The global scenario of lumpy skin disease, its epidemiological investigation, and prevalence in livestock: A review

Abstract

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is a transboundary viral infection in cattle with significant economic impact etiologically associated with the lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV), a member of the genus Capripoxvirus. It was first documented in Zambia in 1929, and since then, it has disseminated across Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and parts of Europe, threatening the sustainability of livestock farming. Epidemiologically, LSD remains endemic in many African and Asian countries, now showing an alarming spread into non-endemic territories. The disease occurs in both cattle and buffalo, irrespective of breed. Key risk factors include high vector density, unrestricted cattle movement, inadequate biosecurity, and limited vaccination coverage. Transmission is primarily mechanical, facilitated by vectors; direct contact plays a minor role. Prevalence varies widely, with morbidity rates ranging from 3 to 100% and mortality rates typically between 1 and 15.3%. Clinical manifestations are characterized by nodular skin lesions. Molecular characterization has identified genetic diversity among field strains and recombinant vaccine-like viruses, aiding in epidemiological investigation and vaccine development. Treatment is largely supportive, including antimicrobial drugs, specifically antibiotics, are administered to mitigate secondary bacterial infections, anti-inflammatories, and wound care. The economic impact of LSD is substantial, primarily due to reduced milk and meat production, infertility, hide damage, treatment costs, and trade restrictions. Integrated approaches that combine vaccination and biosecurity remain the most effective means of limiting the spread of LSDV. As a re-emerging transboundary disease, LSD represents a significant threats to cattle health and the livestock economy. Strengthening surveillance, molecular characterization, vaccination strategies, and international cooperation is crucial to control its global spread and ensure the safeguard of livestock production.

Introduction

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is an internationally recognized transboundary animal disease classified as notifiable by the World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH) (Kononov et al., 2020) caused by the LSD virus (LSDV). The virus under the Poxviridae family and genus Capripoxvirus (Ahmed, 2024), a double-stranded DNA virus. This virus is antigenically similar to sheep and goat pox viruses but differs phylogenetically. LSDV exhibits high host specificity and mainly infects cattle and Asian buffalo (Sudhakar et al., 2020). The virus may also infect African Buffalo, Giraffes, Impalas, and Springboks (Erster et al., 2019; Paslaru et al., 2021; Das et al., 2021), but other domesticated animals, like sheep, goats, pigs, and horses remained unaffected. LSD virus was first discovered in a landlocked country in south-central Africa known as Zambia in 1929 (Lu et al., 2021). LSDV was initially believed to be caused by exposure to poisons or an insect attack hypersensitivity. In the 1940s, South African researchers such as Weiss, Haig, and Alexander played a pivotal role in classifying LSDV as a poxvirus and revealing its modes of transmission and epidemiological patterns. LSD has been initially restricted in Africa, since 1989 it has expanded to the Middle East, and in recent years it has dispersed across Eurasia (Mazloum et al., 2023). In Bangladesh, the first outbreak of LSD was observed on 22nd July 2019 in Chattogram District (Khan et al., 2024). LSD is a critical vector-borne disease predominantly transmitted through Aedes aegypti mosquitoes and Rhipicephalus appendiculatus ticks (Ochwo et al., 2019). In the northwestern region of Bangladesh, the disease was reported to have an overall attack rate of 37.6%, a mortality rate of 2.8%, and a case fatality rate of 7.5% (Azam et al., 2024). Many studies have shown that the morbidity of LSD ranges between 0% and 90%. Where the mortality rate is usually below or equal to 5% (Sprygin et al., 2019; Sudhakar et al., 2020). Conversely, morbidity due to LSD typically varies between 3% and 85%, largely determined by vector prevalence, animal immune status, and farming practices (Tuppurainen & Oura, 2012) and the mortality rate may reach 40% (Degu et al., 2020). The symptoms of LSD were characterized by skin nodules ranging between 5 and 50 mm in size, which were firm, round-shaped, and multiple nodules. The nodules typically manifest across various body parts like the head, neck, limbs, perineum, and other parts of the skin. Lameness, pyrexia, lacrimation, nasal secretion, salivation, lymph node swelling, and oedematous swelling in the neck and ventral abdomen (Chouhan et al., 2022). In the case of calves, the pneumonic form of this disease is very fatal (Radostits et al., 2007). LSD is an economic burden to livestock industries, especially in cattle and buffalo farming. A study by Chouhan et al. (2022) found that about 7763.25 million BDT (91.33 million US $) annual financial loss occurred in the Mymensing and Gaibandha districts of Bangladesh due to the outbreak of LSD. The cost of the disease is associated with reductions in milk and beef production, fertility issues, animal deaths, and treating severely affected livestock (Parvin et al., 2022). Vaccination of animals is the best way of disease control strategy, while the use of antibiotics with supportive management of infected animals can reduce the outbreak of secondary infection (Islam et al., 2023), as there is no specific medication against this disease. LSD is an important emerging disease globally, with its extensive spread and impact on the large ruminant population, causing severe economic losses, increased poverty, and a decline in food security, further intensifying rural communities' challenges (Chouhan et al., 2022). While previous reviews exist, none of those provide a consolidated, up-to-date synthesis of the current crisis in relation to of the recent Asian pandemic wave and the molecular emergence of recombinant strains. Therefore, this present comprehensive review is undertaken to provide a current global scenario of LSD, integrating the latest epidemiological data (up to August 2025), molecular characterization (including recombinant lineages), clinical and pathological lesions, phylogenetic relationship, economic burden, and current control measures across the world that will help researcher in better understanding and taking further step to control this transboundary disease.

Methodology

This comprehensive review was conducted as a Narrative Review to provide a broad, up-to-date synthesis of the global LSD scenario, epidemiology, molecular advances, economic impact, and control measures. Due to the broad scope, long search period (1974–2025), and heterogeneity of the included documents (ranging from original research to official surveillance reports), a traditional Narrative Review methodology was employed.

Literature search and selection strategy

The literature search was designed to be comprehensive. We searched documents in four electronic databases: PubMed, Scopus, Crossref, and Web of Science, spanning a period of 50 years (1974 to 2025). The search utilized combinations of key terms and Boolean operators, including: "lumpy skin disease," "LSD," "epidemiology," "Asia," "Africa," "Europe," “Australia”, "molecular characteristics," "transmission," and "vaccine."

Articles were initially filtered using database tools (e.g., for peer-reviewed studies and English language). Final inclusion was determined by manual screening of titles and abstracts to ensure the content was relevant to the thematic areas of this review: LSD epidemiology, pathobiology, molecular characterization, and economic impact. This search approach ensured that all major research findings and recent advances relating to LSD were identified and synthesized for the review.

Epidemiological investigation

Etiology and viral characteristics of LSD

LSD is a transboundary viral disease of animals caused by the LSDV. In different regions, the disease is known by various names, including pseudo-urticaria, neethling virus sickness, exanthema nodularis bovis, and knopvelsiekte (Al Salihi, 2014).

LSDV is a member of the Poxviridae family and contains double-stranded DNA (Khan et al., 2021; Kiplagat et al., 2020). It is classified under the genus Capripoxvirus, which includes three closely related species: goatpox virus (infecting mainly goats), sheeppox virus (infecting sheep), and LSDV (primarily infecting cattle and buffalo) (King et al., 2012). The virus is brick-shaped, enveloped, and measures approximately 320 × 260 nm in size (Khan et al., 2021). Remarkably, LSDV is highly resilient and can remain stable for at least a month at ambient temperature (OIE, 2013). Several chemical agents have been found effective in inactivating the virus, including ether (20%), chloroform, formalin (1%), phenol (2% for 15 min), sodium hypochlorite (2–3%), iodine compounds (1:33 dilution), and quaternary ammonium compounds (0.5%) (Amin et al., 2021).

Historical emergence and global spread of LSD

LSD was initially recorded in Zambia, formerly known as Northern Rhodesia, in 1929 (Wainwright et al., 2013). The initial comprehension of the disease progressed over several decades, beginning with the characterization of hard skin lesions (pseudo-urticaria) and culminated in the identification of a poxvirus as the etiological agent by Alexander et al. (1957). The Neethling strain, obtained in South Africa, was designated as the type strain. From the 1950s to the 1980s, LSD progressively grew widespread throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa (Mazloum et al., 2023; Akther et al., 2023).

Phases of global expansion

The worldwide spread of LSD emerged in two separate, vigorous eras beyond its African origins:

• 1Expansion into North Africa and Eurasia (1988 onwards): The disease first identified in the sub-Saharan border in 1988 with its report in Egypt (Mazloum et al., 2023). Subsequently, it spread rapidly across the Middle East, reaching countries like Israel and later extending into Eurasia and the Balkans (e.g., Turkey, Greece) beginning around 2013–2015 (Tasioudi et al., 2016). While intense vaccination campaigns helped control its advance in some parts of Europe, these events marked the start of its transcontinental spread (Mercier et al., 2018).
• 2Rapid establishment across Asia (2019- present): The latest and epidemiologically alarming phase is the swift dissemination across Asia. The initial cases were documented in Bangladesh in July 2019, then followed by India in August 2019, Nepal in June 2020, and Bhutan in September 2020, hence disseminating the virus over the South Asian subcontinent (Giasuddin et al., 2019; Mathivanan et al., 2023; Maw et al., 2022; Ul‐Rahman et al., 2022). This was promptly succeeded by its spread throughout Southeast Asia (e.g., Myanmar, Vietnam, Indonesia) and East Asia (e.g., China, South Korea), extending farther into the Middle East and Central Asia (Khatri et al., 2023; Sprygin et al., 2021). Recent expansions have been documented in nations such as Libya (July 2023) and new intrusions in Europe (e.g., Italy and France in 2025) (Mat et al., 2021; DEFRA, 2025).

Fig. 1 incorporates the timeline of the LSD distribution in West, East, and Central Africa as well as the list of Asian and European countries that were impacted. This timeline represents the global spread of LSD both geographically and chronologically.

Fig. 1.

Chronological timeline of the emergence and global spread of lumpy skin disease from 1929 to 2025.

The WAHIS database illustrates the worldwide distribution of LSD outbreaks from 2006 to 2025 (https://wahis.woah.org). To date, outbreaks of LSD have been reported in 56 countries of the globe. Fig. 2 depicts the global distribution of these outbreaks using ArcGIS version 10.8. Russia experienced the highest incidence of LSD outbreaks, with a total of 8034 cases, whereas Afghanistan reported the lowest incidence, with only a single outbreak.

Fig. 2.

Global outbreak record of lumpy skin disease (Reported up to August 2025). The map visualizes the geographical distribution and cumulative burden of LSD outbreaks globally. The data is derived from the WOAH-WAHIS (https://wahis.woah.org/#/event-management). Marker size and color intensity correspond to the total number of outbreaks reported per country (as detailed in the legend), highlighting historical hotspots. The global map created in https://app.datawrapper.de/.

Continental variations were notable. Europe reported the highest total, with 17,845 outbreaks across 9 countries, followed by Asia, which documented 14,300 outbreaks across 33 countries, reflecting the widest geographic spread. Africa, with 11 affected countries, reported 2036 outbreaks, the lowest among the three regions. Country-specific data show substantial heterogeneity. In Asia, the highest outbreaks were observed in Thailand (6665), Malaysia (2139), Vietnam (1160), Türkiye (1173), Korea (990), and Israel (923), with moderate outbreaks in Japan (215), Nepal (141), Indonesia (123), Chinese Taipei (112), and Bhutan (54). In Europe, after Russia, major outbreaks occurred in Greece (3989), Serbia (1893), Albania (741), France (826), Italy (641), North Macedonia (611), Bulgaria (576), and Montenegro (534). In Africa, significant outbreaks were reported in Namibia (1089), Tunisia (412), and Libya (395), while other countries, including Egypt (33), Algeria (32), and Mauritius (3), recorded fewer cases. The Middle East experienced LSD outbreaks in Palestine (115), Iraq (54), Lebanon (37), Saudi Arabia (24), Kuwait (21), Jordan (4), and Syria (5). Additional countries such as India (21), China (13), Bangladesh (10), Mozambique (9), Pakistan (7), Myanmar (3), Singapore (3), Djibouti (2), Burundi (2), and Afghanistan (1) reported minimal outbreaks. Overall, the data highlight the global distribution of LSD, with the heaviest burden concentrated in Russia, Thailand, Greece, Malaysia, and Serbia, while many countries reported only sporadic or isolated cases. Though there were variations in outbreaks, a wide range of distribution of disease will help to understand the patterns of disease emergence and spread across various regions. This comparison helps develop more effective strategies for disease prevention and control through the mitigation of risk factors.

Host range

The LSD virus primarily infects cattle and has a limited host range, with no evidence of infection in non-ruminant animals (El-Nahas et al., 2011). Cattle and buffalo are the main susceptible hosts (Muktafi et al., 2024), while sheep and goats show no apparent clinical signs (Lamien et al., 2011). In wildlife, LSD outbreaks have been documented in giraffes, blue wildebeest, Eland, and black wildebeest (Roche et al., 2021), as well as in antelope species such as Arabian Oryx, Springboks, Impalas, and Thomson’s gazelle (Tuppurainen et al., 2018).

Recent studies confirm LSDV infections in wild ungulates across South and Southeast Asia (Ul-Rahman et al., 2024). There is a close phylogenetic clustering of LSDV with strains derived from cattle. This research indicates that wildlife acts as reservoirs or spillover points, highlighting significant implications for ecosystem management and species conservation in areas where livestock and wild populations interact (Sudhakar et al., 2023). The cases now included yaks, camels, Indian gazelles (Gazella bennettii), and gayals (Bos frontalis), which extends the identified host range beyond cattle. For example, Indian gazelles in Rajasthan, India, exhibited the SG-1 lineage corresponding with local cattle outbreaks (Porco et al., 2023; Sudhakar et al., 2023). These advancements include One Health investigation, advocating for wildlife surveillance, cattle immunisation buffers adjacent to ecosystems, and cross-sector strategies. In Cambodia, ring vaccination of over 20,000 cattle protected nearby endangered banteng populations (Ul-Rahman et al., 2024).

Risk factors

Animal related factors

LSD mainly affects cattle, buffalo, and several wild animal species, but cattle are the most susceptible hosts (Li et al., 2023). Animal susceptibility is influenced by breed, age, sex, and color (Bianchini et al., 2023). Highly productive exotic cattle (Bos taurus) are at higher risk than indigenous cattle (Bos indicus) and buffalo, which tend to be more resistant due to lower productivity (Roche et al., 2021; Kiplagat et al., 2020). Young dairy cattle in peak production are particularly vulnerable (Namazi & Tafti, 2021; Tuppurainen et al., 2011; Al-Salihi, 2014), whereas increasing lactation number is associated with decreased prevalence of LSD (Hasib et al., 2021). Young animals are generally at greater risk than older ones (Abera et al., 2015). Female cattle appear more prone to LSD, possibly due to exposure to stressful conditions such as parturition, pregnancy, and occasional malnutrition (Kasem et al., 2018), although some studies reported higher susceptibility in male zebu cattle (Akther et al., 2023). Animals that are malnourished, lactating, or young calves often experience more severe disease (Mulatu & Feyisa, 2018). Exotic-bred and non-vaccinated cattle are at the highest risk of infection (Akther et al., 2023; Azam et al., 2024; Punyapornwithaya et al., 2024). Variations in LSD prevalence between locations are influenced by animal population, breed, sex, age, and other factors (Hasib et al., 2021). Major risk factors include non-vaccination, absence of deworming, existing skin lesions, and communal grazing. Additionally, calves have an underdeveloped immune system, while immunity in aged animals declines (Aspinall & Lang, 2018), which contributes to their susceptibility. New animal introductions and existing infected animals constitute critical risk factors, as LSD can be transmitted directly from infected animals to healthy one.

Management related factors

Farm hygiene and management practices are critical determinants in the transmission and prevalence of LSDV. Several studies have shown that a significant number of cattle exhibiting the clinical sign of LSD are raised on farms with poor intra-herd hygiene and inadequate management practices, including overcrowding, improper feeding, and lack of regular cleaning (Biswas et al., 2020; Haque et al., 2021). Poorly managed farms are consistently related to an increase in prevalence rates of LSD (Khan et al., 2024). Key factors contributing to disease spread include inadequate vector control measures, insufficient vaccination coverage, and a lack of protective interventions such as mosquito nets or insect screens to prevent biting by vector species, including mosquitoes, flies, and ticks. Vectors are recognized as key contributors to the mechanical transmission of LSDV between susceptible animals (Tuppurainen & Oura, 2012). In addition, stress due to poor nutrition, concurrent diseases, and environmental factors can aggravate the susceptibility and facilitate virus dissemination within herds. Effective farm-level biosecurity measures including regular cleaning and disinfection, proper disposal of waste, quarantine of new or sick animals, and systematic vector control- have been shown to mitigate the probability of LSD outbreaks and limit virus transmission (OIE, 2013; Amin et al., 2021).

Environment-related factors

LSD shows marked seasonal and environmental patterns in its prevalence. The disease is more commonly reported during the summer season, particularly in May and June (Islam et al., 2023; Badhy et al., 2021). Land type also influences susceptibility, with low-lying and marshy areas showing higher prevalence during wet summer and autumn seasons (Chouhan et al., 2022; Uddin et al., 2019; Ochwo et al., 2019). Vectors are the key factors for mechanical transmission of LSD and are often associated with these environmental conditions and land types (Gari et al., 2011). Climatic factors such as high temperature, summer and rainy seasons, humidity, and marshy lowlands increase the risk of infection (Mulatu & Feyisa, 2018; Akther et al., 2023). Additionally, shared grazing lands and communal watering points facilitate virus transmission via arthropod vectors, further contributing to the spread of LSD among susceptible cattle populations (Das et al., 2021). Understanding these environmental determinants is essential for developing effective control strategies, including vector management, strategic vaccination, and modification of grazing practices.

Mode of transmission

LSDV can be transmitted via multiple routes, including direct and indirect contact, contaminated feed and water, arthropod vectors, and iatrogenic means (Mazloum et al., 2023). Viral shedding in infected animals occurs via skin nodules, saliva, ocular and nasal discharges, semen, milk, and blood (Mazloum et al., 2023; Dubey et al., 2023; Degu et al., 2020). Contamination of shared waterers and feeders facilitates indirect transmission through ingestion (Fig. 3) (WOAH, 2013; Kayesh et al., 2020). Experimental research confirms that LSDV strains are capable of oral transmission, such as Saratov/2017 and Dagestan/2015 via feed (Mazloum et al., 2023). Venereal transmission is possible via infected semen, with artificial insemination using spiked semen experimentally confirmed to spread the virus (Annandale et al., 2014), and intrauterine transmission has been reported in field conditions (Rouby & Aboulsoud, 2016). Calves can acquire infection through suckling milk from infected cows (Mathivanan et al., 2023). Ulcerated nodules on mucous membranes including eyes, nose, mouth, rectum, udder, and genitalia also serve as significant pathways of infection.

Fig. 3.

Sources and transmission pathways of LSDV in cattle, illustrating both direct and indirect routes. The direct contact between infected and healthy animals, dam-to-calf transmission, intra-uterine exposure, natural mating, and infected body secretions. Indirect routes include mechanical transmission by vectors (ticks, flies, mosquitoes), contamination of feed, water, equipment, and fomites, iatrogenic transmission through contaminated instruments, and long-distance spread via transport of infected animals and animal products.

While LSDV does not replicate within insects, mechanical transmission occurs via various arthropod vectors, including ticks, mosquitoes, and biting flies (Sprygin et al., 2019). Vector-mediated transmission has been documented across long distances, such as the spread from Egypt to regions 200 km away in Israel (Khan et al., 2021). Specific tick species, including Boophilus decoloratus, can transmit the virus through transstadial and transovarian routes (Kasem et al., 2018). LSDV can persist in skin lesions for prolonged periods, up to 90 days, providing an optimal source for vector-mediated spread (Weiss, 1968). Blood-feeding insects, including Aedes aegypti, Culex quinquefasciatus, Stomoxys calcitrans, Haematopota spp., and Culicoides nubeculosus, are major vectors capable of retaining the virus for over eight days (Sanz-Bernardo et al., 2021; Sohier et al., 2019). Ticks such as Rhipicephalus decoloratus, Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, and Amblyomma hebraeum can act as reservoir hosts (Lubinga et al., 2013; Gumbe, 2018). Other potential vectors include houseflies, tsetse flies, Musca domestica, and even some bird species in Africa (Akther et al., 2023; Das et al., 2021; Roche et al., 2021).

Iatrogenic transmission is another important route, occurring through shared needles, syringes, or artificial insemination equipment during vaccination or treatment of infected animals (Bianchini et al., 2023; Lefèvre et al., 2010). Contaminated fomites, including clothing, equipment, feeders, and waterers, further facilitate mechanical transmission (Roche et al., 2021). Long-distance spread is often associated with the movement of infected or tick-infested animals via transport routes such as railways and motorways, while short-distance transmission typically occurs through direct contact or exposure to insect vectors (Mazloum et al., 2023).

LSD prevalence, morbidity, and mortality

LSD is generally associated with high morbidity and comparatively low mortality (Abutarbush et al., 2013). Reported morbidity rates vary widely, ranging from 2% to 45%, with lower values observed in Asian water buffaloes. Mortality in cattle is usually below 10%, though it may increase in susceptible breeds, younger animals, or high-yielding dairy cows (Tuppurainen et al., 2015). In some severe outbreaks, mortality may rarely exceed 5%, although rates as high as 40% have been reported (Degu et al., 2020). Breed susceptibility has been highlighted, with mortality reaching 7.43% in Holstein Fresian crossbreds compared with only 1.25% in indigenous cattle (Gari et al., 2011). Morbidity and mortality fluctuate considerably, influenced by geographic location, breed, and study conditions. Table 1 shows the prevalence of LSD in Asia, Europe, and Africa.

Table 1.

Comparative epidemiological metrics of lumpy skin disease outbreaks by global region (prevalence, morbidity, mortality, and case fatality rates).

Region	Country / Area	Prevalence / Morbidity (%)	Mortality (%)	Case Fatality Rate (%)	Reference
South Asia	Bangladesh	10–63.33	1–15.3%	-	Badhy et al., 2021; Haque & Gofur, 2020; Khalil et al., 2021; Chouhan et al., 2022; Biswas et al., 2020; Hasib et al., 2021; Muktafi et al., 2024
	Bhutan	9–100			Rinchen, 2022
	India	7.1–11.54	1–5	2–10	Das et al., 2025; Sudhakar et al., 2020; Mathivanan et al., 2023
	Nepal	53.2	–	–	Pandey et al., 2022
	Pakistan	33	0.6	–	Imran et al., 2023
	Sri Lanka	20.77–28.46	–	–	Yaminee et al., 2024
	Afghanistan	22.3	2.07	9.3	Sangary et al., 2023
Southeast Asia	Thailand	34.57–40.5	1.2–3.47	10.05	Sariya et al., 2022; Vinitchaikul et al., 2023
	Myanmar	3–6	–	–	Maw, 2021
	Indonesia	28.04	1.87	–	Sendow et al., 2024
East Asia	China	19.5	–	–	Afzal et al., 2024
	South Korea	8.4	–	–	Ra et al., 2024
	Mongolia	5.9	–	–	Odonchimeg et al., 2022
Central Asia	Kazakhstan	10.2–12.9	0.96	–	Orynbayev et al., 2021; Issimov et al., 2022
Middle East	Azerbaijan	74	–	–	Zeynalova et al., 2016
	Iraq	9.11	–	–	Al-Salihi & Hassan, 2015
	Saudi Arabia	6	0.99	16.6	Kasem et al., 2018
	Oman	27.9	12	–	Wainwright et al., 2013
	Iran	17.9	3.5	19.7	Sameea et al., 2017
	Jordan	26	1.9	7.5	Abutarbush et al., 2015
	Kuwait	–	0.1	–	The Cattle Site, 2015
Europe	Albania	18.7	7.1	–	Karalliu et al., 2017
	Turkey	27.22	3.64	9.52	Ince & Türk, 2019
Africa	Sudan	24.6	–	–	Hussien et al., 2023
	Uganda	8.7–36	–	–	Ochwo et al., 2018, 2019
	Ethiopia	4.41–26.5	1.92	16.44	Abera et al., 2015; Geletu et al., 2024
	Egypt	17.4	–	–	Elhaig et al., 2017
	Zimbabwe	–	8.77	–	Mafirakureva et al., 2017
	Nigeria	3–49	1–6	-	Atai et al., 2021

When normalised by cattle population, the prevalence of LSD showed significant variations among 17 countries. Large populations like India (195 million) had the largest absolute outbreak counts, but the normalised morbidity revealed a different risk profile. Azerbaijan (74,000 cases/100k cattle) and Nepal (53,200 cases/100k) had higher disease pressure than India (7100–11,540 cases/100k). With normalised rates as high as 63,330 and 100,000 cases/100k, respectively, Bangladesh and Bhutan showed significant reporting variance in South Asia. On the other hand, East Asian countries such as South Korea and Mongolia reported lower normalised prevalence (5900–8400 cases/100k), indicating regional differences in surveillance intensity and livestock density-adjusted disease burden (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4.

The geographical distribution of the burden of LSD in Asia and the Middle East, normalised by the number of cattle. Using cattle population data from the FAOSTAT (https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#home) and the top reported prevalence limits, the heatmap displays the LSD normalised prevalence per 100,000 cattle. Grey shaded areas indicate regions not included in the current comparative analysis.

Clinical lesion of LSD

In cases of natural infection, the incubation period can last as long as 28 days (Roche et al., 2021). The disease induced by LSDV can vary from subclinical to acute and severe. Clinical lesions include pyrexia (102–106°F), joint swellings, edema, lameness, lymphadenopathy, and characteristic skin nodules (Fig. 5) (Gupta et al., 2020; Parvin et al., 2022;). Nodular lesions typically appear on the head, neck, chest, abdomen, perineum, genitalia, eyelids, muzzle, udder, and limbs, sometimes covering the entire body. The size of the nodules ranges from 2 to 5 cm in diameter (Abdulqa et al., 2016). The nodules, which are elevated, hard, and rounded, involve the skin, subcutaneous tissue, and sometimes underlying muscle (OIE, 2013). Nodules extend through the epidermis, dermis, adjacent subcutis, and muscle tissue. Lesions evolve into papules, vesicles, and pustules with exudation, eventually forming scabs, and recovery is prolonged (Gupta et al., 2020). Sloughed lesions may form cavities known as “sitfast,” which can be invaded by screwworm flies and bacteria, potentially leading to septicemia (Abutarbush et al., 2013; Constable et al., 2017). Lameness may occur due to edematous swelling of the limbs (Haque et al., 2021). The centers of lesions often ulcerate, and scabs eventually form on top (Tuppurainen et al., 2015). Buffaloes are also susceptible to developing skin lesions (Elhaig et al., 2017; Hasan, 2021). Oral and nasal necrotic plaques can lead to purulent or mucopurulent nasal discharge and drooling, which harbor high concentrations of the virus. Secondary bacterial infections may cause myiasis, lameness, and pneumonia (Roche et al., 2021).

Fig. 5.

Clinical manifestations of LSD in affected cattle.The figure presents key visible lesions associated with LSD, including (A) skin nodules accompanied by excessive salivation, (B) recumbency with prominent cutaneous nodules, (C) edematous swelling in affected body regions, and (D) sloughing of skin nodules leading to open wounds. These images highlight the typical progression and severity of clinical signs observed in naturally infected animals.

Pneumonia may develop if the animal inhales necrotic material. Acute infection can cause abortion, and both males and females may experience infertility, with prolonged anoestrus common in females (Gupta et al., 2020). During the febrile period, affected animals may show anorexia, lacrimation, nasal discharge, decreased milk production, and general indifference, reflecting systemic tissue inflammation caused by viremia (El-Mandrawy et al., 2018). Less frequent clinical signs include salivation, mucous membrane lesions, respiratory distress, keratitis, and nasolacrimal discharge (Malabadi et al., 2022). They further reported that LSD lasts an average of 2.9 weeks, while skin lesions take 3–110 days to recover, averaging 19.9 days.

Histopathological lesion

During pathological examination of the skin, Parvin et al. (2022) observed a granulomatous inflammation occurring in the dermis and hypodermis, extending into adjacent tissues. They noted that the formation of skin lesions began with swelling of keratinocytes, cytoplasmic vacuolation, vasculitis, panniculitis, thrombosis, and infarction. The viral antigen of LSD was sporadically present in macrophages, epithelial cells, and vascular smooth muscle cells, with associated findings of vascular congestion, dilated sweat glands, and intracellular edema of sebaceous gland epithelium. At later stages, widespread necrotizing skin lesions with infarcts and bacterial infiltration of excretory sinuses were observed.

LSDV induced transmural, hemorrhagic, necrotizing, proliferative, and ulcerative dermatitis, with multiple infarcts affecting the dermis and subcutis of infected animals (Sanz-Bernardo et al., 2021; Parvin et al., 2022). Histopathological analyses of LSDV infections in both natural and experimental settings have consistently demonstrated significant vascular alterations in skin lesions, including vasculitis (Sanz-Bernardo et al., 2020).

Molecular characterization and strains of LSDV

The genus Capripoxvirus (family Poxviridae) includes LSDV, SPPV, and GTPV, which are serologically identical due to a single serotype, making molecular methods essential for differentiation at the species level (Hamdi et al., 2021). LSDV possesses a linear double-stranded DNA genome of approximately 150–152 kb. The genome has a conserved central region flanked by variable terminals encoding host-range and immune evasion proteins, including ankyrin repeat proteins. Phylogenetic and genetic studies of LSDV aid in surveilancing hotspots, transboundary transmission, origins, and variant emergence (Ochwo et al., 2018). LSDV encodes between 150 and 156 predicted open reading frames (ORFs), which are believed to be responsible for viral replication, host interaction, and immune evasion. The first complete sequence, obtained in 2001 from the Neethling type strain, revealed 156 annotated genes. Among these, the GPCR and RPO30 genes are widely used markers for differentiating poxviruses, while 90 conserved core genes shared with all chordopoxviruses serve as the basis for phylogenetic studies (Makalo et al., 2024). Most LSDV strains cluster into two main monophyletic groups: Cluster 1.1 and Cluster 1.2 (Biswas et al., 2020; Van Schalkwyk et al., 2022), as represented in Table 2. Cluster 1.1 includes Neethling-type vaccine strains derived from LSDV/Neethling/LW-1959 and historic wild-type isolates from South Africa (van Schalkwyk et al., 2020), while Cluster 1.2 includes wild-type strains from southern Africa, Kenya, the northern hemisphere, and the KSGP O-240 vaccine strain. Strains beyond these classical clusters represent atypical or emerging lineages that do not fit established genetic groupings. Recombinant LSDV strains are strains of LSDVs that have arisen through genetic recombination, meaning they contain genetic material from two or more different parent strains, which may affect virulence, transmission, or vaccine effectiveness. Recombinant LSDV strains have emerged in field cases in Russia and Central Asia (Flannery et al., 2022; Sprygin et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2022), exhibiting mosaic genomes that combine genetic segments from both wild-type and vaccine-derived strains, particularly in accessory genes.

Table 2.

Strains of LSD Virus.

Strain type	Strain Name	Country/Region	Year	Notes	Reference
Monophyletic cluster 1.1	Neethling type strain	South Africa	1957	1st LSDV strain	Mazloum et al., 2023
Monophyletic cluster 1.2	NI-2490	Kenya	1958		Mazloum et al., 2023
	KSGP O-240 vaccine strain		1959		Tuppurainen et al., 2014
Recombinant Strain	Saratov/2017	Russia	2017	First recombinant detected; mosaic genome	Nesterov et al., 2022
	Udmurtiya/2017		2017	Closely related to Saratov/2017
	Dagestan Russia 2015		2019	Multiple recombination breakpoints	Sprygin et al., 2019
	Tyumen Russia 2019		2019	Another Russian recombinant	Krotova et al., 2022
	China/GD01/2020	China (Guangdong)	2020	Widely spread Asian recombinant	Wang et al., 2022
	China/NMG/2020	China (Inner Mongolia)	2020	Clustered with GD01	Zan et al., 2022
	Mongolia/2021	Mongolia	2021	Whole-genome confirmed recombinant	Sprygin et al., 2022
	LSDV/Vietnam/Langson/ HL01 strain	Vietnam	2020	reference strain of Vietnam	Tran et al., 2024
	LSDV/Vietnam/HaTinh/CX01		2021	2nd Strain

A significant and contemporary development in LSDV research pertains to the isolation of recombinant vaccine-like strains in the field. This event, predominantly recorded in regions of Asia and Eastern Europe, signifies a significant alteration in the molecular epidemiology of the virus. These strains, characterized by their recombination, present a considerable challenge to both diagnosis and management.

The phylogenetic analysis identified two separate recombinant clusters within the lineage of the LSDV. Cluster 1.1 (red) and Cluster 1.2 (blue) are associated with strains from recent outbreaks in Asia, specifically those documented in China, Taiwan, and Vietnam, highlighting the regional evolution and spread of the virus. The recombinant strains belonging to the Asia/2020 group exhibit a shared lineage with the LSDV/GD01/China/2020 prototype, which is recognized as a representative of the initially identified recombinant cluster in Asia (Fig. 6). The discovery of several recombinant monophyletic groups indicates continuous genomic reshuffling, which has significant consequences for vaccine effectiveness particularly as existing live attenuated vaccines might not provide complete protection against genetically diverse recombinant variants. Consequently, ongoing genomic monitoring and the incorporation of recombinant lineages into vaccine formulation are crucial for implementing effective control measures (Krotova et al., 2022).

Fig. 6.

Maximum-likelihood phylogenetic tree of 26 LSDV, two Goatpox Virus, and two Sheeppox Virus complete genomes. Recombinant LSDV strains form two distinct clusters (Cluster 1.1, red; Cluster 1.2, blue), while outliers are Sheeppox virus and Goatpox virus.The phylogenetic tree generated by iTOL (https://itol.embl.de/).

LSDV studies often use genetic markers, examined as complete genes or partial fragments, including B22R, G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), extracellular enveloped virus (EEV) glycoprotein, P32 antigen, and RPO30 (30 kDa RNA polymerase) subunit (Maw et al., 2022). The GPCR gene is a G-protein–coupled chemokine receptor homologue, widely used for phylogenetic analysis and differentiation of field isolates (Le Goff et al., 2009). The P32 gene encodes a major structural protein, often targeted in PCR assays, while the RPO30 gene encodes RNA polymerase subunit, useful for distinguishing LSDV from SPPV and GTPV (Lamien et al., 2011). Whole-genome sequencing provides a comprehensive approach to examining the entire genome at high resolution, understand the insights into genetic diversity, recombination process, and evolutionary dynamics. Parvin et al. (2022) did the complete genome sequence analysis of LSD virus and revealed the two Bangladeshi field strains (BD-V392.1 and BD-V395.1). These strains differed from contemporary field isolates and closely resembled the ancestral African Neethling strain. Recombinant strains of LSDV, particularly in Asia and Eastern Europe, emerged through genetic recombination between vaccine-derived Neethling strains and field isolates, producing mosaic genomes. From 2017 to 2019, multiple LSDV strains with vaccine-like recombinant features were identified across Kazakhstan and adjoining parts of Russia and China (Vandenbussche et al., 2022).

The first detection of recombinant LSDV strains was reported in 2017 in Saratov, Russia, following a national vaccination campaign in Kazakhstan using the Kenyan KEVIVAP vaccine. The strain LSDV/Saratov/2017 represented the initial identification of novel recombinant viruses derived from vaccine parental strains, subsequently isolated from active LSD outbreaks in Russia, Kazakhstan, and China (Nesterov et al., 2022). Further analysis indicated that the Udmurtiya/2019 strain possesses a genomic backbone primarily derived from the KSGPO-240 vaccine strain, with Neethling-LW1959 contributing as a minor parental component. Russia also reported Tyumen, Russia 2019 (Sprygin et al., 2019), and Dagestan, Russia 2015(Krotova et al., 2022). China has documented several strains of LSDV, including LSDV/Xinjiang/2019 (MN598005.1), China/GD01/2020 (MW355944.1), and LSDV/NMG/2020 strain (ON616408) (Zan et al., 2022). Phylogenetic analysis showed that LSDV/Mongolia/2021 shares a close relationship with vaccine-like recombinant strains from Russia, China, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam (Sprygin et al., 2022).

Vandenbussche et al. (2022) reported that the recombinant strains were originally isolated from several Asian countries, including Kazakhstan (KZ-Kostanay-2018, MT992618.1), Taiwan (LSDV/KM/Taiwan/2020, OL752713.1), Vietnam (20L42_Quyet-Thang, 20L43_Ly-Quoc, 20L70_Dinh-To, 20L81_Bang-Thanh; MZ577073.1–MZ577076.1), and Hong Kong (LSDV/HongKong/2020, MW732649.1). A recent study showed that the 1st reference strain of LSDV virus was LSDV/Vietnam/Langson/ HL01 strain, followed by the 2nd LSDV/Vietnam/HaTinh/CX01 in Vietnam, suggesting that at least two different variants of LSDV are circulating in Vietnam based on analysis of the GPCR gene (Tran et al., 2024). The LSDV isolate from Indonesia represents a recombinant virus derived from the Neethling_vaccine_LW_1959 and LSDV_NI-2490 strains (Sendow et al., 2024). In addition, phylogenetic analysis revealed that the LSDV strain in Bangladesh is genetically similar to LSDV NI-2490, LSDV KSGP-0240, and LSDV Kenya (Badhy et al., 2021), The LSDV circulating in China shows close genetic affinity to LSDV/Russia/Saratov/2017, while the Indian strain resembles the South African NI2490/KSGP-like virus, and the Vietnamese strain is closely related to LSDV strains from China and Russia (Lu et al., 2021; Sudhakar et al., 2020; OIE, 2021). Nepalese LSDV strains are closely related to isolates from Bangladesh and to the earlier NI-2490 and LSDV Kenya strains (Badhy et al., 2021). LSDV sequences from the Myanmar cluster closely with isolates from Bangladesh and India, as well as with the historic LSDV Kenya and NI-2490 strains (Maw et al., 2022). The LSDV strains found in Bangladesh are nearly identical (99.99% homology) to two old African field strains, Neethling 2490 and KSGP 0240, which have also served as attenuated vaccines (Mathijs et al., 2016). The LSDV outbreak in Southeast Asia originated from a Kenyan sheep-and-goat pox (KSGPO)-like vaccine strain, with the parenteral strain propagating across several countries, including Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Afghanistan(Mazloum et al., 2023). Phylogenetic analysis shows that LSDV strains from Bangladesh (MN792649, MN792650), India (MN295064), Kenya (AF325528, MN072619, KX683219), Greece (KY829023), Serbia (KY702007), and Kazakhstan (MN642592) are highly similar (Toplak et al., 2017).

Economic impact of LSD

LSD is a pandemic disease that threatens food security and causes significant economic losses in livestock (Chouhan et al., 2022). Government losses arise from vaccination campaigns, trade restrictions, vector control, disease surveillance, awareness programs, and bans on animal movement. Multiple factors -including LSD epidemiology, viral pathogenesis, cattle breed, livestock trade, and control measures contribute to production losses and mortality (Gari et al., 2011; Molla et al., 2017; Casal et al., 2018; Kiplagat et al., 2020).

LSD reduces productivity by retarding growth, causing skin lesions, reproductive problems, and sometimes death (Muktafi et al., 2024). Farmers experience substantial economic losses due to reduced milk production, prolonged treatment costs, reproductive complications, emaciation, and permanent hide damage. Milk yield can decrease by 10–85% (Namazi & Tafti, 2021). A Turkish study reported that affected cows produced 159 liters less milk per lactation. Reduced milk production often persists even after recovery, resulting in further financial losses.

LSD can also affect reproduction. Artificial insemination with infected bull semen can result in lower conception rates due to LSDV transmission (Tuppurainen et al., 2015). The disease may cause infertility in cattle (Ahmed, 2024), reduced beef production (Gari et al., 2011; Parvin et al., 2022), abortion in pregnant cows (Abdulqa et al., 2016), and repeat breeding (Muktafi et al., 2024). LSD-affected cattle had showed 15.3% mortality, 13.1% abortion, and 45.2% repeat breeding (Muktafi et al., 2024), while Abdulqa et al. (2016) reported 10% abortion in cows. According to Angelova et al. (2018), one of the serious consequences of LSDV is its ability to cause poor coat condition and sterility in bulls. Economic losses arise from animal deaths, the sale of infected animals at low prices, and culling (Limon et al., 2020). Losses are higher in crossbred cattle than in indigenous breeds, as crossbreds require higher drug doses, longer recovery times, and greater treatment costs (Kiplagat et al., 2020; Molla et al., 2017). Overall, economic losses include reduced milk and meat production, treatment costs, and decreased market value of affected livestock (Limon et al., 2020). Indirect losses stem from movement restrictions and trade limitations (Roche et al., 2021).

Economic losses due to LSD in Nepal were considered to US$21 million as of June 2023 (Acharya, 2023). In Bangladesh (Mymensingh and Gaibandha districts), losses averaged USD 110.40 per affected animal (Chouhan et al., 2022). A recent nationwide economic assessment (2024) estimated the annual economic loss attributed to LSD in Bangladesh at 8203.22 crore BDT (Mostari et al., 2025). LSD also affects foreign exchange due to trade embargoes (Gumbe, 2018). In Ethiopia, estimated losses were USD 6.43 per local Zebu and USD 58 per Holstein-Friesian head (Gumbe, 2018). Across India, total losses were estimated at USD 2217.26 million (Singh et al., 2023), while in Pakistan, losses ranged from 0 to 4230,000 Pakistani Rupees (Saqib et al., 2023). Treatment for a single affected animal in Ethiopia costs approximately USD 5 (Molla et al., 2017). Overall, LSD may cause up to USD 1.45 billion in direct losses to livestock and agriculture (Roche et al., 2021).

Specific country examples include Jordan, where medication of affected cattle with broad-spectrum antibiotics and anti-inflammatory drugs cost approximately USD 35.04 per animal (Paul et al., 2013), and Bulgaria, which faced losses of about USD 8000 per herd (Dwivedi et al., 2019). In Ethiopia, the bull market experienced financial losses of USD 667,785.6 considering culling rates and the number of bulls at risk (Abutarbush et al., 2013). In Israel, approximately USD 750,000 was spent to control the initial outbreak by culling suspected animals and implementing ring vaccination (Casal et al., 2018; Rossiter & Hammadi, 2009).

Parvin et al. (2022) emphasized that the economic impact of LSD on the cattle industry is substantial, resulting from decreased milk and meat production, reproductive problems, deaths, and treatment costs, compounded by expenses for control, vaccination, and trade limitations. Countries that export cattle skins and hides are affected by the reduced commercial value of scarred skins. Strict biosecurity measures were required for LSD control can impose additional financial burdens on the livestock industry (Akther et al., 2023).

Treatment measures for LSD disease

No specific antiviral drugs exist for LSDV, and treatment is limited to supportive care for affected animals. The management of LSDV relies on supportive care, including antibiotics to control secondary bacterial infections, along with anti-inflammatory and antipyretic treatments to mitigate further complications (Abdulqa et al., 2016). The primary aim of supportive therapy is to improve appetite and reduce pyrexia, discomfort, and inflammation (Amin et al., 2021). Supportive treatment using zinc, vitamin B complex, and vitamin AD3E has shown positive outcomes (Anil & Durga, 2021; Islam et al., 2021).

In Bangladesh, treatment strategies have included non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or antipyretics for pyrexia and pain, antihistamines, electrolytes, and immunity enhancers such as zinc and vitamin C, along with antibiotics to manage secondary infections (Roche et al., 2021). Ulcerative skin lesions were treated with topical wound sprays, while severely affected calves received bronchodilators combined with corticosteroids. Wound care, including the use of dressings, has been shown to prevent secondary bacterial infections and reduce fly infestations (Mathivanan et al., 2023).

Factors influencing global LSD transmission and severity

The global variation in LSD morbidity and transmission is influenced by a complex interaction of factors, including vector ecology, the reliability of surveillance systems, climatic conditions, agricultural practices, and human activities. The factors in question influence the frequency of outbreaks, their severity, and the effectiveness of control measures, with the ecology of vectors playing a pivotal role in the intensity of transmission (Bianchini et al., 2023; Anwar et al., 2022; Podshibyakin et al., 2024). LSD is disseminated primarily through arthropod vectors, including Stomoxys flies, mosquitoes, and ticks, with their population density differing across various geographical areas. Tropical regions such as Southeast Asia maintain continuous vector activity throughout the year, linked to increased temperatures and humidity levels, thereby increasing the risk of transmission. In temperate regions of Europe and southern Africa, the survival of vectors is constrained to the warmer seasons, resulting in less severe outbreaks (Ahmed et al., 2025; Anwar et al., 2022; Podshibyakin et al., 2024).

Inadequate surveillance in certain regions of Asia facilitates the unnoticed dissemination of pathogens, increased by the livestock trade and cultural events. Africa exhibits more robust systems in general; however, differences in rural areas hamper timely responses. Tropical climates facilitate continuous transmission, compared to the seasonal patterns observed in temperate zones (Azeem et al., 2022; EFSA, 2020; Bianchini et al., 2023). Virus strain differences affect virulence and adaptability; cattle in Africa demonstrate less severe cases due to prolonged exposure and partial immunity. Southeast Asia observes higher severity in indigenous and hybrid cattle populations in response to emerging strains. Co-infections increase the severity of illness when circumstances where preventive measures are inadequate (Xie et al., 2024; Namazi & Tafti, 2021; Ahmed et al., 2025).

The uncontrolled movement of livestock contributes to the fast spread of disease, aggravated by insufficient vaccination efforts and lapses in quarantine protocols. Tropical Asia experiences rapid outbreaks due to these overlapping risks, in contrast to the more measured responses observed in temperate regions (Akther et al., 2023; Bianchini et al., 2023). Improve monitoring systems, control population movements, strengthen veterinary services, and increase vaccination coverage to mitigate the outbreak of worldwide effects.

Prevention and control of LSD

Isolation of infected animals helps reduce the spread of infection within healthy herds (Calistri et al., 2018). Controlling vector populations by destroying breeding habitats, removing manure, and disinfecting potential breeding grounds can also decrease disease outbreaks in susceptible areas (Ratyotha et al., 2022).

Vaccination plays an essential part in the management of LSD, primarily employing live attenuated vaccines (LAVs) that stimulate an effective cellular immunity, offering substantial protection even in the presence of low antibody titers (Haegeman et al., 2021b). While Europe has demonstrated that eradication is achievable through comprehensive vaccination paired with strict control measures (P. Calistri et al., 2020), the challenge lies in the choice of vaccines. Modern LAVs derive from various origins, including similar LSDV strains (like Neethling-like) and different capripoxviruses (SPPV or GTPV) (Mazloum et al., 2023). Despite the documented genetic diversity of existing isolates in Asia and Europe, there is currently no consensus on which LAV offers the broadest and most lasting cross-protective efficacy. The use of LSDV homologous strains is recognised for providing strong and enduring protection; however, their implementation carries significant risks related to post-vaccination reactions and, crucially, the potential involvement in recombination events that lead to the emergence of vaccine-like field isolates. In contrast, while SPPV/GTPV heterologous strains provide cross-protection, their efficacy against current LSDV strains is subject to significant debate due to recent genetic divergence (Zhugunissov et al., 2020), suggesting a potentially weaker or incomplete protective response. Comprehensive immunisation remains the most effective control strategy (Ahmed, 2024), yet the trade-offs in selecting the optimal LAV type underscore the urgent need for next-generation DIVA-compatible vaccines to ensure reliable protection and monitoring.

Newly introduced animals should be vaccinated upon arrival at farms. Calves born to vaccinated dams or those recovered from natural infection should be vaccinated between three and four months of age (Khan et al., 2021). Annual vaccination is recommended for pregnant dams and breeding bulls (Tuppurainen et al., 2015). In Thailand, vaccination reduced LSD incidence by 119% (Punyapornwithaya et al., 2024). Goatpox-based vaccines have shown protection against LSD in cattle in Ethiopia (Gari et al., 2011), Bangladesh, and India (Kayesh et al., 2020). Cattle vaccinated with the GTP (G20-LKV) vaccine exhibited full protection against LSDV (Zhugunissov et al., 2020).

Turkey has shown that co-administration of Sheep Pox and Goat Pox (SGP) vaccines with the FMD vaccine provides sufficient immunity against LSD (Sareyyüpoğlu et al., 2023). Recombinant LSD–Rift valley fever vaccines are highly immunogenic, offering protection against both LSD and Rift valley fever in cattle (Wallace et al., 2020). LSD vaccination programs have been economically beneficial, yielding net profits of USD 136 per herd, including USD 56 for small-scale and USD 283 for commercial farms (Molla et al., 2017). Moreover, research on 77 dairy farms in Israel indicated minimal negative impacts on productivity following vaccination (Morgenstern & Klement, 2020).

Alongside technical effectiveness, vaccine coverage in endemic countries faces significant socio-economic challenges, including farmer reluctance and financial limitations. Nevertheless, the study identifies the systematic failure of the cold chain and distribution logistics as the primary challenge. LAVs exhibit heat sensitivity, and the presence of unreliable infrastructure in remote regions undermines their effectiveness (Tuppurainen et al., 2020). This ongoing logistical issue undermines farmer confidence and hinders the continuous, broad coverage necessary for achieving herd immunity (Limon et al., 2020). Addressing LSD requires targeted investment in reliable, last-mile cold chain infrastructure (Scott et al., 2025).

Additional supportive measures include disinfection, farm biosecurity, stamping out, and movement control of affected livestock (Biswas et al., 2020). Reducing the spread of infection requires improved veterinary extension services (Beard, 2016), proper waste disposal (Choudhari et al., 2020), coordination between government, non-government, and industry stakeholders (Akther et al., 2023), and restrictions on importing animals and animal products from LSD-endemic countries. Within-country and cross-border cattle movements should be carefully regulated, requiring veterinarian-issued certificates documenting origin and health status.

Vector control strategy and critical thresholds

Since mechanical vectors, especially biting flies like Stomoxys and mosquitoes, are the main mediums for transmission and that species distribution differs by area, effective management requires a regionally adopted and cost-effective Integrated Pest Management (IPM) approach. This approach highlights the importance of managing the environment through the elimination of stagnant water, prompt disposal of manure, and improvement of farm drainage (Khatri et al., 2023) to disrupt the life cycles of vectors. The targeted and methodical application of insecticides in high-risk areas, like animal flanks, enhances this strategy, reducing costs and postponing the emergence of resistance, in contrast to widespread treatments. Furthermore, strong physical barriers and biosecurity measures, including restrictions on movement (Tuppurainen et al., 2018) and effective quarantine, should be established alongside vaccination efforts.

A universally accepted and field-validated critical reduction threshold for LSD is currently lacking. Epidemiological models suggest that to effectively suppress disease, there must be a sustained reduction in vector-host contact rates, usually exceeding 90%, in order to bring the basic reproduction number (Ro) below 1. The substantial decrease (>90%) is especially crucial in areas recently affected, where herds are completely vulnerable, highlighting the need for emergency ring vaccination. In endemic regions, the focus shifts to ongoing vector control (80–90% reduction) to prevent seasonal re-emergence (Tesfaye et al., 2024). Alongside vector management, timely regulation of affected animal movement and safe carcass disposal are essential strategies (Akther et al., 2023) to control the expansion of LSD.

Conclusion and recommendations

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is a rapidly emerging transboundary viral disease of cattle with significant impacts on livestock health and the global economy. Its epidemiology highlights a complex interconnection of vector-borne transmission, host susceptibility, and uncontrolled animal movements, leading to frequent outbreaks in endemic and newly affected regions. Although mortality is generally low, the disease significantly reduces productivity through milk loss, infertility, hide damage, and trade restrictions. Clinical signs, histopathological lesions, and molecular characterization provide critical tools for diagnosis and monitoring of viral evolution. Despite advances, there is still no specific antiviral treatment, making prevention and control the key element of LSD management. To effectively control LSD, priority should be given to strengthening surveillance and rapid diagnostic systems, expanding molecular research to monitor circulating and recombinant strains, and implementing large-scale vaccination programs with homologous live attenuated vaccines supported by strong cold-chain management. Integrated vector control, strict animal movement restrictions, and farm-level biosecurity should be enforced alongside farmer awareness campaigns to improve early detection and reporting. Finally, cross-border collaboration and harmonized regional policies are essential to ensure coordinated responses, sustainable vaccine supply, and long-term control of the disease. Considering the ongoing chalenges, specifically the complexities of transmission, the risk posed by recombinant strains, and the constraints of existing control measures, it was advocated for prioritising the subsequent domains for forthcoming research and policy initiatives:

• (a)Future research should prioritise the development of DIVA-compatible vaccines to mitigate the diagnostic ambiguity resulting from the extensive use of live attenuated strains.
• (b)Molecular Surveillance: To protect the global cattle business, worldwide initiatives must be activated to create standardised molecular surveillance platforms that can detect and monitor recombinant LSDV strains in real-time.
• (c)Climate and Vector Modelling: Epidemiological models necessitate enhancement to precisely forecast the extended vector-borne transmission risks linked to climate change and global cattle migration.

By concentrating research endeavours on these domains, the international community can progress towards efficient containment and ultimate eradication of LSD.

Consent for publication

All the authors have read and approved the final manuscript.

Availability of data and material

All the data generated or analyzed during this study are available upon request from the corresponding author.

Funding

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Ethical statement

This manuscript is a review article and possess no animal and human experimentations/blood/tissue samples. Ethical approval not applicable .

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Syidul Islam: Writing – original draft, Visualization, Supervision, Software, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation. Md Zulfekar Ali: Writing – original draft, Visualization, Validation, Supervision, Software, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization, Project administration, Resources. Md. Ashraful Islam: Writing – review & editing, Resources, Methodology, Investigation, Conceptualization. Farzana Yasmin: Writing – review & editing, Methodology, Investigation, Data curation, Conceptualization. Md. Asabur Rahman: Writing – review & editing, Methodology, Investigation, Data curation. Md. Niamul Shahadat: Writing – review & editing, Methodology, Investigation, Data curation. Md. Sahidul Islam: Writing – review & editing, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation. Aminul Islam: Writing – review & editing, Methodology, Investigation, Data curation. Md. Abul Kalam Azad: Writing – review & editing, Methodology, Investigation, Data curation.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.