comparable reliance on wild tubers has been widely reported in Ethiopia, Uganda, and other parts of West Africa, where they serve as essential “fallback foods” during crises [61–67]. Studies from Asia, including India and Pakistan, also highlight the nutritional and subsistence importance of wild Dioscorea species among indigenous communities facing food insecurity [32, 68, 69].

Thus, the high species and family richness documented in Dabat District demonstrates the significant ethnobotanical value of WEPs in enhancing dietary diversity, strengthening food security, and supporting rural livelihoods. Beyond their nutritional contribution, these plants represent an important cultural heritage that requires continued documentation and conservation. Similar recommendations have been made across Africa, Europe, and Asia, where modernization, habitat degradation, and declining intergenerational knowledge transfer increasingly threaten the sustainable use of wild food plants [70–73]. Therefore, integrating WEPs into local conservation strategies and food security policies is essential to safeguard these valuable resources for future generations.

Life forms of wild edible plants

A total of 52 wild edible plant species recorded in the study area were distributed among four major life forms: shrubs, herbs, trees, and climbers. Among these, shrubs constituted the largest group followed by herbs, trees, and climbers (Fig. 4). These results indicate that shrub species dominate the wild edible plant resources in Dabat District.

Fig. 4.

Life forms of wild edible plants

The dominance of shrub species may be attributed to their ecological adaptability to semi-disturbed environments and relatively dry conditions. Shrubs are common in bushlands, farm margins, and grazing areas where they can survive periodic drought and human disturbance. Many shrub species also produce edible fruits and flowers that can be consumed directly with minimal preparation. Their accessibility makes them frequently collected by community members, particularly children, women, and herders during routine daily activities. Similar patterns of shrub dominance among WEPs have been reported in several East African countries, including Kenya and Uganda, where shrub-derived fruits play an important role in supplementing rural diets, particularly during periods when cultivated foods are limited [21, 36, 62, 74]. Comparable findings have also been reported from West African countries such as Nigeria and Ghana, where shrub species are abundant in bushland ecosystems and culturally preferred as easily accessible food sources [51, 52, 56, 65].

Herbs represented the second most common life form, accounting for 17 species (32.7%) of the documented WEPs. Herbaceous species were primarily consumed as leafy vegetables or underground storage organs such as tubers. These plants generally grow rapidly during the rainy season in disturbed habitats including agricultural fields, grasslands, and fallow lands. Consequently, they serve as important seasonal food resources that supplement household diets during periods when cultivated vegetables are scarce. Similar dependence on herbaceous wild vegetables has been reported in several Ethiopian agroecological zones, including Arsi, Gayint, and Raya, where seasonal herb species significantly contribute to dietary diversity and micronutrient intake [59, 75, 76]. Studies conducted in Tanzania and Uganda likewise highlight the importance of herbaceous WEPs as affordable sources of vitamins and minerals for rural communities with limited access to commercial foods [48, 77]. From a nutritional perspective, regular consumption of herb-based WEPs can help address micronutrient deficiencies and enhance dietary resilience in rural households [14, 15, 78].

Tree species accounted for 12 species (23.1%) of the documented WEPs. Although less numerous than shrubs and herbs, tree species are particularly valuable because they provide edible fruits, seeds, and gums that can be consumed fresh or preserved for later use. As perennial plants, trees remain productive even during dry seasons when herbaceous species are absent. Consequently, tree-derived wild foods often serve as important resources during seasonal food shortages. Similar observations have been documented in several parts of Ethiopia and other African regions, where edible tree species play multiple roles in rural livelihoods by providing food, fodder, shade, fuel wood, and other ecosystem services [11, 38, 54]. In addition, studies from Burkina Faso and South Africa indicate that many edible tree products are traded in local markets, thereby contributing to household income, particularly for women engaged in small-scale trade [56, 79, 80].

Climbers were poorly represented in the study area, with only one recorded species (1.9%). The limited occurrence of climbing species may reflect ecological constraints and reduced habitat availability, as climbers are typically associated with forest margins, riverine vegetation, or dense woodland habitats. Such habitats are increasingly affected by agricultural expansion, grazing pressure, and land-use change in many parts of Ethiopia. Similar low representation of climbers among WEPs has been reported in other Ethiopian districts and several East African regions where habitat degradation reduces the diversity of less accessible plant growth forms [4, 81, 82].

Thus, the predominance of shrubs and herbs suggests that most WEPs used in Dabat District are obtained from easily accessible vegetation types such as shrublands, farm margins, grazing lands, and areas surrounding settlements. These landscapes play a crucial role in supporting rural diets but are often overlooked in formal conservation strategies. Recognizing the importance of such habitats and promoting sustainable harvesting practices could help maintain the availability of WEPs and preserve traditional knowledge associated with their use. Similar conclusions have been reported in ethnobotanical studies from Asia and Europe, where modernization and environmental degradation increasingly threaten traditional wild food systems [32, 83, 84]. Integrating WEP conservation into local food security and biodiversity management initiatives could therefore contribute to improved nutritional resilience and sustainable resource use in Dabat District and comparable rural environments.

The ethnobotanical investigation in Dabat District revealed that local communities utilize a wide range of plant parts as food, reflecting rich traditional knowledge and the diverse nutritional roles of WEPs. The documented species provided edible resources from fruits, tubers, leaves, stems, flowers, gums, seeds, and in some cases whole plant parts (Fig. 5). Such diversity highlights the importance of WEPs in supporting household nutrition, particularly in rural areas where seasonal food shortages and limited access to cultivated foods remain common. Similar findings have been reported in recent studies from several Ethiopian districts, including Arsi, Chilga, Bullen, and Raya, where wild plant resources contribute significantly to dietary diversification and resilience during periods of scarcity [8, 9, 60, 76]. Comparable patterns have also been documented across East Africa, including Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania, emphasizing the broader regional significance of wild plant foods in sustaining rural livelihoods [21, 62, 85, 86].

Fig. 5.

Parts of wild edible plants used as food

Fruits were the most commonly consumed plant part in Dabat District, accounting for 50% of the recorded edible uses. Most fruits were eaten raw when ripe, mainly as seasonal snacks, especially by children and herders while moving through shrublands and forest edges. Fruit-bearing species such as Ficus, Carissa, Grewia, and Balanites were frequently mentioned as important supplementary foods during the dry season. The dominance of fruits is consistent with recent reports from West Africa, including Nigeria and Ghana, where wild fruits remain central to local diets because of their accessibility, palatability, and high micronutrient value [58, 87–89]. Similar reliance on wild fruits has also been observed in South Africa and Burkina Faso, where fruit collection contributes both to household food security and income generation through local trade [56, 90, 91]. These findings suggest that wild fruits serve not only as nutritional supplements but also as culturally important seasonal resources across Africa and beyond.

Tubers were the second most utilized plant part in Dabat (15.4%), highlighting their role as critical emergency foods. Underground resources, particularly from Dioscorea species, were collected by digging and consumed either raw or cooked. Tubers become especially important during times of crop failure, drought, or famine, when cultivated foods are limited. Recent evidence from Ethiopia and Uganda similarly emphasizes that wild yams and other tuberous plants function as “fallback foods” that strengthen community resilience under climate stress and food insecurity [6, 62]. Comparable dependence on wild tubers has also been reported in India and Pakistan, where indigenous communities rely on them as survival foods and important carbohydrate sources during lean seasons [92–94]. Thus, the use of tubers in Dabat reflects both ecological adaptation and a long-standing cultural strategy for coping with seasonal hunger periods.

Leaves contributed 7.7% of the edible uses and were mainly prepared as cooked vegetables, particularly during the rainy season when herbaceous plants grow abundantly. Species such as Amaranthus viridis and Portulaca oleracea were commonly consumed as leafy greens, providing essential vitamins and minerals. Recent studies across Ethiopia, Kenya, and Cameroon similarly highlight the nutritional significance of wild leafy vegetables in improving micronutrient intake and reducing hidden hunger among rural populations [95–97]. From a public health perspective, the sustainable promotion of wild leafy vegetables may offer an affordable and locally available approach to strengthening dietary quality, especially among vulnerable households.

In addition to fruits, tubers, and leaves, local people in Dabat also consumed stems and flowers, often by sucking nectar or plant juices, particularly among children. Such practices illustrate that WEPs serve not only as food sources, but also as culturally embedded seasonal snacks that reinforce intergenerational knowledge transfer. Similar consumption patterns have been noted in ethnobotanical studies from Tanzania and Ghana, where children play an important role in learning wild plant use through daily interaction with the natural environment [50, 58, 98].

Other plant parts such as gums and seeds were used mainly as chewing snacks or supplementary foods. Gum-producing species, including Vachellia and Sterculia, provide important dry-season resources and may also contribute to household income through small-scale trade. Recent research from Ethiopia and West Africa suggests that edible gums and plant exudates are increasingly recognized for their nutritional, medicinal, and economic potential, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions [3, 67, 87, 88].

Thus, the predominance of fruits and tubers in Dabat District highlights the critical role of WEPs as seasonal nutritional supplements and survival foods. The diverse utilization of multiple plant parts highlights their contribution to household food security, dietary diversification, and cultural heritage. However, modernization, land-use change, and declining knowledge transmission threaten the continuity of these traditional food systems. Recent global assessments from Europe, Asia, and Australia similarly stress the urgency of documenting and conserving wild food knowledge as part of sustainable diets and biodiversity protection [12, 13, 99]. Therefore, integrating WEPs into nutrition-sensitive conservation strategies and local food security policies could strengthen both public health outcomes and ecosystem resilience in Dabat District and comparable rural settings.

Methods of wild edible plant collection

The study documented four main methods used by local communities to collect WEPs in Dabat District: hand-picking, digging, bark incision for gum extraction, and cutting or sucking plant stems (Table 3). Among these, hand-picking was the most frequently reported collection technique, mainly used to harvest edible fruits, leaves, and flowers. Digging was used for harvesting underground storage organs such as tubers. Bark incision was practiced to obtain edible gums from certain tree species, while cutting or sucking plant stems was occasionally used to obtain plant juices.

Table 3.

Frequency of WEPs collection methods in Dabat District

Collection method	Description/examples	Number of species	Percentage (%)
Hand-picking/gathering	Fruits, flowers, leaves collected directly by hand (e.g., Ficus, Carissa, Grewia)	40	76.9
Digging/excavation	Tubers and underground parts dug from soil (e.g., Dioscorea, Pueraria)	8	15.4
Scraping/bark incision for gum	Gum collected by scraping or tapping trees (e.g., Vachellia, Sterculia)	4	7.7
Cutting young stems/shoots	Juice sucked from tender stems (e.g., Rumex, Ampelocissus)	3	5.8

Hand-picking was the most common and widely preferred collection method in the study area. This method was mainly used to collect wild fruits, leafy vegetables, and edible flowers. Fruits from shrub and tree species such as Carissa spinarum, Ficus species, Grewia ferruginea, and Ximenia americana were typically gathered directly from branches and often consumed immediately in the field. Nectar-bearing flowers, including species of Acanthus and Leonotis, were frequently collected by children as seasonal snacks. The dominance of hand-picking as a harvesting technique reflects the accessibility of many edible plants around farmlands, grazing lands, and forest edges. Similar reliance on simple fruit-picking practices has been reported in other Ethiopian districts such as Goba, Metema, Mieso, and Dibatie, where WEPs play an important role in supplementing rural diets during seasonal food shortages [3, 5, 22, 81]. Comparable harvesting practices have also been documented across East African countries including Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania, where WEPs continue to contribute to household food security [21, 48, 100].

Digging was the second important method of WEP collection and was mainly associated with harvesting underground tubers. Species such as Dioscorea praehensilis and Pueraria montana were collected by digging the soil, sometimes with the help of simple local tools. These underground food resources were particularly valued during periods of food scarcity and served as emergency foods when cultivated crops were limited. Studies from Ethiopia and Uganda similarly indicate that wild tubers help strengthen community resilience during droughts, crop failures, and seasonal hunger periods [6, 64]. Comparable dependence on wild yam species has also been reported in India and Pakistan, where indigenous communities rely on underground foods as survival resources during lean seasons [101–105].

Another collection practice documented in the study area was bark incision to obtain edible gums. Informants reported collecting gum from tree species such as Vachellia abyssinica, Vachellia seyal, and Sterculia setigera. The bark was carefully incised to allow natural exudates to ooze out, particularly during the dry season when gum production is more common. The gums were usually chewed fresh as snacks. Similar gum-harvesting traditions have been reported in several African dryland regions, including Burkina Faso and parts of South Africa, where edible gums serve both nutritional and economic roles through small-scale local trade [56, 80, 106]. Recent studies also highlight the increasing recognition of plant gums and exudates as valuable non-timber forest products with livelihood potential for rural communities [2, 16, 88, 107].

In addition, a few WEPs were collected by cutting or sucking young stems to obtain plant juices. Informants reported sucking juice from the tender stems of Rumex species and Ampelocissus schimperiana. This practice provides quick refreshment during fieldwork or herding activities. Similar culturally embedded practices have been documented in other regions of Africa, including Tanzania and Ghana, where farmers and children commonly consume wild stems, shoots, or nectar-bearing plants during seasonal foraging activities [50, 77].

Hence, the findings indicate that most WEP collection practices in Dabat District involve simple and largely non-destructive techniques, particularly fruit and leaf picking. However, methods such as tuber excavation and bark incision for gum extraction may exert localized pressure on plant populations if practiced intensively. Similar concerns have been raised in global assessments of wild food resources, which emphasize the need for sustainable harvesting practices as biodiversity loss and land-use change threaten both plant populations and traditional ecological knowledge [12, 15, 108]. Promoting awareness of sustainable harvesting and integrating indigenous collection knowledge into conservation and food security strategies could therefore help maintain the availability of WEPs and support rural livelihoods in Dabat District and similar ethnobotanical landscapes.

Condition of wild edible plants used and modes of consumption of wild edible plants

The study revealed that WEPs in Dabat District are consumed in three main conditions: fresh, dried, or both fresh and dried (Fig. 6). The majority of the recorded species were consumed fresh immediately after collection, while a smaller number were consumed in both fresh and dried forms, and only a few species were primarily consumed in dried form. Fresh consumption was common for edible fruits, leafy vegetables, tubers, and flower nectar. In contrast, drying was mainly practiced for certain fruits in order to extend their availability beyond the harvesting season.

Fig. 6.

Consumption condition of WEPs in Dabat District

Fresh consumption was the dominant mode of utilization in the study area. Many wild fruits such as Carissa spinarum, Grewia ferruginea, Ximenia americana, and Balanites aegyptiaca were eaten raw immediately after harvesting, often as seasonal snacks for children, herders, and farmers during routine field activities. The predominance of fresh consumption reflects the easy accessibility of WEPs in areas surrounding farmlands, grazing lands, and forest margins. Similar patterns have been reported in other Ethiopian districts such as Yeki, Omo, Awi, and Delanta, where fresh consumption of WEPs is common due to the availability of wild foods in nearby environments and the minimal processing required [1, 57, 109, 110]. Comparable observations have also been documented in East African countries including Kenya and Uganda, where fresh wild foods form an important component of rural diets and provide quick and convenient nutritional supplements [21, 61].

Fresh consumption was also common for wild leafy vegetables, particularly during the rainy season when herbaceous plants are abundant. Species such as Amaranthus viridis and Portulaca oleracea were collected and consumed as fresh vegetables. These plants are often harvested from agricultural fields, fallow lands, and disturbed habitats where they grow naturally during the rainy season. Their consumption contributes to dietary diversity and provides important micronutrients to rural households. Similar findings have been reported in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Cameroon, where wild leafy vegetables serve as important sources of vitamins and minerals and help reduce micronutrient deficiencies in rural communities [7, 23, 58, 95, 96]. From a nutritional perspective, the continued use of wild vegetables represents a valuable and locally available strategy for improving food security and addressing hidden hunger [13, 78].

A smaller proportion of WEPs were consumed in both fresh and dried forms, indicating the presence of traditional food preservation practices in the study area. Fruits from species such as Ficus vasta, Ficus sycomorus, and Rosa abyssinica were eaten fresh during the harvesting season but were also sun-dried for later consumption. Drying allows households to store wild foods for extended periods and helps bridge seasonal food shortages when fresh resources become scarce. Similar preservation practices have been documented in Tanzania and Ghana, where drying of wild fruits is used to maintain food supplies during periods of limited availability [52, 86]. In South Asian countries such as India and Pakistan, traditional drying and storage of WEPs also play an important role in coping with seasonal food shortages [69, 112, 113].

Only a few WEP species were mainly consumed in dried form. This limited use of drying may be related to the fact that many wild foods are consumed directly in the field as snacks or quick refreshments. In addition, drying requires additional labor, suitable weather conditions, and appropriate storage facilities, which may limit its widespread use. Nevertheless, the combination of fresh and dried consumption practices demonstrates that WEPs in Dabat District function both as immediate food sources and as seasonal food reserves.

Therefore, the findings indicate that fresh consumption remains the dominant mode of WEP utilization in the study area, while traditional drying practices provide an important complementary strategy for extending food availability beyond harvesting seasons. Documenting and preserving such traditional knowledge is increasingly important, as global assessments highlight that environmental change, land-use transformation, and modernization threaten both wild plant resources and indigenous food practices [12, 15].

The survey further revealed that WEPs in Dabat are utilized through multiple modes raw, cooked, or both depending on edibility, plant part, and local preferences (Fig. 7). Raw consumption accounted for approximately 60–65% of species and included most wild fruits, gums, and flowers. Children and adults frequently consumed Carissa spinarum, Grewia ferruginea, and Balanites aegyptiaca directly in the field, while flower nectar from Acanthus polystachyus and Leonotis nepetifolia was sucked raw. Such practices are consistent with other Ethiopian districts, including Tach Gayint and Metema–Quara, where minimal processing enables immediate nutritional and energy benefits [5, 75]. Comparable patterns are reported across Kenya, Uganda, and Nigeria, highlighting raw consumption as an adaptive strategy to meet seasonal food gaps.

Fig. 7.

Modes of consumption of wild edible plants

Cooked consumption was less common and mainly involved leafy vegetables and tubers. Species such as Amaranthus viridis, Portulaca oleracea, and Corchorus olitorius were typically boiled or roasted, while tubers like Dioscorea praehensilis were cooked to improve palatability, reduce toxicity, and enhance digestibility. Some species, including young shoots of Oxalis obliquifolia, were consumed both raw and cooked depending on household needs. Similar observations in Dibatie and Karamara districts, as well as across other African contexts, demonstrate that raw and cooked consumption is complementary, balancing convenience, nutrition, and safety [3, 97].

These consumption patterns have important implications. Raw fruits and gums provide immediate energy and micronutrients, particularly for children, herders, and labor-intensive households, while cooked WEPs supply essential vitamins, minerals, and carbohydrates, enhancing dietary diversity. Cooking also reflects indigenous knowledge, as thermal processing mitigates anti-nutritional factors and improves digestibility [3, 8, 10]. The dual consumption modes illustrate the adaptive strategies of rural communities in utilizing WEPs year-round, buffering against seasonal fluctuations in cultivated food availability.

Comparative evidence from Ethiopia and other African countries confirms the broader relevance of these findings. Surveys in Kenya and Uganda report similar trends of raw fruit consumption alongside selective cooking of leafy greens and tubers, indicating consistent cultural and ecological drivers of WEP utilization [21, 64]. Within Ethiopia, districts such as Metema, Quara, Midakegn, and Dibatie exhibit analogous consumption trends, reinforcing the external validity of the Dabat results [3, 4, 10, 114]. Integrating WEPs into nutrition-sensitive food security programs can therefore provide resilient dietary options for rural households while highlighting the importance of conserving both raw and cooked wild species critical for local livelihoods.

Wild edible plant collectors in Dabat District

In Dabat District, the collection of WEPs is a culturally mediated and gendered activity involving children, women, and men, each contributing differently based on plant accessibility, household roles, and traditional knowledge (Fig. 8). Among the documented species, children were the primary collectors, followed by women and men. Children mainly collected easily accessible plant parts such as nectar from flowers (Acanthus polystachyus, Leonotis nepetifolia), ripe fruits (Carissa spinarum, Grewia ferruginea), and chewable gums (Vachellia seyal, Sterculia setigera). Their participation highlights the role of youth in rural food systems, providing nutrient-rich snacks and fostering intergenerational knowledge transfer. Similar patterns have been observed in West Africa, where children’s foraging significantly contributes to household nutrition and daily energy intake [65, 115, 116].

Fig. 8.

Wild edible plant collectors in Dabat District

Women predominantly gathered leafy vegetables and tubers, including Amaranthus viridis, Corchorus olitorius, Portulaca oleracea, Dioscorea spp., and Pueraria montana, mainly from farm margins, home gardens, and nearby grasslands. This reflects traditional gendered roles in subsistence and household food preparation, where women are responsible for securing nutrient-dense plant foods. Ethnobotanical research across Ethiopia and South Africa similarly indicates that women frequently lead in the collection and management of wild vegetables, owing to their knowledge of edible species and central role in meal preparation [63, 78, 117].

Men, in contrast, were primarily responsible for collecting large fruits and gums from trees in less accessible habitats, including Balanites aegyptiaca, Ficus spp., and Adansonia digitata. This pattern reflects a common gendered division of labor in ethnobotanical practice, where men engage in resource extraction that requires physical strength or travel to distant locations. Comparable trends have been documented in multiple Ethiopian districts and across sub-Saharan Africa, demonstrating that men’s participation is often associated with harvesting tree-based resources in remote areas [16, 30, 87, 118].

The observed distribution of collectors emphasizes the intersection of ecological access and socio-cultural norms in shaping wild edible plant foraging. Children’s collection of accessible plant parts reflects both ecological opportunity and cultural acceptance of youth participation in subsistence activities. Women’s focus on leafy vegetables and tubers aligns with their household responsibilities, while men’s involvement in larger and less accessible resources demonstrates the influence of gendered labor roles. Together, these complementary activities support efficient utilization of wild plant resources and contribute to the overall dietary diversity and food security of the community.

These patterns have important implications for nutrition, household resilience, and the conservation of traditional knowledge. Children’s collection provides immediate energy and micronutrients, women’s collection of leafy greens and tubers enhances dietary quality, and men’s harvesting of large fruits and gums can contribute to household income or food reserves. The cooperative roles of children, women, and men in harvesting WEPs strengthen community food systems and enhance social-ecological resilience, buffering households against seasonal food shortages and environmental variability.

Comparative evidence from Ethiopia and other African countries confirms the broader relevance of these findings. In West Africa, studies report that children consume more wild fruits than adults, while women and men engage in plant collection based on accessibility and labor requirements [47, 58, 114]. In East Africa, research in Kenya and Uganda highlights youth and women as key contributors to wild plant foraging and knowledge transmission [21, 61]. Additionally, surveys across Ethiopian districts such as Metema, Quara, Midakegn, and Dibatie demonstrate similar gender- and age-based roles in WEP collection [3, 4, 10, 114]. These parallels suggest that the collection patterns observed in Dabat District reflect widely applicable ethnobotanical dynamics. Recognizing these roles is essential for designing interventions that promote sustainable WEP use, encourage inclusive knowledge transfer, and enhance rural food security.

Seasonal availability of wild edible plants in Dabat District

The study revealed that WEPs in Dabat District exhibit distinct seasonal availability patterns that reflect their ecological niches, growth habits, and adaptive strategies. Seasonal timing strongly influences collection practices, modes of consumption, and the contribution of WEPs to household food security (Fig. 9). Most herbaceous species and leafy vegetables, including Amaranthus viridis, Portulaca oleracea, and Corchorus olitorius, were predominantly available during the rainy season. These annual herbs grow abundantly in farmlands, grasslands, and other disturbed habitats when rainfall is high, making them readily accessible for immediate consumption and as dietary supplements to staple foods. Similar seasonal peaks in leafy WEP availability have been reported in other Ethiopian districts such as Midakegn and Metema, where these species form an important part of household nutrition during the wet season [3, 5, 9, 114]. Comparable patterns are documented in East Africa, including Kenya and Uganda, highlighting the reliance on herbaceous WEPs during rainy periods to enhance dietary diversity [67, 109].

Fig. 9.

Seasonal availability of wild edible plants in Dabat District

Fruits from shrubs and trees, such as Carissa spinarum, Grewia ferruginea, Ficus sycomorus, Balanites aegyptiaca, and Rosa abyssinica, were mainly available during the dry season, coinciding with their natural ripening periods. Unlike annual herbs, shrubs and trees are perennial, enabling them to persist through low rainfall periods and even droughts. These fruits serve as key snacks or supplementary foods, especially for children and herders, when cultivated crops are unavailable. Certain species, including Ficus sycomorus and Rosa abyssinica, were collected and consumed both fresh and dried, allowing year-round availability and reflecting traditional strategies for food preservation. Similar dry-season fruit availability has been documented in West Africa and southern Africa, where perennial tree fruits play a critical role in nutrient supplementation during lean periods [65, 67, 95, 119].

Tubers and underground storage organs, including Dioscorea spp. and Pueraria montana, were primarily accessible during the rainy season, when plant growth is active. However, these underground parts are often stored and consumed later as emergency foods during periods of scarcity, demonstrating their role as strategic reserves in household food security. Ethnobotanical studies from Ethiopia and Tanzania report similar practices, where seasonal harvesting and storage of underground plant parts enhance dietary resilience during crop failures or food shortages [1, 5, 8, 9, 50, 81].

These findings highlight the integration of ecological knowledge with cultural practices in Dabat District. Communities leverage an understanding of plant phenology to optimize collection timing, ensuring maximum nutritional benefit and efficient resource use. The complementary availability of rainy-season leafy herbs, dry-season fruits, and storable tubers forms a year-round dietary system, particularly critical during periods of crop failure or limited market access. Similar adaptive seasonal strategies have been reported globally, including in India, China, and West Africa, demonstrating how WEP use strengthens rural food security and nutritional resilience [65, 120–124].

Hence, the seasonal patterns of WEP availability in Dabat District underline their cultural, ecological, and nutritional significance. These patterns shape household consumption, support dietary diversity, and reduce vulnerability to food shortages. Recognizing and integrating this temporal knowledge is essential for conservation planning, sustainable resource management, and the development of nutrition-sensitive food security strategies in Ethiopia and comparable agroecological regions worldwide.

Marketable wild edible plants in Dabat District

The study documented that 15 wild edible plant (WEP) species in Dabat District possess market value, providing supplementary income to rural households in addition to contributing to local food security. Marketable species were primarily fruits, gums, and certain tubers, which are easily transportable and widely recognized by local consumers (Fig. 10, Table 4). Notable examples include fruits from Ximenia americana, Syzygium guineense, Cordia africana, Balanites aegyptiaca, Adansonia digitata, and Ficus sycomorus, as well as gums from Vachellia seyal and Sterculia setigera. These products are collected, cleaned, and sold in nearby towns or local markets, generating additional income that supports household livelihoods while simultaneously contributing to nutrition [21, 65, 115, 119].

Fig. 10.

Syzygium guineense (Willd.) DC. sold in local market in the study area

Table 4.

Marketable WEPs in Dabat District

Wild edible plants	Seller group	Parts sold	Unit	Price (USD)
Rosa abyssinica R.Br. ex Lindl	Women	Fruit	Cup/Glass	0.3
Pueraria montana (Lour.) Merr	Men	Tubers	Cup/Glass	0.4
Ficus sur Forssk	Women	Fruit	Cup/Glass	0.6
Dovyalis abyssinica (A.Rich.) Warb	Women and men	Fruit	Cup/Glass	0.4
Clausena lansium (Lour.) Skeels	Women and men	Fruit	Cup/Glass	0.5
Corchorus olitorius L.	Women	Leaves	Cup/Glass	0.3
Cordia africana Lam	Men	Fruit	Cup/Glass	0.7
Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A.DC	Men	Fruit	Cup/Glass	0.6
Ekebergia capensis Sparrm	Men	Fruit	Handful	0.8
Mimusops kummel Bruce ex A.DC	Men	Fruit	Cup/Glass	0.7
Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill	Women	Fruit	Cup/Glass	0.4
Sterculia setigera Delile	Women	Gum / Fruit	Small Batch	0.5
Syzygium guineense (Willd.) DC	Women and men	Fruit	Tied	0.6
Ximenia americana L.	Women and men	Fruit	Handful	0.5
Dioscorea praehensilis Benth	Women	Fruit	Cup/Glass	0.4

In addition to fruits and gums, some tubers, including Dioscorea praehensilis and Pueraria montana are occasionally sold in local markets, particularly during the rainy season when they are abundant and facilitate trade. Leafy vegetables, such as Amaranthus viridis and Portulaca oleracea, are primarily consumed locally; however, small quantities are sometimes sold to meet immediate household needs or during periodic market days. Similar patterns have been reported in other Ethiopian districts, including Metema, Dibatie, and Midakegn, where WEPs contribute both to dietary supplementation and modest income generation for rural households [3, 4, 114].

The dual role of WEPs as both food and income-generating resources emphasizes their socio-economic significance. By providing a flexible source of cash, marketable WEPs enhance household resilience, particularly for subsistence farmers who experience seasonal food shortages. Comparable findings from East and West Africa, including Kenya, Uganda, Nigeria, and Ghana, demonstrate that the collection and sale of fruits, gums, and tubers from wild plants is a common livelihood strategy that sustains households while maintaining access to essential nutrition during lean periods [52, 101, 111, 116, 125]. Similarly, studies from South Asia, China, and Australia show that wild fruits and other edible plant products are often used both for household consumption and local trade, highlighting the global significance of marketable WEPs in rural food systems [20, 80, 103, 126].

The economic contribution of WEPs also reflects the integration of indigenous knowledge, ecological understanding, and cultural practices. Local collectors possess detailed knowledge of which species are marketable, the optimal harvesting periods, and appropriate post-harvest handling techniques to ensure quality for sale. This knowledge is especially critical in rural settings, where commercialization of WEPs can simultaneously enhance food security, generate income, and maintain traditional ecological practices [21, 54]. Moreover, the marketing of WEPs can incentivize communities to manage and conserve valuable species, aligning livelihood strategies with ecological sustainability.

Thus, the findings demonstrate that marketable WEPs in Dabat District serve a dual purpose: they provide essential nutritional resources and generate income through local trade. Recognizing the economic potential of these plants alongside their cultural and dietary roles can inform policy and development interventions, such as sustainable harvesting programs, value-chain development, and community-based conservation initiatives. Such measures have the potential to strengthen rural livelihoods, safeguard indigenous knowledge, and promote food and nutrition security in Ethiopia and comparable agroecological regions worldwide.

Adverse effects associated with the consumption of wild edible plants

The ethnobotanical survey in Dabat District revealed that the majority of WEPs are safe for human consumption and form an integral part of local diets. Fruits, leafy vegetables, and nectar-bearing flowers including Carissa spinarum, Ximenia americana L., Amaranthus viridis L., and Portulaca oleracea L. were consistently reported by informants as safe when eaten either raw or cooked (Table 5). These findings align with studies from other Ethiopian districts, such as Metema, Dibatie, and Midakegn, where the same species serve as staple or supplementary dietary components without causing adverse effects [3–5, 114]. Similar safety patterns have been observed across East and West Africa, demonstrating that commonly consumed fruits and leafy vegetables are widely recognized as safe within local food systems [56, 65, 110].

Table 5.

Adverse effects and recommended preparation of WEPs in Dabat district

Wild edible plants	Reported adverse effect	Recommended preparation/precaution
Dioscorea praehensilis Benth	Mild stomach upset if eaten raw	Cook or boil tubers before consumption
Pueraria montana (Lour.) Merr	Gastrointestinal discomfort when raw	Boil or roast tubers before eating
Oxalis obliquifolia Steud. ex A.Rich	Mild oral irritation or gastric upset	Eat in small quantities; can be lightly cooked or boiled
Acanthus polystachyus Delile	Occasional mouth irritation	Consume in moderation
Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R.Br	Occasional mouth irritation	Consume in moderation
Vachellia seyal (Delile)	Mild oral irritation if gum over-chewed	Chew in moderation; do not swallow large amounts
Sterculia setigera Delile	Mild oral irritation if gum over-chewed	Chew in moderation; consume young tubers cooked

A smaller subset of WEPs approximately seven species was associated with mild adverse effects, particularly when consumed in excess or without proper preparation. For example, tubers of certain Dioscorea species and roots of Pueraria montana (Lour.) Merr. occasionally caused gastrointestinal discomfort, including mild stomach upset or vomiting, if eaten raw or insufficiently processed. Herbs such as Oxalis obliquifolia contain high concentrations of oxalates, which may irritate the mouth or digestive tract when consumed in large quantities, although moderate portions are considered safe. Nectar from flowers, including Acanthus polystachyus and Leonotis nepetifolia, and gums from Vachellia seyal (Delile) P.J.H. Hurter and Sterculia setigera Del., are generally harmless but may cause minor oral irritation in sensitive individuals if consumed excessively. Comparable observations have been reported in West Africa, South Asia, and East Africa, emphasizing that traditional processing, portion moderation, and selective use of plant parts are key to preventing mild toxic or irritant effects [71, 80, 101, 103, 124, 126].

These results highlight the critical role of indigenous knowledge in mitigating risks associated with WEP consumption. Local communities possess detailed understanding of which species require processing such as boiling, roasting, or soaking to reduce anti-nutritional factors or mild irritants. This knowledge ensures safe consumption while optimizing nutritional intake and potential economic benefits. The minor adverse effects observed highlight the importance of portion control, selective harvesting, and careful preparation, particularly for species containing bioactive compounds. Similar strategies have been documented in Ethiopia, Kenya, Nigeria, and India, reflecting a broader pattern of local communities balancing food safety with dietary diversity [6, 21, 25, 92, 127].

From a broader perspective, the findings demonstrate that WEPs in Dabat District have a predominantly safe consumption profile, contributing to dietary diversity, nutritional security, and household resilience. The few species associated with mild adverse effects emphasize the importance of community education, guidance on safe preparation, and adherence to traditional ecological knowledge. Integrating these practices with public health recommendations can enhance dietary safety and optimize the socio-economic, nutritional, and cultural benefits of WEPs.

In conclusion, most WEPs in Dabat District are safe, and the minor adverse effects observed are largely preventable through traditional processing, portion moderation, and informed use. Emphasizing these practices supports sustainable utilization, strengthens community food security, and provides culturally appropriate dietary guidance for policymakers and development practitioners promoting WEPs in Ethiopia and comparable agroecological regions worldwide.

Informant consensus on wild edible plants in Dabat District

The informant consensus analysis revealed the degree of agreement among local communities regarding the recognition and use of WEPs in Dabat District. Interviews with community members identified species that are widely known, frequently used, and culturally significant. Among these, Ximenia americana was the most frequently cited (54.7%), followed by Morus alba (53.2%), Searsia pyroides var. pyroides (48.9%), and Rumex abyssinicus (48.2%) (Table 6). The high consensus for these species emphasizes their prominence in local diets, palatability, and ecological availability. Similar patterns have been observed in other Ethiopian districts such as Metema, Midakegn, and Dibatie, where culturally important WEPs also exhibit high agreement among informants [3–6, 9, 10]. Comparable trends are reported in Kenya, Uganda, and Nigeria, where certain wild fruits and leafy vegetables consistently demonstrate high consensus due to accessibility and frequent use in household nutrition [53, 61, 87].

Table 6.

List of WEPs and corresponding informant consensus in Dabat District

Scientific name	Number of informants	Percentage (%)
Ximenia americana L.	76	54.7
Morus alba L.	74	53.2
Searsia pyroides var. pyroides	68	48.9
Rumex abyssinicus Jacq	67	48.2
Phoenix reclinata Jacq	60	43.2
Dichrostachys cinerea (L.)	59	42.45
Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R.Br	58	41.7
Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill	56	40.3
Grewia ferruginea Hochst. ex A.Rich	54	38.8
Vachellia abyssinica (Hochst. ex Benth.)	53	38.0
Ficus sycomorus L.	49	35.3
Ficus vasta Forssk	44	31.7
Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A.DC	40	28.8
Corchorus olitorius L.	38	27.34
Cordia africana Lam	36	25.9
Euclea racemosa L.	34	24.5
Physalis peruviana L.	32	23.0
Strychnos innocua Delile	30	21.6
Adansonia digitata L.	24	17.3

Several tree and shrub species also recorded considerable informant agreement, including Phoenix reclinata (43.2%), Dichrostachys cinerea (42.45%), Leonotis nepetifolia (41.7%), and Opuntia ficus-indica (40.3%). These species provide fruits, nectar, or gums that serve both as snacks and supplementary nutrition, illustrating the multidimensional role of WEPs in local food systems. Other frequently cited species, such as Grewia ferruginea (38.8%) and Vachellia abyssinica (38%), contribute to dietary diversity and household resilience, particularly during periods of food scarcity. Such high-consensus species are often staples or culturally valued plants, consistent with ethnobotanical observations across West and southern Africa [55, 56, 67, 106].

Moderate consensus was observed for species including Ficus sycomorus (35.3%), Ficus vasta (31.7%), Diospyros mespiliformis (28.8%), and Corchorus olitorius (27.3%), which generally serve as supplementary foods, leafy vegetables, or seasonal fruits. Species with lower consensus, such as Cordia africana (25.9%), Euclea racemosa (24.5%), Physalis peruviana (23%), Strychnos innocua (21.6%), and Adansonia digitata (17.3%), likely reflect limited distribution, seasonal availability, or specialized cultural use. Similar patterns are documented in Ethiopia, Burkina Faso, and South Asia, where lower-consensus species are often underutilized or require specific knowledge for safe consumption [5, 56, 126].

The informant consensus data have important implications for nutrition, food security, and conservation. High-consensus species are ecologically abundant, culturally embedded, and nutritionally valuable, making them prime candidates for sustainable harvesting, dietary promotion, and conservation efforts. Conversely, species with lower consensus may benefit from awareness campaigns or targeted interventions to encourage safe utilization and conservation, particularly if they possess high nutritional potential but remain underutilized. The strong agreement among community members also reflects shared indigenous knowledge regarding safe and reliable WEPs, reinforcing household resilience and guiding strategies to enhance dietary diversity.

Hence, the informant consensus analysis demonstrates that certain WEPs are central to local diets, widely recognized, and culturally significant. High-consensus species, including Ximenia americana, Morus alba, and Searsia pyroides, are critical for food security, whereas lower-consensus species present opportunities to expand the use of underutilized plants. Recognizing these patterns provides a foundation for integrating traditional knowledge into sustainable food system planning, ensuring both dietary and ecological benefits for communities in Dabat District and comparable agroecological regions globally.

Preference and multipurpose value of wild edible plants in Dabat district

The preference ranking exercise demonstrated that taste is a primary factor influencing the selection and consumption of WEPs in Dabat District. Among the eleven species assessed, Ximenia americana emerged as the most preferred, reflecting its superior palatability and strong cultural significance. Closely following were Syzygium guineense, Cordia africana, and Morus alba, which were highly valued for flavor, accessibility, and frequent use (Table 7). Moderately preferred species, including Ficus vasta, Ficus sycomorus, and Rosa abyssinica, were appreciated for taste but less frequently consumed, often due to seasonal limitations or lower local abundance. Species with lower preference scores, such as Physalis peruviana, Datura stramonium, Opuntia ficus-indica, and Dioscorea villosa, were either less palatable, less available, or consumed more sporadically. These patterns align with studies in other Ethiopian districts, including Quara, Burji, Berek, and Adola, where taste strongly shapes WEP selection and facilitates intergenerational knowledge transfer [10, 16, 23, 30]. Similar trends have been observed in Kenya, Uganda, and Nigeria, emphasizing the role of taste in dietary quality and cultural food practices [49, 51, 62].

Table 7.

Preference ranking of eleven selected WEPs based on taste quality in Dabat District

Plant species	Informants (labeled 1–18)																		Total	Rank
	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14	15	16	17	18
Ximenia americana L	9	11	9	8	9	9	8	9	9	11	10	9	11	10	9	8	7	5	161	1st
Syzygium guineense (Willd.) DC	11	8	8	7	9	9	9	8	7	10	10	10	9	9	8	8	7	5	152	2nd
Cordia africana Lam	9	7	7	8	8	7	6	7	7	9	9	11	9	10	7	6	6	7	140	3rd
Morus alba L	8	9	5	2	7	7	6	9	6	8	7	8	7	6	6	8	7	7	123	4th
Ficus vasta Forssk	7	9	5	2	6	5	9	6	5	7	7	7	7	8	5	5	5	10	115	5th
Ficus sycomorus L	6	6	9	4	5	6	5	5	9	6	6	5	5	6	4	4	4	9	104	6th
Rosa abyssinica R.Br. ex Lindl	5	5	9	8	4	4	3	4	4	5	4	5	5	5	9	3	7	11	100	7th
Physalis peruviana L	4	3	4	6	3	3	9	3	3	4	5	4	3	3	3	7	7	4	78	8th
Datura stramonium L	3	4	3	8	2	9	2	2	9	1	2	3	3	4	9	8	2	1	75	9th
Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill	2	1	2	5	1	2	4	9	2	2	2	1	1	2	1	2	3	2	44	10th
Dioscorea villosa L	1	1	1	1	9	1	1	1	1	3	1	1	1	1	2	1	1	3	31	11th

Taste preferences carry important implications for household food security and nutrition. Highly palatable species are more likely to be consumed consistently, supplying essential nutrients, particularly for children and vulnerable community members. Additionally, culturally preferred species reinforce ethnobotanical knowledge, as younger generations learn to identify, harvest, and prepare these plants safely. Promoting the consumption of these species can support nutrition-sensitive interventions while respecting local food traditions, thereby enhancing dietary diversity and community resilience [2, 22, 106].

The direct matrix ranking highlighted the multipurpose value of WEPs, revealing that several species fulfill diverse household needs beyond dietary purposes. Cordia africana ranked highest overall, reflecting its contribution to food, fuel, construction, income, and farm tool production (Table 8). Similarly, Vachellia seyal and Vachellia abyssinica were highly valued for energy provision, marketable products, and fencing, indicating their integral role in rural livelihoods. Other species, such as Opuntia ficus-indica and Ficus vasta, had more specialized uses, primarily for food or medicinal purposes. These findings underline the multifunctionality of WEPs, consistent with studies in Ethiopia [3, 4, 6, 9] and across Africa including Ghana, Tanzania, and South Africa where multipurpose wild plants simultaneously support nutrition, income, and energy security [77, 86, 90, 98].

Table 8.

Direct matrix ranking on ten wild edible plants based on their multiple uses

Use categories	Wild edible plant species										Total	Rank
	Cordia africana	Opuntia ficus-indica	Mimusops kummel	Grewia ferruginea	Vachellia abyssinica	Vachellia seyal	Ficus sycomorus	Ficus vasta	Euclea racemose	Carissa spinarum
Food	10	9	7	8	8	6	9	10	8	3	78	1st
Firewood	7	4	8	3	7	8	8	7	7	9	68	2nd
Income	8	6	10	5	9	10	6	8	3	2	67	3rd
Furniture	9	10	0	6	10	10	7	5	3	0	60	4th
Charcoal	6	7	0	5	6	9	5	9	9	6	62	5th
Medicine	5	2	2	9	7	7	8	6	6	7	59	6th
Farm tools	3	8	0	7	8	9	6	4	8	6	58	7th
Fencing	2	5	6	3	9	7	6	7	2	6	53	8th
Total	50	51	33	46	64	66	55	56	45	38
Rank	6	5	10	7	2	1	4	3	8	9

The observed ranking patterns also emphasize the need for sustainable management. Multipurpose species like Cordia africana and Vachellia seyal, which are heavily exploited for multiple functions, face increased harvesting pressure. Implementing community-based conservation and sustainable harvesting practices is crucial to preserve ecosystem services, maintain dietary diversity, and ensure long-term energy and income support. Species with narrower utility, such as Mimusops kummel and Carissa spinarum, though less utilized, contribute to supplemental diets and niche uses, highlighting the importance of conserving the full spectrum of WEPs to enhance resilience against seasonal shortages and environmental variability.

Integrating taste preference and multipurpose value illustrates that WEPs in Dabat District are central components of socio-ecological systems. Highly preferred and multipurpose species reinforce household food security, cultural continuity, and livelihood resilience, whereas underutilized species offer potential for dietary diversification and livelihood enhancement. Recognizing these patterns provides guidance for sustainable use, nutritional interventions, and conservation planning, ensuring that both dietary and non-dietary benefits of WEPs are maintained. Comparable strategies have been recommended globally, including in India, China, and Australia, as well as across Africa, where balancing local food preferences with ecosystem conservation enhances rural livelihoods and food security [13, 88, 126].

Comparative analysis of wild edible plants using Jaccard similarity in Dabat district

The Jaccard Similarity Index (JSI) analysis revealed significant variation in the overlap of wild edible plant (WEP) species between Dabat District and other Ethiopian study sites, highlighting the combined influence of ecological conditions and cultural practices on plant utilization (Table 9). High similarity was recorded with Quara (67.6%) and Metema (63.7%), followed by Chilga (58.1%), Dibatie (57.5%), and Delanta (55.3%). These high similarity values suggest that comparable agro-ecological settings such as rainfall distribution, soil fertility, and vegetation types along with shared cultural norms, promote the use of similar WEPs across these regions [3, 5, 9, 10, 110]. Such species are often recognized for their palatability, nutritional value, and multipurpose roles, making them central to local diets, household food security, and livelihoods in northern and northwestern Ethiopia.

Table 9.

JSI comparing WEPs documented in Dabat District with previous ethnobotanical studies in Ethiopia

Study area	PS	a	B	c	JSI	References
Adola	46	41	47	5	6.02	[128]
Arsi	36	28	44	8	12.50	[60]
Awi	39	21	34	18	48.65	[109]
Berek	34	21	39	13	27.08	[16]
Bullen	29	14	37	15	41.67	[8]
Burji	46	37	43	9	12.86	[23]
Chilga	33	15	34	18	58.1	[9]
Delanta	49	28	31	21	55.26	[110]
Dire Dawa	22	17	47	5	8.47	[129]
East Shewa	40	23	35	17	41.46	[130]
Gayint	36	20	36	16	40.00	[75]
Gibe	74	57	35	17	22.67	[131]
Goba	17	12	47	5	9.26	[22]
Guraferda	64	57	45	7	7.39	[7]
Hararghe	26	22	48	4	6.06	[132]
Hula	50	39	41	11	15.49	[133]
Karamara	42	38	48	4	4.88	[97]
Konso	154	131	29	23	16.43	[47]
Korahe	57	52	47	5	5.05	[30]
Lowland Ethiopia	88	76	40	12	11.54	[134]
Meinit	66	58	44	8	8.51	[135]
Metema and Quara	44	23	31	21	63.7	[5]
Midakegn	50	27	29	23	41.07	[4]
Mieso	41	27	38	14	27.45	[81]
Omo	38	27	41	11	19.30	[57]
Quara	51	28	29	23	67.6	[10]
Raya	59	38	31	21	43.7	[76]
Sedie	33	17	36	16	43.2	[136]
Soro	64	45	33	19	32.20	[82]
Yalo	16	12	48	4	7.14	[137]
Yeki	74	68	46	6	5.56	[1]
Kofale	62	40	30	22	45.8	[59]
Dibatie	54	31	29	23	62.2	[3]

Key: PS = previous study; a = species only in previous studies; b = species only in current study; c = species common to both studies; JSI = Jaccard Similarity Index (%)

Moderate similarity indices were observed in districts including Raya (43.7%), Sedie (43.2%), Awi (48.7%), East Shewa (41.5%), Midakegn (41.1%), and Gayint (40.0%). These intermediate values reflect partial overlap in species composition and ethnobotanical knowledge, likely driven by ecological heterogeneity, such as altitude, seasonal rainfall variation, and habitat differences, as well as local cultural preferences, taboos, and seasonal food practices [1, 3, 4, 76]. For example, certain leafy vegetables and fruit-bearing shrubs thrive in mid-altitude zones like Dabat and Metema but are absent in drier lowland districts, influencing which species are known, harvested, and consumed by local communities.

In contrast, very low similarity indices were recorded in Korahe (5.1%), Yeki (5.6%), Karamara (4.9%), Hararghe (6.1%), and Adola (6.0%). These low overlaps highlight the highly localized nature of WEP knowledge and utilization, shaped by unique agro-ecological contexts, vegetation diversity, and cultural practices [103, 124, 126]. Arid or semi-arid districts favor drought-tolerant species, tubers, or cacti, which are largely absent in the humid highlands of Dabat. Similarly, historical food practices, market access, and cultural food preferences determine which plants are integrated into local diets, resulting in distinct WEP assemblages. Comparable patterns of localized WEP use have been documented globally, including in Kenya, West Africa, and South Asia, where environmental variability and cultural distinctions strongly influence species selection and the transmission of ethnobotanical knowledge [21, 56, 67].

The observed range of JSI values carries several important implications. First, it confirms that ethnobotanical knowledge is both shared and site-specific, emphasizing the necessity of localized studies to document the full spectrum of WEP diversity. Second, it highlights the need for context-sensitive conservation and sustainable management strategies. High-similarity areas could benefit from collaborative knowledge-sharing, seed exchange programs, and regionally coordinated resource management, whereas low-similarity districts require tailored approaches to safeguard unique species and traditional knowledge. Finally, these patterns inform nutrition and livelihood strategies: widely shared species may serve as model WEPs for enhancing dietary diversity and resilience, while unique local species provide opportunities to diversify rural diets and preserve cultural heritage.

In conclusion, the JSI analysis demonstrates that WEP utilization in Dabat District is shaped by a combination of environmental and socio-cultural factors. High similarity with certain districts reflects shared ecological and cultural conditions, whereas low similarity highlights the uniqueness of local plant knowledge. These findings emphasize the importance of site-specific ethnobotanical research, sustainable management, and conservation strategies that integrate indigenous knowledge to maintain biodiversity, food security, and nutritional resilience in Ethiopia and similar agro ecological regions globally [107, 108, 126].

Wild edible plant knowledge among informant groups

The analysis of ethnobotanical knowledge in Dabat District revealed significant variation across informant groups, emphasizing the sociocultural factors that shape familiarity with WEPs (Table 10). Male participants reported significantly higher knowledge than females (3.3 ± 1.6 vs. 2.6 ± 1.3; t = 2.8, p < 0.05), a pattern consistent with other Ethiopian districts such as Metema and Dibatie, where men predominantly engage in foraging and forest-based activities [3–5, 8–10]. Similar gender-based trends have been documented in East and West Africa, including Kenya and Nigeria, where men’s involvement in field-based resource collection contrasts with women’s roles in processing, household utilization, and cultivation of wild or semi-domesticated plants [21, 51]. These findings suggest that direct access to and engagement in resource collection strongly influences the accumulation and retention of ethnobotanical knowledge.

Table 10.

WEPs knowledge among informant groups (independent t-test)

Parameters	Informant groups	N	Mean ± SD	t-value	p-value
Gender	Male	68	3.3 ± 1.6	2.8	p < 0.05
	Female	68	2.6 ± 1.3
Literacy level	Illiterate	83	4.1 ± 1.9	7.4	p < 0.05
	Literate	53	1.9 ± 1.3
Experience of informant	Key informant	54	4.6 ± 1.8	7.5	p < 0.05
	General informant	82	2.5 ± 1.2

Literacy status was inversely associated with WEP knowledge, as illiterate participants reported greater familiarity (4.1 ± 1.9) compared to literate individuals (1.9 ± 1.3; t = 7.4, p < 0.05). This pattern reflects the experiential and orally transmitted nature of traditional knowledge, which is deeply embedded in daily practices rather than formal schooling [20, 103, 126]. Key informants, selected for recognized expertise, demonstrated the highest knowledge levels (4.6 ± 1.8), underscoring the role of social recognition, experience, and mentorship in the intergenerational preservation of indigenous plant knowledge. Comparable observations have been made in South Asia and West Africa, where elders or expert harvesters act as custodians of local ecological knowledge, guiding younger community members in sustainable harvesting, preparation, and utilization of WEPs [54, 80, 86, 119, 138].

Age was strongly associated with ethnobotanical knowledge (Table 11). One-way ANOVA and Pearson correlation analyses revealed that older participants possessed substantially higher knowledge than younger groups (F(2, 133) = 39.24, p < 0.05; r = 0.64, p < 0.001) (Fig. 11), and regression analysis confirmed that age accounted for 41.3% of the variance in WEP knowledge (B = 0.09, p < 0.001) (Fig. 12). These results indicate that WEP knowledge accumulates over time and is transmitted through experience and practice [1, 97, 123, 139]. Similar age-related patterns have been reported in Ethiopia, Kenya, and India, where elder community members are repositories of knowledge on plant identification, seasonal availability, preparation methods, and safe consumption, which are critical for dietary diversity and household food security [21, 32, 33, 90, 94, 104, 133].

Table 11.

Age categories and informant knowledge of WEPs (one-way ANOVA)

Source of variation	Df	SS	MS = SS/Df	F ratio	p-value
Between groups	2	230.7	115.37	39.24	p < 0.05
Residual (within)	133	391.0	2.94
Total	135	621.7	118.31

Df: degree of freedom; SS: sum of squares; MS: mean of square, significant codes: 0.05

Fig. 11.

Pearson correlation showing the relationship between age and wild edible plant knowledge of informants

Fig. 12.

Linear regression showing the relationship between age and wild edible plant knowledge among informants

The implications of these findings are manifold. First, they highlight the need for participatory approaches to document and transmit traditional knowledge, targeting both elders and youth to ensure intergenerational continuity. Second, gender-sensitive strategies are essential: engaging women in WEP documentation, processing, and local marketing can enhance knowledge retention and improve household nutrition, while acknowledging men’s roles in resource collection and ecosystem stewardship. Third, the inverse relationship between literacy and plant knowledge suggests opportunities for integrating ethnobotanical content into formal education, field-based learning, and community training programs to bridge gaps between modern schooling and indigenous ecological knowledge [103, 140–142].

Hence, WEP knowledge in Dabat District is strongly influenced by age, gender, literacy, and social recognition, with older, male, illiterate, and key informant participants exhibiting the most comprehensive understanding. These patterns emphasize the culturally embedded and experiential nature of ethnobotanical knowledge. Integrating these knowledge holders into conservation, nutrition, and education initiatives is crucial for sustainable wild plant use, intergenerational knowledge transfer, and food security in Ethiopia and comparable agroecological regions globally [21, 99, 103, 124, 126].

Sources and transfer of indigenous knowledge

Understanding how indigenous knowledge is transmitted is crucial for documenting the use and management of WEPs. In Dabat District, a survey of 139 respondents revealed that family members remain the primary conduits of ethnobotanical knowledge, emphasizing the intergenerational and experiential nature of learning (Fig. 13). Fathers were the most frequently cited source (41%), followed by grandfathers (19.4%) and mothers (12.2%). Siblings, particularly brothers, contributed 11.5%, while experiential learning through direct observation of plants in natural settings accounted for 7.2%. Grandmothers and sisters were less frequently mentioned (each 4.3%), highlighting the central role of male elders in knowledge transfer.

Fig. 13.

Sources of wild edible plant knowledge in Dabat District

These findings highlight a strong patriarchal influence in ethnobotanical knowledge transmission, consistent with patterns documented in other Ethiopian districts such as Metema, Dibatie, and Midakegn, where elder male relatives play central roles in teaching plant identification, sustainable harvesting techniques, and safe preparation methods [3–5, 114]. Similar gendered dynamics have been reported across East and West Africa, including Kenya, Nigeria, and Ghana, where men typically assume the role of custodians of ecological knowledge, while women contribute mainly through processing, preparation, and domestic use of WEPs [21, 49, 51].

The prominence of direct observation highlights the experiential dimension of ethnobotanical learning. Children and young adults acquire knowledge not only through verbal instruction but also by engaging directly with their environment identifying edible species, understanding seasonal availability, and learning preparation techniques. Comparable patterns have been observed in South Asia and China, where participation in plant collection and practical engagement are critical for transferring knowledge of species with seasonal or specialized uses [20, 103, 126, 140].

The reliance on intergenerational, family-based transmission has several implications. First, it points to the vulnerability of ethnobotanical knowledge in the face of social changes such as urban migration, formal education, or the loss of elder custodians, which may disrupt traditional learning pathways [7, 65, 115]. Second, it highlights the need to systematically document WEP knowledge and integrate participatory learning approaches that engage both youth and elders, ensuring the continuity of cultural and ecological wisdom. Third, recognizing the combined roles of fathers, grandfathers, and mothers provides a foundation for gender-sensitive interventions, including educational programs and community-based conservation initiatives that leverage the knowledge of both men and women to strengthen sustainable use practices.

Thus, the findings from Dabat District demonstrate that the transmission of WEP knowledge is predominantly male-centered, supplemented by direct observation and hands-on engagement with the environment. This intergenerational system ensures the persistence of ethnobotanical practices, supports food security, and maintains cultural continuity. Safeguarding these knowledge pathways through participatory documentation, youth involvement, and inclusive gender strategies is essential for sustaining biodiversity, promoting traditional ecological knowledge, and enhancing the socio-cultural value of WEPs in Ethiopia and comparable agroecological regions globally [21, 126].

Implications of using wild edible plants in Dabat District

The use of WEPs in Dabat District has significant ecological, nutritional, economic, and cultural implications. These species play a crucial role in the daily diet and food security of local communities, particularly during periods of food scarcity. Leaves, fruits, tubers, and gums of WEPs provide essential nutrients and supplement household diets, contributing to dietary diversity and resilience against seasonal shortages.

Beyond nutrition, WEPs have important economic implications. Certain species, such as Ximenia americana, Syzygium guineense, and Cordia africana, are marketable, providing supplementary income for households through local sales of fruits, seeds, and other plant parts (Table 12). This income contributes to household livelihoods and incentivizes the sustainable use and conservation of these species.

Table 12.

Implications of using wild edible plants in Dabat District

Category	Main implications	Examples of WEPs involved
Nutritional	Provide essential nutrients and dietary diversity; supplement food during scarcity	Amaranthus viridis, Ximenia americana, Opuntia ficus-indica
Economic	Source of supplementary income through sale of fruits, seeds, and gums; supports household livelihoods	Syzygium guineense, Cordia africana, Ximenia Americana
Cultural	Preserve traditional knowledge and practices; facilitate intergenerational knowledge transfer; integrated in rituals and local cuisine	Leonotis nepetifolia, Datura stramonium, Ficus spp.
Ecological	Promote conservation awareness; overharvesting or habitat loss can threaten species; multipurpose trees support ecosystem services	Syzygium guineense, Ximenia americana, Vachellia abyssinica

WEPs also carry cultural and medicinal significance. Many species are embedded in traditional knowledge systems, with preparation methods, medicinal applications, and consumption practices passed down through generations. The harvesting and use of WEPs serve as a mechanism for intergenerational knowledge transfer, fostering cultural continuity and local identity. Children, in particular, learn about edible plants while playing or herding, reinforcing the link between ecological knowledge and daily life.

However, the use of WEPs has ecological implications. Overharvesting, habitat destruction, and unsustainable practices threaten the availability of key species, especially multipurpose trees and shrubs. The study highlights that species such as Syzygium guineense and Ximenia americana are highly valued yet increasingly vulnerable, underlining the need for conservation strategies that balance utilization with sustainability.

Overall, the implications of using WEPs in Dabat District reflect a complex interplay between nutrition, livelihoods, culture, and ecology. Proper management, community awareness, and integration of traditional knowledge into conservation planning are essential to ensure that these vital plant resources continue to support both human well-being and ecosystem health.

The utilization of WEPs in Dabat District carries multifaceted implications for local communities, encompassing nutritional, economic, cultural, and ecological dimensions. Nutritionally, WEPs contribute substantially to household diets, especially during periods of food scarcity or seasonal shortages. Leaves, fruits, tubers, and gums from species such as Ximenia americana, Syzygium guineense, and Cordia africana provide essential macronutrients, vitamins, and minerals, enhancing dietary diversity and food security [2, 5, 6]. These findings align with studies from Ethiopia [3, 5, 8–10] and other African contexts, including Kenya, Uganda, and Nigeria, where WEPs are critical nutritional supplements, particularly in rural areas with limited access to commercial food sources [21, 49, 51, 62].

Economically, WEPs offer significant livelihood opportunities. Highly valued species are often sold in local markets, generating supplementary income that supports household economies. For instance, fruits, seeds, and processed products from Ximenia americana, Syzygium guineense, and Cordia africana are traded locally, providing cash flow and incentivizing their continued use [38, 97, 103, 114]. Comparable observations have been reported in West and East Africa, as well as in South Asia, where multipurpose wild plants contribute simultaneously to food, income, and household resilience [56, 67]. This economic role highlights the importance of integrating WEPs into rural development and nutrition-sensitive programs that recognize the value of indigenous plant resources.

Culturally, WEPs are deeply embedded in local knowledge systems. Preparation methods, consumption practices, and medicinal applications are transmitted across generations, often through family networks and hands-on engagement with the environment. Fathers and grandfathers, in particular, play a key role in passing down plant knowledge, while children acquire practical skills through daily activities such as herding or foraging [62, 126]. This intergenerational knowledge transfer strengthens cultural identity and preserves local ecological wisdom. Studies from Ethiopia, Kenya, and India similarly emphasize that traditional knowledge of WEPs is integral to community cohesion, cultural continuity, and resilience in the face of environmental and economic challenges [7, 21, 103].

Ecologically, the use of WEPs has both positive and negative implications. While sustainable harvesting practices can support biodiversity and ecosystem resilience, overharvesting, habitat degradation, and land-use changes threaten the availability of key species. Highly valued multipurpose species, including Ximenia americana and Syzygium guineense, face increasing pressure from intensive collection and market demand, highlighting the need for conservation-oriented management [1, 5, 15, 16]. Globally, similar patterns have been observed in South Africa, Burkina Faso, and West Africa, where unsustainable use of wild resources has led to local declines in culturally and nutritionally important species [55, 56, 67].

Thus, the use of WEPs in Dabat District reflects a complex interplay between human nutrition, livelihoods, cultural practices, and ecological health. The findings emphasize the need for integrated strategies that combine sustainable management, community awareness, and preservation of traditional knowledge to safeguard these vital plant resources. Promoting sustainable harvesting, participatory conservation, and market-based incentives can ensure that WEPs continue to support dietary diversity, cultural identity, and ecological resilience in Dabat District and comparable agroecological regions globally [21, 52, 75, 114].

Threatening factors of wild edible plants in Dabat District

The sustainability of WEPs in Dabat District is increasingly challenged by a combination of anthropogenic and environmental pressures (Table 13). The study revealed that agricultural land expansion was the most frequently cited threat, affecting 33.1% of informants. This underscores the widespread conversion of natural habitats into farmland, which reduces both the abundance and diversity of WEPs. Similar trends have been documented across East African contexts, including Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania, where rapid agricultural expansion has disrupted traditional foraging areas and decreased access to wild plant resources [21, 50, 52, 142, 143]. Beyond reducing species availability, habitat conversion also impairs ecological functions such as seed dispersal, soil fertility maintenance, and regeneration potential, thereby affecting the long-term sustainability of WEP populations.

Table 13.

Threatening factors of WEPs in Dabat District

Threatening factor	Number of informants	Percentage (%)
Agricultural land expansion	46	33.09
Overgrazing	43	30.94
Firewood collection	39	28.06
Charcoal production	38	27.34
Fencing	36	25.90
House construction	33	23.74
Deforestation	27	19.40
Farm tools	22	15.83
Burning of plants	18	12.95
Furniture	13	9.35
Drought	8	5.76

Overgrazing and firewood collection were also identified as major threats, reported by 30.9% and 28.1% of informants, respectively. These pressures reflect the dual demands of livestock management and household energy needs. Overgrazing can damage seedlings and inhibit the natural regeneration of shrubs and herbaceous plants, while unsustainable fuelwood extraction decreases tree cover, alters microclimates, and increases soil erosion risk. Comparable patterns have been observed in West and East Africa, where subsistence grazing and energy demands significantly shape local vegetation composition and threaten wild plant availability [65, 67, 97].

Charcoal production (27.3%) and farmland fencing (25.9%) further exacerbate habitat degradation by selectively removing multipurpose tree species. Studies from Burkina Faso and South Africa highlight that market-driven extraction often targets ecologically and nutritionally important species, leading to localized depletion and heightened vulnerability of WEPs [56, 80]. Less frequently cited threats house construction (23.7%), general deforestation (19.4%), utilization for farm tools (15.8%) and furniture (9.4%), plant burning (13.0%), and drought (5.8%) may appear minor individually, but cumulatively they contribute to long-term declines. These findings reflect the complex interplay between subsistence needs, economic activities, and environmental variability, a dynamic also documented in South Asia and northern Ethiopia [5, 103, 114, 125]. The presence of drought as a natural threat particularly highlights the sensitivity of certain WEP species to climate fluctuations and seasonal rainfall patterns.

Understanding these threats has important implications for the sustainable management of WEPs. The dominance of land-use change and overexploitation suggests the need for integrated, community-based conservation approaches that combine sustainable harvesting protocols, protection of key habitats, and promotion of agroforestry systems incorporating WEPs. Integrating these plants into home gardens and farmland landscapes can reduce pressure on wild populations while enhancing dietary diversity and household resilience [1, 5, 21, 124]. Additionally, regulating the extraction of highly valued multipurpose species, paired with awareness campaigns on the ecological and nutritional importance of WEPs, can foster local stewardship and long-term conservation [2, 16, 23, 51, 97].

Thus, the threats to WEPs in Dabat District are multifaceted, encompassing both human-driven and environmental pressures. Agricultural expansion, overgrazing, fuelwood collection, and charcoal production emerge as the most critical factors, with additional pressures from construction, deforestation, and drought further impacting species availability. Addressing these challenges requires site-specific, participatory management strategies that integrate indigenous ecological knowledge with sustainable practices to ensure the continued availability of WEPs, thereby supporting food security, cultural preservation, and ecosystem health [2, 110, 116, 142].

Threatened wild edible plants in Dabat District

A preference ranking exercise was conducted with 18 key informants in Dabat District to identify wild edible plant (WEP) species that are both highly valued and at risk due to ecological and anthropogenic pressures. The results highlighted varying degrees of vulnerability among seven selected species, emphasizing the interplay between cultural importance and ecological susceptibility.

Syzygium guineense emerged as the most threatened and culturally significant species, receiving the highest total score of 106 (Table 14). This finding indicates that the species is under considerable pressure while remaining central to local livelihoods, providing food, medicine, and income. Similar patterns have been observed in East African contexts such as Kenya and Uganda, where widely used multipurpose WEPs are disproportionately vulnerable to overharvesting, land conversion, and habitat degradation [5, 21, 52]. The high threat status of S. guineense underscores the need for targeted conservation measures that prioritize species with both high cultural value and ecological sensitivity.

Table 14.

Preference ranking of threatened WEPs in Dabat District

Threatened WEPs	Informants (labeled from 1–18)																		Total	Rank
	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14	15	16	17	18
Syzygium guineense (Willd.) DC	5	6	7	6	7	5	6	7	5	7	7	6	5	7	6	4	7	3	106	1st
Euclea racemosa L	2	7	6	5	6	4	7	4	6	3	6	4	6	4	5	2	6	2	85	2nd
Ximenia americana L	3	5	5	7	5	3	5	2	7	4	4	3	7	5	1	3	2	1	71	3rd
Acanthus polystachyus Delile	4	4	4	3	3	2	4	3	3	5	3	5	3	6	2	5	4	1	68	4th
Cordia africana Lam	7	2	1	2	4	6	3	5	4	6	5	7	4	3	3	1	3	1	67	5th
Morus alba L	6	3	3	1	2	7	2	1	2	2	2	2	2	1	4	7	5	1	53	6th
Vachellia abyssinica (Hochst. ex Benth.)	1	1	2	4	1	1	1	6	1	1	1	1	1	2	7	6	1	1	39	7th

Euclea racemosa, ranked second with a score of 85, reflects comparable vulnerability. Its extensive use for household needs, combined with increasing anthropogenic pressures such as fuelwood collection and land-use change, contributes to its perceived scarcity. Studies in West Africa and South Africa similarly report that multipurpose shrubs like E. racemosa are under stress due to their dual role in local diets and economic activities [55, 56, 67]. Ximenia americana, ranking third, is prized for its nutritious fruits, yet its populations are increasingly threatened by overharvesting and habitat degradation, highlighting a global trend where edible fruit-bearing species face simultaneous ecological and nutritional pressures [20, 101, 124, 126].

Moderately threatened species, including Acanthus polystachyus and Cordia africana (scores of 68 and 67, respectively), maintain substantial dietary and cultural importance. Their intermediate rankings suggest that current use is sustainable, though continued monitoring is warranted to prevent future overexploitation. Comparable observations in Ethiopian districts such as Metema and Midakegn indicate that multipurpose trees like C. africana are highly valued for food, timber, and medicinal purposes but are locally depleted when harvesting is unchecked [3–5, 114]. Morus alba and Vachellia abyssinica, with lower scores of 53 and 39, appear less vulnerable due to greater natural abundance or lower utilization intensity.

These results have critical implications for sustainable management and conservation. First, they highlight the importance of community-based approaches that integrate local knowledge to prioritize species both highly utilized and ecologically vulnerable. Controlled harvesting, protection of key habitats, and promotion of WEP-inclusive agroforestry systems can alleviate pressure on threatened species while sustaining household nutrition and income [21, 52, 75, 97]. Second, linking cultural significance with ecological risk allows for targeted conservation strategies; species like S. guineense and X. americana, which are both valuable and threatened, should be central to intervention programs. Finally, these findings underscore the necessity of continuous monitoring, particularly in areas facing rapid land-use change, to ensure adaptive management that responds to shifts in species abundance and community reliance.

Hence, the preference ranking in Dabat District demonstrates that WEPs experience varying levels of threat, with some species requiring urgent conservation attention due to their dual ecological vulnerability and socio-cultural importance. Safeguarding highly valued WEPs through participatory management, sustainable harvesting, and habitat conservation is essential for preserving biodiversity, food security, cultural continuity, and livelihood resilience. These findings align with global experiences in Africa, Asia, and South America, where integrating local knowledge into conservation planning is crucial for the sustainable use of multipurpose wild plant resources [68, 80, 110].

Conservation of wild edible plants and their associated knowledge in Dabat District

The sustainability of WEPs in Dabat District is increasingly threatened by anthropogenic pressures such as agricultural expansion, overgrazing, firewood collection, and deforestation. These activities reduce both the abundance and diversity of WEPs while simultaneously jeopardizing the traditional ecological knowledge that underpins their use. Similar patterns have been reported in East and West Africa, including Kenya, Uganda, and Nigeria, where land-use changes and unsustainable harvesting practices compromise not only plant populations but also the cultural and nutritional systems reliant on them [14, 49, 56, 64, 87, 116]. This dual risk emphasizes the need for integrative conservation strategies that address both biodiversity preservation and knowledge continuity.

Local communities in Dabat have developed a suite of strategies to safeguard WEPs, reflecting a synthesis of traditional practices and adaptive resource management. Protection of naturally growing species around homesteads, farm boundaries, and sacred groves was widely reported, allowing for convenient access while enabling natural regeneration. Controlled harvesting, such as collecting only leaves, fruits, or tubers without damaging the plant, further supports sustainable utilization. The deliberate integration of WEPs into home gardens and agroforestry systems not only improves household food security but also reduces pressure on wild populations, illustrating the potential synergy between ecological knowledge and livelihood strategies [65, 69, 139, 144, 145].

A critical component of conservation is the intergenerational transfer of ethnobotanical knowledge. Elders and experienced harvesters teach younger community members about plant identification, edible parts, preparation methods, and seasonal availability. Informal learning, such as observing or assisting during herding and plant collection, ensures continuity of knowledge across generations. Comparable findings in Ethiopia, India, and China highlight the importance of experiential learning for sustaining local ecological knowledge, particularly where formal education does not fully address traditional plant-use practices [16, 81, 82, 120, 123, 144]. This process reinforces cultural identity, food security, and community resilience, demonstrating that conservation is both ecological and cultural.

Community awareness and local regulatory measures also contribute to the protection of WEPs. Informants emphasized educational initiatives and guidelines to prevent destructive practices such as overharvesting, uncontrolled firewood collection, and indiscriminate land clearing. Participatory approaches in other African contexts, including Ghana and Cameroon, have shown that integrating community engagement with ecological stewardship enhances compliance and fosters sustainable management of valued plant species [19, 52, 58, 89, 146–148]. By combining local norms, knowledge systems, and practical conservation measures, communities can maintain both biodiversity and the cultural integrity of WEP utilization.

Thus, the conservation of WEPs in Dabat District relies on an integrated approach combining traditional ecological knowledge, sustainable harvesting practices, intergenerational knowledge transfer, and community engagement. Promoting these strategies alongside educational initiatives and participatory management is essential for safeguarding biodiversity, enhancing nutrition and livelihoods, and preserving cultural heritage. Effective conservation must be context-specific, culturally grounded, and adaptive to ongoing environmental and socio-economic changes, reflecting lessons from Ethiopia and comparable global regions where WEPs support human well-being [21, 52, 123, 126, 130, 142, 147].

Limitations and future research directions

This study provides important insights into the ethnobotanical use and conservation of WEPs in Dabat District, but several limitations exist. Data relied on purposively selected informants and self-reports, which may introduce recall bias and underrepresent younger or less experienced community members. Fieldwork was seasonally constrained, potentially missing species available at other times, and ecological assessments of abundance, population status, and habitat conditions were not conducted. Nutritional and phytochemical analyses were also beyond the study’s scope, limiting insights into the dietary and medicinal value of WEPs.

Future research should include year-round surveys, ecological monitoring, and nutritional or phytochemical studies to better assess species availability, sustainability, and health benefits. Expanding participatory approaches to include youth and marginalized groups can enhance understanding of knowledge transmission and support inclusive, community-based conservation strategies.

Conclusions

This study shows that WEPs continue to play an important role in everyday life in Dabat District, northwestern Ethiopia, supporting local diets, cultural identity, and household resilience. The wide range of species recorded, together with the diversity of edible parts, preparation methods, and seasonal availability, highlights the continued reliance of rural communities on these plants as supplementary foods and as crucial resources during times of seasonal food shortage. Fruits, tubers, and leafy vegetables were the most commonly consumed, reflecting both local ecological conditions and long-established food traditions.

The findings also reveal that knowledge about WEPs is not evenly shared across the community. Elders, women, and children are especially important in recognizing, collecting, preparing, and passing on knowledge about these plants. A small number of species were found to be particularly well known, widely used, and multifunctional, making them especially important for local diets and livelihoods. At the same time, comparisons with studies from other parts of Ethiopia show that while many food plants are shared nationally, local communities adapt their use in ways that reflect their specific environment and culture.

Despite their value, both WEPs and the knowledge associated with them are under increasing pressure from land-use change, habitat degradation, overgrazing, and declining knowledge transmission. Recognizing WEPs as valuable components of agrobiodiversity rather than as foods of last resort is essential. Integrating WEPs into conservation, food security, and rural development efforts can contribute to improved nutrition, cultural continuity, and ecological resilience, supporting broader goals such as SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being), and SDG 15 (Life on Land).

Abbreviations

ANOVA

Analysis of variance

IK

Indigenous knowledge

WEPs

Wild and semi-wild edible plants

JSI

Jaccard Similarity Index

Author contributions

TK conceptualized the study, developed the research proposal, conducted field data collection and plant specimen identification, performed the investigation, and drafted the initial manuscript. GM provided critical input during proposal development, participated in field data collection, assisted with specimen identification, and contributed to the preparation of the final manuscript. MA assisted in proposal development and participated in field data collection. AA verified the statistical analyses conducted using R software and contributed to manuscript preparation. All authors have read and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Funding

No funding.

Availability of data and materials

All data generated and analyzed during this study are included in this manuscript.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Prior to data collection, authorization letters were obtained from the Dabat District Administration Offices. All participants provided verbal informed consent before taking part in interviews and focus group discussions. Information was recorded only with their approval. Consent was also obtained for the publication of any data, photographs, or images included in the manuscript.

Consent for publication

Informed consent was obtained from all participants for the use and publication of anonymized data collected during the study.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.