The relationship between social comparison orientation and social media posting anxiety among WeChat users in China: FoMO as a mediator and self-esteem as a moderator

Abstract

Objectives

As social media platforms like WeChat gain popularity in China, there is a notable lack of research examining the impact of social comparison orientation on users’ mental health. Grounded in the social enhancement hypothesis, this study proposes a hypothetical model to explore the relationship between social comparison orientation (SCO) and social media posting anxiety (SMPA) among WeChat users in China, with fear of missing out (FoMO) serving as a mediator and self-esteem as a moderator.

Methods

An online survey with 513 Chinese adults who actively use WeChat was conducted from October 9 to November 6, 2022, via a link shared on WeChat. Data analysis was conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics version 23.0. Initially, CFA and Pearson Correlation analyses were conducted for preliminary evaluations. Following this, we performed a mediation analysis utilizing Model 4 and a moderation analysis using Model 1 in SPSS PROCESS.

Results

The results indicate that individuals with a higher orientation for social comparison are more likely to experience anxiety related to posting on WeChat (B = 0.101, p < .05, 95% CI: [0.006, 0.196]). Furthermore, FoMO partially mediates the relationship between SCO and SMPA (indirect effect = 0.433, 95% CI: [0.356, 0.515]). Importantly, the Johnson-Neyman analysis demonstrates that self-esteem significantly and positively moderates the relationship between SCO and FoMO (all p-values < .001); however, it does not moderate the direct correlation between SCO and SMPA.

Conclusions

This study supports the social enhancement effect and contributes to a deeper understanding of social media use in China, emphasizing culturally specific nuances. The findings provide theoretical insights for future research and practical recommendations for WeChat users.

Introduction

In contemporary society, social media platforms such as WeChat, Weibo, TikTok, and REDnote have become integral to daily life, facilitating access to information, education, work, entertainment, and consumption. Many users routinely utilize these platforms to maintain connections with distant friends and relatives and explore personal interests. In China, WeChat stands out as one of the most prevalent social media applications. According to Tencent’s 2023 annual report, WeChat collectively boasts 1.343 billion monthly active accounts [1]. WeChat offers many services like messaging, socializing, and mobile payments that make life easier. However, spending too much time on messaging and sharing photos or videos via the “moments” function can harm mental health [2]. As WeChat achieves extensive penetration, there is a growing awareness of the anxiety symptoms associated with its excessive use.

Social media posting anxiety (SMPA) is identified as a context-specific type of social anxiety, indicating a reluctance among individuals to post online [3]. Such anxiety is characterized by a continual fear of situations where an individual anticipates negative evaluation [3]. Scholars have discovered that SMPA is prevalent among social media users (e.g., college students) [3], likely due to their transitional stage of seeking affirmation and exploring their identities [4]. Prior to posting, social media users frequently worry about potential feedback, particularly the fear of negative comments from friends, which imposes a significant psychological burden [5]. In China, the flourishing social media sector, with WeChat as a key platform, has experienced substantial growth in user-generated content. WeChat users can more readily access their friends’ profiles, increasing the likelihood of social comparisons between their real-life selves and their idealized online personas. The social comparison could further induce anxiety during social media interactions [6].

Social comparison orientation (SCO) is the tendency of individuals to consistently assess their behaviors and outcomes in comparison to those of others [7, 8]. The current study primarily focuses on the correlation between SCO and SMPA among Chinese adults who use WeChat. While some studies have found a link between anxiety and social media use, the specific issue of SMPA has not been thoroughly investigated [3]. Although earlier research has identified psychological factors that connect with SMPA, such as low interpersonal trust, fear of negative evaluations, and sensitivity to criticism [3], the underlying mechanisms and potential pathways leading to this anxiety remain largely unexplored. To address this gap, this study adopts the theoretical framework of the social enhancement hypothesis, also known as the “poor-get-poorer” hypothesis [9], which posits that individuals who are psychologically vulnerable or socially deficient may find that their social media use or online communication can either enhance their existing status or negatively impact their psychological well-being. This research proposes a hypothetical model connecting SCO and SMPA through fear of missing out (FoMO) to highlight the possible psychological factors influencing SMPA, with self-esteem serving as a potential moderator of the correlation between SCO and FoMO, as well as the relationship between SCO and SMPA.

Fear of missing out, or FoMO, refers to the feeling of being left out when others experience something perceived as more valuable [10]. FoMO has been linked to various negative life experiences and emotional states [11]. According to the social enhancement hypothesis, individuals with psychological vulnerabilities are more likely to experience negative outcomes when using social media, which may further reinforce their vulnerabilities. When WeChat users who are more prone to social comparisons engage in online communication, they become more vulnerable to the negative status associated with these comparisons, such as FoMO, which might, in turn, contribute to a certain level of SMPA.

What’s more, this study also examines the potential moderating role of self-esteem. Self-esteem is defined as an individual’s positive or negative self-evaluation, reflecting the extent to which they perceive themselves as worthy [12]. According to the self-enhancement theory, individuals often present their self-image in a socially idealized manner when processing, storing, and evaluating personal information [13]. Driven by self-enhancement motives, individuals tend to adopt a strategy of overestimating their own social competence to maintain a positive self-image and self-esteem level in the process of making social comparisons with others through online communication [14], which could trigger distress such as FoMO and unwillingness to post content on social media [3], and lead to a degree of SMPA. Therefore, self-esteem might moderate the correlation between SCO and FoMO, as well as the relationship between SCO and SMPA.

This research primarily targets adults, as they represent the largest group of WeChat users in China. Due to the pressures of competition and survival, adults are more likely to engage in social comparison and experience feelings of FoMO, which might create a compelling population context for examining the underlying mechanism of SMPA. The objective of this study is to investigate the psychological antecedents of SMPA and to explore the psychological pathway that underpins the relationship between SCO and SMPA within the context of WeChat, a prominent social media platform integral to daily life. Regarding the social enhancement hypothesis as a core mechanism, this study proposes a model in which FoMO serves as the mediating variable between SCO and SMPA, and self-esteem might function as the moderating variable of the correlation between SCO and FoMO, as well as the relationship between SCO and SMPA. Specifically, this study hypothesizes that WeChat users with higher SCO are more prone to experiencing FoMO, which may subsequently contribute to increased SMPA. Additionally, self-esteem might serve as a moderating variable that affects both the direct relationship between SCO and SMPA, as well as the direct relationship between SCO and FoMO. Given the pervasive and culturally distinct use of WeChat in China, this research highlights how individual differences interact with platform-specific characteristics to shape user experiences. By situating these findings within a non-Western cultural context, this study advances a more nuanced understanding of the phenomenon’s complexity and offers actionable insights to foster healthier social media engagement.

Literature review

Social enhancement hypothesis

The social enhancement hypothesis [9], often described as the “poor-get-poorer” hypothesis, suggests that social media could enhance the social deficits experienced by individuals who are psychologically vulnerable or socially deficient. In other words, individuals with psychological vulnerabilities may experience that their use of social media can either strengthen their current social status or harm their mental well-being. Extensive literature has validated the social enhancement effect of social media and indicated that this hypothesis may help explain the fundamental psychological mechanisms within the proposed models [15, 16]. For instance, individuals with psychological vulnerabilities (e.g., loneliness) may turn to smartphones or social media as a coping mechanism to alleviate their isolation, ultimately resulting in adverse life outcomes, such as problematic mobile phone use or increased loneliness [17–19]. Those displaying high levels of anxiety or attachment insecurity are inclined to utilize online dating applications to pursue romantic relationships. However, they are particularly susceptible to experiences of ghosting and disillusionment, which can further exacerbate their levels of depression [20]. In short, the social enhancement hypothesis suggests that psychologically vulnerable individuals may encounter detrimental effects from online communication or social media.

In the present study, the social enhancement hypothesis is regarded as a key mechanism of the proposed mediation model, while SCO is viewed as a type of psychological vulnerability. The social enhancement hypothesis is interpreted to indicate that individuals with a greater SCO are likely to use WeChat for comparison purposes, which can easily lead to feelings of FoMO, thereby triggering SMPA. Regarding the moderating mechanism, individuals with higher levels of self-esteem might strengthen the positive correlation between SCO and FoMO, as well as the positive relationship between SCO and SMPA. The social enhancement hypothesis posits that individuals with psychological vulnerabilities or social deficiencies may discover that their use of social media can reinforce their current social status [9]. According to the self-enhancement theory, individuals are inherently motivated to maintain a positive self-image and level of self-esteem [13, 14]. As an intrinsic personality trait, self-esteem may enhance the social enhancement effects for those individuals. The moderating effect of self-esteem can be attributed to identity exploration [4] and self-enhancement motivation, as adults frequently maintain a positive level of self-esteem while engaging in social comparisons with others through online communication [14]. Such tendencies may lead to feelings of distress, including FoMO [3] and SMPA. Given that SCO involves the tendency to compare oneself with others, individuals with high self-esteem who are prone to social comparison may be more likely to experience heightened FoMO and SMPA. Therefore, self-esteem may act as a moderating factor in the relationship between SCO and FoMO, as well as in the association between SCO and SMPA.

Social comparison orientation and social media posting anxiety

Social comparison theory posits that individuals have an inherent drive to evaluate their views and abilities by comparing themselves with others [21]. Social comparison orientation (SCO) refers to the tendency of individuals to exhibit consistent differences when evaluating their behaviors and outcomes in relation to those of others [7, 8]. Unlike the specific comparison behaviors, SCO is associated with internal personality traits and reflects individual differences, demonstrating a tendency for individuals to compare themselves with others [22]. Research indicates that the proliferation of social media platforms enables users to access others’ information more readily, increasing the likelihood of social comparisons through these platforms [8, 23]. For instance, doctors and patients utilize social media for social comparisons and emotional expressions, gaining insights into their health recovery and the effectiveness of treatments [24]. In China, WeChat has become integral to daily life, allowing users to post updates, photos, and videos, as well as express emotions and beliefs, facilitating social comparisons. A study on workplace social media use found that as users present themselves positively on WeChat, employees often feel that “others are successful” and “I am not as good” when comparing themselves to seemingly more successful peers [25].

In recent years, research has demonstrated that social comparisons on social media can lead to negative emotions such as jealousy, depression, and anxiety, as well as detrimental effects on self-perception, image, and behavior [26, 27]. For example, a study on Facebook users highlighted that the platform’s visibility, connectivity, and persistence facilitate comparisons with others, fostering negative emotions like jealousy and anxiety [28]. Similar outcomes have been observed on Instagram, where SCO negatively affects mental health [29]. These findings suggest that users may experience anxiety and distress while engaging with social media, a phenomenon termed social media anxiety.

Current literature indicates that frequent social media use may result in anxiety symptoms [30–32]. However, there is limited research on social media posting anxiety (SMPA), an emerging area focusing on the fear of posting content. This syndrome, considered a subset of social media anxiety disorder, emphasizes a reluctance to post on social platforms [3]. Individuals utilize social media to document significant daily events and to construct an idealized persona within the social network [33]. Given social media’s popularity in China and its dynamic features, it provides a platform for individuals to engage in online activities, such as interactions and self-comparisons [34]. In particular, short videos and features like instant likes and comments can enhance users’ tendencies to compare themselves with others, especially among young people who are sensitive to social comparison [34]. This behavior can lead many to perceive their lives as unfair compared to others [26], thus triggering SMPA. Besides, the “poor-get-poorer” hypothesis also suggests that users with a higher SCO are more prone to experiencing posting anxiety when using social media [35]. Therefore, we propose:

• H1: SCO is positively related to SMPA in WeChat use.

The mediation role of fear of missing out

With the rise of social networks, numerous studies have linked increased social media use with heightened experiences of FoMO [36–38]. As a type of negative feeling, FoMO is defined as the fear of missing out when others are engaging in more valuable and meaningful activities. It is characterized by a desire to maintain constant awareness and connection with others, though this connection is passive [10]. Research shows that those with strong SCO are at an increased risk of experiencing FoMO during social media interactions [22]. This mechanism can be elucidated by the following reasons: The standard definition of FoMO highlights a significant link to comparison processes [22]. For example, researchers have characterized FoMO as the feeling that others might be experiencing more rewarding moments than oneself [10]. This understanding suggests that individuals assess their own situations or experiences in relation to those of others, resulting in feelings that others are performing better or having more rewarding experiences. Therefore, it is plausible to argue that individuals with a high SCO are more prone to experiencing FoMO, as they often seek information about the activities and experiences of others [22].

With the widespread use of WeChat in China, users can share real-time updates about their lives and studies, enabling others to form quick impressions. The visibility and immediacy of self-presentation on WeChat allow adults to stay informed about their friends’ activities, fostering SCO and potentially intensifying the FoMO. For instance, a study on WeChat usage found that social comparison tendencies are correlated with heightened FoMO [39]. This indicates that users with a stronger inclination toward social comparison during online interactions are more likely to experience FoMO in significant experiences that their peers are having [40]. Therefore, we put forward:

• H2: SCO is positively related to FoMO in WeChat use.

Although research on the link between FoMO and SMPA is limited, numerous studies indicate that FoMO significantly predicts overall life satisfaction, emotional health, and interpersonal well-being [10, 41, 42]. For example, research has pointed out that users who feel they are missing out often exhibit heightened anxiety levels [43]. Specifically, FoMO drives people to constantly check their social media to avoid missing any updates. Those with strong FoMO may use social media excessively, which can lead to higher levels of online social anxiety [44]. Besides, people experiencing FoMO often regard their social status as important and want others to recognize it [38]. Individuals experiencing FoMO may be susceptible to SMPA, a distinct form of social anxiety, which motivates them to post content on social media to preserve or enhance their self-concept [45].

For adults users, they might fear of losing social connections on social media and the possibility of being marginalized from the mainstream group [10]. Their FoMO may trigger SMPA, motivating them to share identity-relevant content on WeChat “moments” to strengthen their connections with others [45]. Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis:

• H3: FoMO is positively related to SMPA in WeChat use.

Previous studies indicate that FoMO plays a mediating role. For instance, the relationship between social media engagement and reduced well-being—manifesting as increased loneliness, depression, and anxiety—may be indirectly influenced by FoMO [22]. A study on Facebook use and adolescent mental health also found a significant correlation between frequent social media use and worsened psychosocial health, with FoMO playing a predictive and mediating role in this association [46]. To date, there has been no research examining the mediating role of FoMO in the relationship between SCO and SMPA. However, existing literature indicates that individuals with higher SCO are more likely to experience FoMO (H2) and that FoMO is positively correlated with SMPA (H3). The present study aims to investigate whether FoMO mediates the relationship between SCO and SMPA, thereby contributing to the understanding of the antecedents and psychological mechanisms underlying SMPA.

In the Chinese context, this study seeks to investigate whether individuals with elevated levels of SCO are more susceptible to experiencing FoMO, which in turn may exacerbate SMPA. This exploration could inform psychological interventions and enhance overall psychological well-being. Based on the preceding literature, we can formulate the following hypothesis:

• H4: FoMO mediates the relationship between SCO and SMPA for WeChat use.

The moderation role of self-esteem

Self-esteem refers to an individual’s overall positive or negative attitude toward themselves, as well as their assessment of their thoughts and feelings about their own identity [47, 48]. It functions as a self-perception and evaluation mechanism, shaped by individuals’ daily interactions and the evaluations of others, reflecting their subjective recognition of personal value [12]. As a critical measure of psychosocial phenomena, self-esteem not only captures an individual’s internal assessment of self-worth but also plays a vital role in safeguarding against social exclusion and isolation [49]. Self-enhancement theory suggests that humans are intrinsically motivated to maintain an overly optimistic view of their abilities in social and intellectual domains to preserve a positive self-image and self-esteem [13, 14].

A substantial body of literature has highlighted the mediating role of self-esteem in the context of social media usage [48, 50, 51]. For instance, the study has demonstrated that both self-esteem and FoMO mediate the relationship between attachment styles and problematic social media use, with self-esteem being negatively and directly associated with FoMO [50]. This occurs primarily because individuals with low self-esteem often fear social exclusion, prompting them to use social media to seek social connections and avoid missing out on information. Similarly, researchers have found that FoMO and self-esteem serve as mediators in the relationship between maximization and problematic smartphone use [48].

However, many studies also suggest that self-esteem functions as a moderator [52–54]. For example, self-esteem moderates the relationship between upward social comparison sensitivity and emotional exhaustion [53]. This mechanism can be understood as high self-esteem serving as a protective and buffering factor that helps mitigate the negative effects of stressors, thereby reducing the risk of emotional exhaustion [53]. Additionally, self-esteem acts as a moderator in the relationship between social support and both life satisfaction and positive effects. Specifically, individuals with high global self-esteem who also receive strong social support report greater life satisfaction and positive affect compared to those with low social support [54]. Since self-esteem serves as a lens through which individuals interpret their experiences and interact with the world, thereby moderating the relationship between various psychological, social, and behavioral variables [52–54], the current study focuses on the moderating role of self-esteem.

There is no study to explore whether self-esteem moderates the relationship between SCO and FoMO, as well as its correlation with SMPA. For WeChat users, the immediacy and interactivity of WeChat allow them to continuously receive updates and current life status information from friends. Considering that SCO reflects the tendency to compare oneself with others, users with high self-esteem who are likely to engage in social comparison may be at an increased risk of intensifying FoMO and SMPA [55, 56]. Thus, we propose the following research questions, and Fig. 1 presents the hypothesized model in the current research.

Fig. 1.

The hypothesized model in the current study

• RQ1: Does self-esteem moderate the relationship between SCO and FoMO, with the relationship being stronger for individuals with higher levels of self-esteem?

• RQ2: Does self-esteem moderate the relationship between SCO and SMPA, with the relationship being stronger for individuals with higher levels of self-esteem?

Method

Data collection and sample

The current survey primarily targets Chinese adults who are over 18 years of age and use WeChat. Prior to the main survey, a pilot study was conducted with 50 WeChat users, which assessed the questionnaire and demonstrated that Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for all measurement scales exceeded 0.80, indicating their readiness for formal deployment. The study employs non-probability sampling techniques, specifically purposive and snowball sampling methods. Participants were invited to complete an online survey hosted on Questionnaire Star between October 9, 2022, and November 6, 2022, via a shared link distributed through WeChat.

Before commencing data collection, ethical approval was obtained from the author’s institutional authority. To safeguard participants’ privacy, the survey was conducted anonymously. Participants were informed about the research objectives and provided their consent to participate. Upon completion of the survey, respondents were allowed to receive a random monetary reward ranging from 0.1 to 2 RMB. Additionally, all assessment questionnaires used in this study were based on established scales, translated from English to Chinese. The translations underwent a rigorous evaluation process to ensure clarity and fluidity, with necessary modifications made to enhance accuracy and eliminate ambiguity.

A total of 527 individuals participated in the online survey, with 14 excluded because they were under 18 years old. Consequently, the final sample consisted of 513 participants, resulting in a response rate of 97.3%. The primary demographic variables, which also serve as control variables, include gender, age, and educational attainment. Among the respondents, 362 (70.6%) identified as female and 151 (29.4%) as male. The age distribution was as follows: 386 participants (75.2%) were aged 18–25, 70 (13.6%) were aged 26–35, 34 (6.7%) were aged 36–50, 18 (3.5%) were aged 51–60, and 5 (1.0%) were over 60. Regarding educational background, 32 (6.1%) possessed qualifications below an associate degree, 48 (9.4%) possessed an associate degree, 183 (35.7%) had a bachelor’s degree, 244 participants (47.6%) held a master’s degree, and 6 (1.2%) held a doctoral degree.

Measurement

Unless otherwise indicated, the constructs were measured on five-point Likert scales ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

To evaluate individual differences in SCO, the revised SCO Scale [7] was employed. The original 11 items of the scale were translated into Chinese and subjected to a pilot study. Based on the pilot study and CFA results from the main study, four items were excluded due to low factor loadings, resulting in the retention of seven items. Participants rated their agreement with nine statements, such as “I often compare myself with others with respect to what I have accomplished in life” and “I always like to know what others in a similar situation would do.” All the items were averaged to create a composite variable, and higher scores indicate a greater propensity for SCO (α = 0.834, M = 3.412, SD = 0.737).

To measure participants’ FoMO on others’ experiences, the updated FoMO Scale [40] was utilized. The original 10 items were preserved and carefully localized to ensure alignment with Chinese contextual expression norms and linguistic conventions. Participants were instructed to rate 10 statements about their daily activities on a five-point scale (1 indicating not at all true, to 5 indicating extremely true). Examples include “I fear others have more rewarding experiences than me” and “I fear my friends have more rewarding experiences than me.” Therefore, the ten items were averaged to form the FoMO Index (α = 0.898, M = 2.774, SD = 0.859). The higher value indicated a greater level of fear of missing out.

To assess self-esteem, a modified version of the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale [47] was employed. The original 10 items were translated into Chinese and evaluated through a pilot study. Following an assessment of linguistic suitability within the Chinese cultural context, eight items were retained to better align with local expression habits. Respondents rated eight general statements about their feelings, such as “I feel that I have a number of good qualities” and “On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.” The eight items were averaged to create an index representing self-esteem, and higher scores demonstrated better self-esteem (α = 0.890, M = 3.602, SD = 0.691).

To assess levels of SMPA, the modified measurements of SMPA were utilized [3, 57]. After a pilot study, 11 items were retained based on their alignment with Chinese contextual expression and satisfactory factor loadings. Participants rated their agreement with 11 statements, such as “I am concerned about people thinking poorly of me by considering my posts on WeChat” and “I need a lot of reassurances (likes, comments, etc.) from my WeChat friends on things that I post.” The total score was averaged to create a new index, with a higher score indicating a stronger level of WeChat posting anxiety (α = 0.926, M = 2.802, SD = 0.885).

Statistical analysis

Data analysis was conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics version 23.0, while confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed with Amos version 22.0. Initially, Pearson Correlation analysis was performed on the preprocessed data to examine the zero-order correlations among the variables. Following this, we performed a mediation analysis utilizing Model 4 in SPSS PROCESS. In this model, the independent variable is SCO, the dependent variable is SMPA, and the mediating variable is FoMO. Then we conducted a moderation analysis using Model 1 in SPSS PROCESS. In this model, self-esteem serves as a moderating variable in the relationship between SCO and FoMO, as well as in the correlation between SCO and SMPA. Gender, age, and educational background were included as control variables for each analysis. The Bootstrap method was employed to assess the statistical significance of the relationships among the variables; a relationship was considered significant if the confidence interval did not encompass zero. The program resampled the distribution 5,000 times with a 95% confidence interval (CI).

Results

Preliminary analyses

Since the data were cross-sectional, we evaluated common method bias using Harman’s single-factor test and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Harman’s test indicated that a single-factor solution accounted for only 30.594% of the total variance, which is below the 50% threshold. Subsequently, we conducted a CFA by entering all observed indicators into a single factor. The results showed that the one-factor model did not fit the data well, with χ²/df = 17.892, CFI = 0.485, TLI = 0.455, RMSEA = 0.134 with a 90% confidence interval [0.131, 0.137], SRMR = 0.136, and GFI = 0.893. The findings from both tests suggest that common method bias was not a concern in our data.

Convergent validity was evaluated using the average variance extracted (AVE) and composite reliability (CR) derived from the CFA. The results are as follows: SCO (AVE = 0.425, CR = 0.822; two items removed due to low factor loadings), FoMO (AVE = 0.475, CR = 0.892), SMPA (AVE = 0.550, CR = 0.923), and Self-esteem (AVE = 0.515, CR = 0.890). The AVE values of two constructs are below 0.5, but the CR values are over 0.7. This demonstrates that the measures for both constructs are reliable with respect to internal consistency. The convergent validity of the constructs can be considered acceptable on the basis of the strong composite reliability.

Discriminant validity was examined by cross-factor correlations. Table 1 presents the results of the correlations among the key variables. The correlation coefficients ranged from 0.031 to 0.687, indicating that the latent constructs measured were distinct from one another [58].

Table 1.

Zero-order correlations of key variables

Variable	M	SD	1	2	3	4
1.SCO	3.412	0.737	1
2.FoMO	2.774	0.859	0.571**	1
3.Self-esteem	3.602	0.691	0.227**	0.113*	1
4.SMPA	2.802	0.885	0.439**	0.687**	0.031	1

N = 513. *p < .05, **p < .01. SCO = Social comparison orientation, FoMO = Fear of missing out, SMPA = Social media posting anxiety

Hypothesis testing

To test the direct effects and the mediation effects among SCO, FoMO, and SMPA, we employed Model 4 in SPSS PROCESS. H1 hypothesized that SCO was positively related to SMPA in WeChat use. As shown in Table 2, the direct effect of SCO on SMPA was significant (B = 0.101, p < .05, 95% CI: [0.006, 0.196]). Thereby, H1 was supported.

Table 2.

Results of the mediation analysis (FoMO as a mediator between SCO and SMPA)

	Effect	SE	95% CI
Direct Effect
SCO → SMPA (controlling for FoMO)	0.101	0.048	[0.006, 0.196]
Indirect Effects
SCO→ FoMO → SMPA	0.433	0.041	[0.356, 0.515]
Total Effect
SCO → SMPA	0.534	0.049	[0.437, 0.631]

SCO = Social comparison orientation, FoMO = Fear of missing out, SMPA = Social media posting anxiety

H2 assumed that SCO was positively related to FoMO in WeChat use. The results suggested that the effect of SCO on FoMO was significant (B = 0.654, p < .001, 95% CI: [0.569, 0.740]). Therefore, H2 was supported. Furthermore, FoMO was significantly associated with SMPA (B = 0.661, p < .001, 95% CI: [0.581, 0.742]), supporting H3. Finally, the bootstrapping approach confirmed that FoMO mediated the relationship between SCO and SMPA for WeChat use (indirect effect = 0.433, 95% CI: [0.356, 0.515]). This finding provided support for H4. As the direct effect was also significant, FoMO partially mediated the relationship. The results were depicted in Table 2.

RQ1 asked whether self-esteem moderated the relationship between SCO and FoMO, with the relationship being stronger for individuals with higher levels of self-esteem. RQ2 examined whether self-esteem moderated the relationship between SCO and SMPA, with the relationship being stronger for individuals with higher self-esteem. To evaluate the moderating role of self-esteem in the correlations between SCO and FoMO and between SCO and SMPA, we used Model 1 in SPSS PROCESS to examine each RQ.

Regarding RQ1, as shown in Table 3, self-esteem significantly and positively moderated the relationship between SCO and FoMO, such that the relationship was stronger when self-esteem was higher. The Johnson-Neyman analysis identified no statistically significant transition points across the observed range of self-esteem (from 1.00 to 5.00). Further analysis of these findings demonstrated that the positive effect of SCO on FoMO remained statistically significant across all levels of self-esteem (all p-values < 0.001). This pattern is visually depicted in Fig. 2, which plots the conditional effect of SCO on FoMO across the observed range of self-esteem.

Table 3.

Results of the moderation analysis with FoMO as a dependent variable

	B	SE	95% CI
SCO	0.366*	0.145	[.080, .651]
Self-esteem	-0.263	0.138	[-0.535, 0.009]
SCO x Self-esteem	0.083*	0.040	[0.005, 0.161]
Gender (Female = 0)	0.093	0.069	[-0.043, 0.229]
Age	-0.137**	0.042	[-0.218, − 0.055]
Education level	-0.067	0.037	[-0.139, 0.005]
R2	0.349
F (6, 506)	45.278***

*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p< .001; SCO = Social comparison orientation and FoMO = Fear of missing out

Fig. 2.

Johnson-Neyman plot illustrating the conditional effect of SCO FoMO at values of the moderator, self-esteem

As for RQ2, self-esteem did not significantly moderate the relationship between SCO and SMPA. The results are presented in Table 4.

Table 4.

Results of the moderation analysis with SMPA as a dependent variable

	B	SE	95% CI
SCO	0.431**	0.165	[0.107, 0.755]
Self-esteem	-0.165	0.157	[-0.473, 0.144]
SCO x Self-esteem	0.033	0.045	[-0.056, 0.122]
Gender (Female = 0)	0.104	0.079	[-0.051, 0.258]
Age	-0.099*	0.047	[-0.192, -0.007]
Education level	-0.088*	0.042	[-0.170, -0.007]
R2	0.212
F (6, 506)	22.626***

*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p< .001; SCO = Social comparison orientation and SMPA = Social media posting anxiety

Discussion

WeChat is recognized as one of the most extensively used social media platforms in China. As the prevalence of social media in daily life continues to increase, its effects on mental health have attracted growing academic scrutiny. Building upon the core theoretical framework of the social enhancement hypothesis, the current study proposes a composite model to investigate the psychological antecedents of SMPA and to elucidate the underlying mechanisms linking SCO and SMPA. The research findings demonstrate that individuals with SCO are more likely to experience FoMO, which may subsequently lead to heightened SMPA. Furthermore, self-esteem serves as a moderating variable that affects the relationship between SCO and FoMO; however, it does not moderate the direct relationship between SCO and SMPA.

Firstly, this research establishes that the social enhancement hypothesis serves as the foundational psychological mechanism for explaining the hypothetical model presented in the current study, aligning with findings from prior literature [15, 16]. Individuals with psychological vulnerabilities, such as SCO, are particularly susceptible to the negative impacts of social media, including FoMO, which can adversely affect their psychological well-being by triggering SMPA. The “poor-get-poorer” hypothesis suggests that psychologically vulnerable individuals may be cautious in utilizing technology as a means to mitigate the negative aspects of social media.

Secondly, the expected positive direct correlation between SCO and SMPA was confirmed in the context of WeChat usage. This finding enhances our understanding of their relationship, specifically within the Chinese WeChat for the first time. According to the social enhancement hypothesis, users with higher SCO are more vulnerable to experiencing SMPA. In China, platforms like WeChat provide various opportunities for self-presentation, including content disclosure autonomy and flexible sharing options, but they also facilitate social comparison significantly. The ease of retrieving and accessing viewed content allows users to engage in social comparisons readily, which can negatively affect individual well-being [6, 59–61]. For instance, before posting content on WeChat, users often worry about potential feedback [5]. These concerns include fears of negative perceptions, adverse outcomes, and critical comments from others. While browsing real-time updates and personal information shared by friends, users typically encounter idealized portrayals of others. This can lead to feelings of inadequacy, as users may see themselves as “less skilled than others” [25]. Such feelings can reduce their willingness to share content, thereby triggering SMPA.

Thirdly, the study confirms the mediating role of FoMO in the relationship between SCO and SMPA. The findings indicate that WeChat users with a stronger SCO are more likely to experience FoMO, which can subsequently exacerbate SMPA. Specifically, this finding supports the significant correlation between individual SCO and FoMO during social media interactions [39]. WeChat’s instantaneous capabilities allow users to quickly access updates about their friends, facilitating frequent comparisons between their own lives and the activities of their peers [62]. Those with a high SCO are particularly at risk for experiencing FoMO [22], as they seek to verify whether they have missed important experiences with friends [40]. Additionally, the result also suggests that FoMO is a significant factor of the complex relationship between social media interaction and user anxiety [22, 46]. For example, when users realize they are missing important shared experiences, their anxiety levels significantly rise [43]. The anxiety, driven by FoMO, further affects users’ posting behaviors on social media, leading to concerns and worries, which manifest as SMPA. The study confirms that FoMO mediates the relationship between SCO and SMPA, thereby enhancing our understanding of the antecedents and psychological mechanisms that underpin SMPA.

Fourthly, this research concluded that self-esteem acts as a moderating variable influencing the relationship between SCO and FoMO; however, it does not moderate the direct relationship between SCO and SMPA. This is primarily because both SCO and FoMO involve a psychological comparison process [10, 22]. When individuals engage in SCO, which reflects a propensity to compare themselves with others [22], they are more likely to experience FoMO, characterized by fear about not participating in more valuable and meaningful activities [10]. Individuals with high self-esteem who exhibit strong SCO may report greater levels of FoMO compared to those with weaker SCO. This phenomenon can be understood through the lens of high self-esteem functioning as an intrinsic motivator that encourages individuals to maintain a positive self-image, thereby heightening their propensity for social comparison. Consequently, self-esteem enhances the positive relationship between SCO and FoMO. Unexpectedly, self-esteem does not moderate the positive correlation between SCO and SMPA. This may be attributed to the fact that self-esteem primarily influences individuals’ tendencies to engage in social comparison, rather than affecting the emotional state associated with posting anxiety. These findings underscore the critical role that self-esteem plays in shaping social media use and its subsequent impact on users’ mental health.

Finally, the findings of this study have practical implications for users aiming to reduce the impact of negative social media experiences. First, individuals should be aware of their SCO and FoMO. While it may be difficult to eliminate these psychological tendencies, users can lessen their effects by increasing self-awareness and actively celebrating the achievements of others, thus fostering a positive environment. Second, major social media platforms should implement targeted initiatives, such as mental health education programs featuring influential figures who share their personal stories. These initiatives can enhance self-esteem and promote self-acceptance, leading to a more positive self-perception among users. Additionally, this insight could inform interventions aimed at enhancing self-esteem and managing social comparison behaviors to improve users’ mental well-being. Educational institutions should guide individuals in positive social media use. By fostering a constructive mindset and encouraging peer support, societal institutions can help social media users develop self-love and effectively support one another.

Limitations and future research

Despite the significant findings of this study, it is essential to recognize certain limitations and their implications for future research. Firstly, the scope of the findings and their causal relationships are limited by the study’s cross-sectional design. This design restricts the ability to ascertain the directionality of the relationship between SCO and SMPA, as it does not allow for the observation of changes over time. We assessed common method bias through Harman’s single-factor test and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), both of which were found to be insufficient. Longitudinal research should investigate whether SCO functions as an independent variable influencing SMPA within the proposed path model. Secondly, the study’s sampling method, which involved an anonymous online survey and self-report scales to assess the primary variables, may introduce potential bias in the results. Future research could benefit from incorporating qualitative methods, such as in-depth interviews and focus groups, to provide deeper insights into social media dynamics. Thirdly, the participants in this study were Chinese Wechat users and therefore do not represent a diverse sample of international social media users. This necessitates further validation to determine whether the conclusions drawn can be generalized to other demographic groups. Specifically, the sample structure of this study raises concerns regarding representativeness, particularly given that 47.6% of participants hold a master’s degree, which may not accurately reflect the broader population of Chinese adults. These factors warrant a critical examination of how well the sample represents the intended demographic and the potential implications for the study’s findings. Future research should aim to expand the sample to include a broader range of users, such as elderly individuals, married couples, young parents, and media professionals [43, 63–65]. Finally, in discussing the theoretical framework, we acknowledge that the differentiation among the core concepts of SCO, FoMO, and SMPA is still a topic of debate in the current literature. For future research, it would be beneficial to confirm the social enhancement hypothesis and incorporate other variables into existing theoretical models to elucidate the relationship between social media engagement and SMPA, including factors such as social media fatigue, self-concept, social connections, and sense of belonging [38, 61, 66, 67].

Authors’ contributions

Y.P.L: Data collection, Data analysis, Writing - original draft; L.Z.: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing; V.H.: Data analysis. Y.P.L and L.Z. contributed equally to this study.

Funding

Not applicable.

Data availability

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Strictly following the principles outlined in the Helsinki Declaration, this study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Humanities and Arts at Macau University of Science and Technology (Approval Number MUST-FA-2025001). Participants were informed about the study’s objectives and could choose to withdraw at any time. All collected data was anonymized and handled with strict confidentiality in accordance with ethical guidelines. Informed consent was obtained from every participant.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.