Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Chinese Herbal Medicines logoLink to Chinese Herbal Medicines
. 2026 Feb 14;18(2):226–230. doi: 10.1016/j.chmed.2026.02.014

Future prospects of antiviral research in traditional Chinese medicine

Kexin Wang a,b, Zifeng Yang a,b,⁎
PMCID: PMC13069602  PMID: 41971592

Abstract

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has a long history of treating viral diseases through holistic approaches and multi-component formulations. In response to emerging global viral threats like coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19), TCM has demonstrated significant potential in both antiviral and immune-modulatory roles. This review summarizes the current state of TCM antiviral research, highlighting advances in identifying active components and elucidating their mechanisms, which include direct viral inhibition and immune regulation. Technological innovations, including artificial intelligence (AI)-driven drug discovery and advanced extraction methods, are accelerating the development of TCM antiviral products. However, challenges remain in standardization, mechanistic validation, and international regulatory acceptance. Looking ahead, research should prioritize systems pharmacology, the development of multi-dimensional evaluation models, standardized clinical trials, and global health integration. By addressing these challenges, TCM can play a vital role in worldwide antiviral strategies and public health.

Keywords: active components, antiviral research, internationalization, multi-dimensional models, systems pharmacology, traditional Chinese medicine, technological innovation

1. Introduction

Viral diseases such as coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19), influenza, and dengue continue to threaten global public health (Le Sage et al., 2023, Nakamura et al., 2022, Nazareth et al., 2023, Safiabadi Tali et al., 2021). The World Health Organization (WHO) has emphasized the need for diversified antiviral strategies, including traditional medicine systems like traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) (World Health Organization, 2013, World Health Organization., 2022). Rooted in ancient texts such as the Huangdi’s Internal Classic, TCM emphasizes balancing the body’s resistance (healthy qi) and external pathogens (pathogenic qi) (Curran, 2008). This approach aligns with modern immunology and has been applied in outbreaks from severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) to COVID-19 (Liu, 2020, Su et al., 2022).

The theoretical basis of TCM for the management of infectious diseases is firmly grounded in the warm diseases theory. This theory provides frameworks like defense-qi-nutrient-blood syndrome differentiation and triple-energizer syndrome differentiation, which guide the diagnosis and treatment of epidemic diseases, including viral respiratory infections (Li, Li, Liu, Tian, & Cui, 2021). The holistic paradigm of TCM aims not only to clear pathogens but also to regulate the body’s internal balance and enhancing immune function, which is particularly relevant in managing complex viral infections.

TCM formulations such as Lianhua Qingwen Capsules have shown efficacy in reducing symptom duration and severity (Hu et al., 2021, Xu et al., 2023, Zheng et al., 2023, Zhuang et al., 2021). The multi-component, multi-target nature of TCM offers advantages over single-target antivirals, potentially reducing drug resistance (Gan et al., 2023, Yang et al., 2025). Despite progress, issues like standardization and international regulatory barriers must be addressed to integrate TCM into global health frameworks (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

Open in a new tab

Overview of antiviral research in TCM: A pathway from tradition to modernization.

2. Current status of TCM antiviral research

2.1. Active components and mechanisms

TCM herbs contain bioactive compounds—flavonoids, alkaloids, terpenoids, polysaccharides—with demonstrated antiviral effects (Devi & Sarala, 2021). For example, chlorogenic acid from Lonicera japonica Thunb. inhibits influenza virus adsorption and suppresses viral protein expression (Ding, Cao, Cao, Ding, Wang, & Xiao, 2017). Berberine from Coptis chinensis Franch. suppresses hepatitis B virus (HBV) replication by inhibiting viral DNA polymerase and reduces hepatitis C virus (HCV) replication by targeting non-structural protein 5B (NS5B) polymerase (Hung et al., 2019, Yamashita et al., 2024). Quercetin regulates macrophage polarization through the succinate dehydrogenase (SDH)/hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α)/NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) signaling pathway, exerting both antiviral and anti-inflammatory effects (An et al., 2024, Kandeil et al., 2021, Wu et al., 2024). Representative antiviral constituents derived from TCM are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1.

Representative antiviral compounds derived from TCM.

Compound class Active ingredients TCM source Virus Targets pathways References
Flavonoids Baicalin Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi Influenza A virus subtype H9N2 Myxovirus resistance protein 1; Protein kinase R Liu, Guo, Zhi, Jiang, & Zhang, 2025
Hyperin; Quercitrin Houttuynia cordata Thunb. Influenza A virus subtype H1N1 Neuraminidase; Toll-like receptor Ling et al., 2020
Ginkgolide Ginkgo biloba L. SARS-CoV-2 3C-like protease (3CLpro) Xiong et al., 2021
Scutellaria barbata D. Don extracts Scutellaria barbata D. Don SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro; Papain-like protease Ran et al., 2025
Alkaloids Ephedra alkaloids Ephedra sinica Stapf H1N1 Toll-like receptor Wei et al., 2019
Epigoitrin Isatis indigotica Fortune H1N1 Interferon-β; Interferon-induced transmembrane protein 3 Luo et al., 2019
Eugenol Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry Influenza A virus (IAV) Beclin1-B-cell lymphoma 2 complex Dai et al., 2013
Terpenoids Saikosaponin C Bupleurum chinense DC. HBV Hepatocyte nuclear factor 1α (HNF1α); HNF4α Pan et al., 2019
Andrographolide Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees SARS-CoV-2 Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 Sa-Ngiamsuntorn et al., 2021
Polysaccharides Lysimachia christinae polysaccharides Lysimachia christinae Hance Pseudorabies virus (PRV) Reactive oxygen species；
Malondialdehyde		 Wang et al., 2025
Astragalus polysaccharides Astragalus membranaceus (Fisch.) Bunge Coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) Toll-like receptor 4; Nuclear factor-κB subunit p65 Liu et al., 2019
Open in a new tab

2.2. Immunomodulatory and host-directed mechanisms

TCM exerts antiviral effects not only through direct viral inhibition but also by comprehensively modulating host immune responses and repairing virus-induced tissue damage, which is central to its holistic advantage. It regulates cellular, humoral, and innate immunity (e.g., modulating T-cell subsets and macrophage function), modulates gut microbiota via the gut-lung axis to reduce lung inflammation and viral load, and alleviates tissue damage through anti-inflammatory actions (e.g., mitigating pulmonary fibrosis and myocardial injury), demonstrating its multi-target and holistic regulatory therapeutic advantages.

2.3. Clinical applications and efficacy

TCM has demonstrated significant clinical value, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic. The National Health Commission of China recommended several TCM formulations, including Lianhua Qingwen Capsules, Jinhua Qinggan Granules, Xuebijing Injection, Qingfei Paidu Decoction, Huashi Baidu Formula, and Xuanfei Baidu Formula (collectively known as Three Medicines and Three Formulae) (Gao, Xiao, Fan, Zhang, Zhu, & Lv, 2022).

During the COVID-19 pandemic, a multicenter clinical trial showed that Lianhua Qingwen significantly reduced the time to symptom resolution (4.0 d vs 6.7 d in controls) and improved computed tomography (CT) findings (Zheng et al., 2023). Another study of severe COVID-19 patients found that integrated TCM-Western medicine treatment reduced mortality and improved lung function (Chen et al., 2020). For influenza, a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) demonstrated that TCM monotherapy or combined with oseltamivir reduced fever duration, cough duration, and sore throat duration compared to oseltamivir alone (Chen et al., 2011, Li et al., 2016). In chronic HBV treatment, meta-analysis of RCTs showed TCM combined with conventional therapy significantly increased hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg) seroconversion rates and normalized alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels (Ge et al., 2023, Li et al., 2020, Yeo et al., 2019).

3. Technological innovations

3.1. Advanced extraction and biotechnology

Modern extraction technologies have significantly improved efficiency. Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) of chlorogenic acid from L. japonica under optimized conditions increased extraction yield by 20%–40% compared to traditional ethanol reflux methods (Wu et al., 2013). Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) of berberine from C. chinensis reduced extraction time from 2 h to 2 min (Belwal et al., 2020). Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein 9 (Cas9) gene editing has been used to knockout genes involved in catabolism of active components. A study developed a tRNA-gRNA multiplex CRISPR/Cas9 system driven by the endogenous Solanum melongena ribosomal protein S5A (SmRPS5A) promoter, which significantly enhanced genome editing efficiency in Salvia miltiorrhiza Bge. (Danshen in Chinese, with an average of > 90% for single target, > 70% for double targets, and > 60% for triple targets) and homozygous mutation rates (> 20%) (Zheng et al., 2025). Similarly, similar techniques can significantly increase the active components in Macleaya cordata (Willd.) R. Br. (Sun et al., 2024).

3.2. Developing multi-dimensional evaluation models

A key research strategy is establishing models that accurately reflect the complexity of viral infection and TCM’s holistic effects. Moving beyond traditional 2D cell cultures, human respiratory organoids (e.g., lung, airway, nasal organoids) and air–liquid interface (ALI) cultures better mimic the structure and function of the respiratory epithelium, providing more physiologically relevant systems for studying virus-host interactions and drug screening (Wang et al., 2025). These models integrate specific TCM syndrome patterns with modern pathological features of a disease. They are crucial for evaluating TCM efficacy in a context that reflects its diagnostic theory, helping to bridge the gap between traditional concepts and modern biomedical research.

3.3. Systems pharmacology and multi-omics integration

To decipher the multi-component, multi-target, multi-pathway nature of TCM formulas, systems approaches are essential. Integrating transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and spatial metabolomic imaging allows for a comprehensive analysis of how TCM formulations affect gene expression, protein function, and metabolic networks during viral infection. This helps map the distribution and metabolic fate of active components within the body. Artificial intelligence (AI)-driven platforms have screened libraries of many TCM-derived compounds, identifying candidates with IC50 values in the nanomolar range against influenza virus (Cao et al., 2024, Yang et al., 2025). Network pharmacology analysis of Yin Qiao San identified active components and potential targets involved in antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and immune-regulatory pathways (Cao et al., 2022).

4. Internationalization prospects and challenges

Research is increasingly demonstrating the scientific basis of TCM antivirals. AI-driven screenings and network pharmacology analyses consistently identify numerous active ingredients and potential targets involved in antiviral and immunomodulatory pathways (Kang et al., 2020, Lai et al., 2020, Yang et al., 2025). Successful international multicenter clinical trials, such as those for Lianhua Qingwen Capsules, mark positive steps toward global recognition.

However, significant challenges persist for international integration. These include the standardization of complex multi-herb formulations, the need for rigorous and transparent clinical trials that meet international standards to validate efficacy and safety, and navigating diverse international regulatory frameworks that may not be designed for polypharmaceutical agents. The inherent complexity of elucidating and communicating the synergistic mechanisms of multi-component formulas remains a major hurdle for widespread scientific acceptance.

5. Future research directions

Priority areas include AI-driven drug discovery, systems pharmacology for formula mechanism elucidation, and development of broad-spectrum antiviral TCM formulations (Zheng et al., 2022, Zhou et al., 2024). Clinical translation should emphasize adaptive trial designs, syndrome-based stratification, and international multicenter trials (Wu, Wang, Bai, Chen, Hu, & Zhang, 2023).

To advance the internationalization of multi-herb products, future research should establish stepwise frameworks for collaboration with regulatory authorities, such as the WHO, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the European Medicines Agency (EMA). Key components may include internationally accepted quality and standardization criteria, harmonized preclinical and clinical evaluation strategies that address the multi-component nature of polyherbal formulations, early regulatory scientific advice to clarify evidentiary requirements, and tailored guidance for benefit risk assessment and post-marketing surveillance. Collectively, these efforts could facilitate the global development of TCM products while ensuring safety, efficacy, and regulatory transparency.

6. Conclusion

TCM offers a valuable, holistic approach to antiviral therapy supported by both historical practice and modern scientific validation. Its strengths lie in multi-target intervention, immune modulation, and systemic recovery, as evidenced in the management of respiratory viral infections including COVID-19. With ongoing technological innovation—such as AI, multi-omics, and advanced modeling—and enhanced international cooperation, TCM has the potential to contribute significantly to global antiviral efforts and public health. By addressing existing challenges in standardization, mechanistic clarity, and regulatory harmonization, TCM can be further integrated into worldwide strategies for pandemic preparedness and treatment, ultimately embodying a synergy of traditional wisdom and contemporary science.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Kexin Wang: Writing – original draft - review & editing, Data curation, Methodology, Formal Analysis Validation. Zifeng Yang: Conceptualization, Supervision, Project administration, Founding acquisition.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by National Multidisciplinary Innovation Team Project of Traditional Chinese Medicine (No. ZYYCXTD-D-202406); National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 82404916, 82341099); Science and Technology Development Program of Guangdong Province (No. 2025B1212030002); Guangdong Engineering Technology Research Center (No. 2024A137); Engineering Technology Research (Development) Center of Ordinary Colleges and Universities in Guangdong Province (No. 2024GCZX010).

References

  1. An L., Zhai Q.W., Tao K.Y., Xiong Y.C., Ou W.Y., Yu Z.W., et al. Quercetin induces itaconic acid-mediated M1/M2 alveolar macrophages polarization in respiratory syncytial virus infection. Phytomedicine. 2024;130 doi: 10.1016/j.phymed.2024.155761. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Belwal T., Pandey A., Bhatt I.D., Rawal R.S. Optimized microwave assisted extraction (MAE) of alkaloids and polyphenols from Berberis roots using multiple-component analysis. Scientific Reports. 2020;10:917. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-57585-8. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Cao L.H., Jia X.Y., He H.J., Wang Z.Z., Zhao Y.Y., Yang X., et al. Using a system pharmacology method to search for the potential targets and pathways of Yinqiaosan against COVID-19. Journal of Healthcare Engineering. 2022;2022 doi: 10.1155/2022/9248674. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Cao L.X., Liu Y.R., Ma B., Yi B.X., Sun J.Y. Discovery of natural multi-targets neuraminidase inhibitor glycosides compounds against influenza a virus through network pharmacology, virtual screening, molecular dynamics simulation, and in vitro experiment. Chemical Biology & Drug Design. 2024;103(1) doi: 10.1111/cbdd.14359. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Chen G.H., Su W., Yang J.Y., Luo D., Xia P., Jia W., et al. Chinese herbal medicine reduces mortality in patients with severe and critical Coronavirus disease 2019: A retrospective cohort study. Frontiers of Medicine. 2020;14(6):752–759. doi: 10.1007/s11684-020-0813-6. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Chen W., Lim C.E.D., Kang H.J., Liu J.P. Chinese herbal medicines for the treatment of type a H1N1 influenza: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. PLoS One1. 2011;6(12) doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0028093. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Curran J. The yellow emperor’s classic of internal medicine. BMJ. 2008;336(7647):777. [Google Scholar]
  8. Dai J.P., Zhao X.F., Zeng J., Wan Q.Y., Yang J.C., Li W.Z., et al. Drug screening for autophagy inhibitors based on the dissociation of Beclin1-Bcl2 complex using BiFC technique and mechanism of eugenol on anti-influenza a virus activity. PLoS One1. 2013;8(4) doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0061026. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Devi A.B., Sarala R. Substantial effect of phytochemical constituents against the pandemic disease influenza—A review. Future Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2021;7(1):120. doi: 10.1186/s43094-021-00269-5. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Ding Y., Cao Z.Y., Cao L., Ding G., Wang Z.Z., Xiao W. Antiviral activity of chlorogenic acid against influenza a (H1N1/H3N2) virus and its inhibition of neuraminidase. Scientific Reports. 2017;7:45723. doi: 10.1038/srep45723. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Gan X., Shu Z.X., Wang X.Y., Yan D.Y., Li J., Ofaim S., et al. Network medicine framework reveals generic herb-symptom effectiveness of traditional chinese medicine. Science Advances. 2023;9(43) doi: 10.1126/sciadv.adh0215. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Gao J., Xiao G.X., Fan G.W., Zhang H., Zhu Y., Lv M. Clinical and pharmacological research progress of “three medicines and three formulae” for COVID-19 treatment. Chinese Science Bulletin. 2022;67(27):3296–3310. [Google Scholar]
  13. Ge F.L., Yang Y., Bai Z.F., Si L.L., Wang X.M., Yu J., et al. The role of traditional Chinese medicine in anti-HBV: Background, progress, and challenges. Chinese Medicine. 2023;18(1):159. doi: 10.1186/s13020-023-00861-2. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Hu K., Guan W.J., Bi Y., Zhang W., Li L.J., Zhang B.L., et al. Efficacy and safety of Lianhuaqingwen capsules, a repurposed chinese herb, in patients with coronavirus disease 2019: A multicenter, prospective, randomized controlled trial. Phytomedicine. 2021;85 doi: 10.1016/j.phymed.2020.153242. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Hung T.C., Jassey A., Liu C.H., Lin C.J., Lin C.C., Wong S.H., et al. Berberine inhibits hepatitis C virus entry by targeting the viral E2 glycoprotein. Phytomedicine. 2019;53:62–69. doi: 10.1016/j.phymed.2018.09.025. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Kandeil A., Mostafa A., Kutkat O., Moatasim Y., Al-Karmalawy A.A., Rashad A.A., et al. Bioactive polyphenolic compounds showing strong antiviral activities against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. Pathogens. 2021;10(6):758. doi: 10.3390/pathogens10060758. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Kang Q.L., Wang Y.Y., Cui Q.H., Gong L.L., Yang Y., Jiang H.Q., et al. Screening for anti-influenza actives of prefractionated traditional Chinese medicines. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2020;2020 doi: 10.1155/2020/4979850. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Liu T.L., Zhang M.J., Niu H.Y., Liu J., Ma R.L., Wang Y., et al. Astragalus polysaccharide from Astragalus melittin ameliorates inflammation via suppressing the activation of TLR-4/NF-κB p65 signal pathway and protects mice from CVB3-induced virus myocarditis. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2019;126:179–186. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.12.207. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Lai Y.N., Zhang Q., Long H.S., Han T.T., Li G., Zhan S.F., et al. Ganghuo Kanggan decoction in influenza: Integrating network pharmacology and in vivo pharmacological evaluation. Frontiers in Pharmacology. 2020;11 doi: 10.3389/fphar.2020.607027. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Le Sage V., Lowen A.C., Lakdawala S.S. Block the spread: Barriers to transmission of influenza viruses. Annual Review of Virology. 2023;10(1):347–370. doi: 10.1146/annurev-virology-111821-115447. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Li J.H., Wang R.Q., Guo W.J., Li J.S. Efficacy and safety of traditional chinese medicine for the treatment of influenza a (H1N1): A meta-analysis. Journal of the Chinese Medical Association. 2016;79(5):281–291. doi: 10.1016/j.jcma.2015.10.009. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Li B.H., Li Z.Y., Liu M.M., Tian J.Z., Cui Q.H. Progress in traditional chinese medicine against respiratory viruses: A review. Frontiers in Pharmacology. 2021;12 doi: 10.3389/fphar.2021.743623. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Li X.K., Zhang L.D., Qiu M., Huang Y., Xiao H.M., Lu B.J., et al. Chinese herbal medicine combined with entecavir to reduce the off-therapy recurrence risk in HBeAg-positive chronic hepatitis B patients: A multicener, double-blind, randomized controlled trial in China. Trials. 2020;21(1):708. doi: 10.1186/s13063-020-04417-9. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Liu C.X. Pay attention to situation of SARS-CoV-2 and TCM advantages in treatment of novel coronavirus infection. Chinese Herbal Medicines. 2020;12(2):97–103. doi: 10.1016/j.chmed.2020.03.004. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Ling L.J., Lu Y., Zhang Y.Y., Zhu H.Y., Tu P., Li H., et al. Flavonoids from Houttuynia cordata attenuate H1N1-induced acute lung injury in mice via inhibition of influenza virus and Toll-like receptor signalling. Phytomedicine. 2020;67 doi: 10.1016/j.phymed.2019.153150. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Luo Z., Liu L.F., Wang X.H., Li W., Jie C., Chen H., et al. Epigoitrin, an alkaloid from Isatis indigotica, reduces H1N1 infection in stress-induced susceptible model in vivo and in vitro. Frontiers in Pharmacology. 2019;10:78. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2019.00078. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Liu Z.Y., Guo H.T., Zhi Y., Jiang X.R., Zhang Q. Baicalin enhances respiratory mucosal immunity by modulating antiviral protein expression and T-cell homeostasis during H9N2 infection. Frontiers in Immunology. 2025;16 doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2025.1593691. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Nakamura T., Isoda N., Sakoda Y., Harashima H. Strategies for fighting pandemic virus infections: Integration of virology and drug delivery. Journal of Controlled Release. 2022;343:361–378. doi: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2022.01.046. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Nazareth J., Fahad M., Pareek M. Mitigating the return of acute respiratory virus infections. BMJ. 2023;380:352. doi: 10.1136/bmj.p352. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Pan Y.C., Ke Z.Y., Ye H., Sun L.N., Ding X.Y., Shen Y., et al. Saikosaponin C exerts anti-HBV effects by attenuating HNF1α and HNF4α expression to suppress HBV pgRNA synthesis. Inflammation Research. 2019;68(12):1025–1034. doi: 10.1007/s00011-019-01284-2. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Ran Y., Chen Z.N., Sacramento C.Q., Fan L.Y., Cui Q.H., Rong L.J., et al. Scutellaria barbata D. Don extracts alleviate SARS-CoV-2 induced acute lung injury by inhibiting virus replication and bi-directional immune modulation. Virologica Sinica. 2025;40(3):430–438. doi: 10.1016/j.virs.2025.04.004. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Safiabadi Tali S.H., LeBlanc J.J., Sadiq Z., Oyewunmi O.D., Camargo C., Nikpour B., et al. Tools and techniques for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)/COVID-19 detection. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 2021;34(3):e00220–e00228. doi: 10.1128/CMR.00228-20. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Sa-Ngiamsuntorn K., Suksatu A., Pewkliang Y., Thongsri P., Kanjanasirirat P., Manopwisedjaroen S., et al. Anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity of Andrographis paniculata extract and its major component andrographolide in human lung epithelial cells and cytotoxicity evaluation in major organ cell representatives. Journal of Natural Products. 2021;84(4):1261–1270. doi: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.0c01324. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Su Y.C., Huang G.J., Lin J.G. Chinese herbal prescriptions for COVID-19 management: Special reference to Taiwan Chingguan Yihau (NRICM101) Frontiers in Pharmacology. 2022;13 doi: 10.3389/fphar.2022.928106. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Sun M.S., Zhong X.H., Zhou L., Liu W., Song R., Huang P., et al. CRISPR/Cas9 revolutionizes Macleaya cordata breeding: A leap in sanguinarine biosynthesis. Horticulture Research. 2024;11(3) doi: 10.1093/hr/uhae024. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Wei W.Y., Du H.X., Shao C.Y., Zhou H.F., Lu Y.Y., Yu L., et al. Screening of antiviral components of Ma Huang Tang and investigation on the Ephedra alkaloids efficacy on influenza virus type a. Frontiers in Pharmacology. 2019;10:961. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2019.00961. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Wang, D. S., Villenave, R., Stokar-Regenscheit, N., & Clevers, H. (2025). Human organoids as 3D in vitro platforms for drug discovery: Opportunities and challenges. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery, Published online November 12, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41573-025-01317-y. [DOI] [PubMed]
  38. World Health Organization World Health Organization traditional medicine strategy: 2014–2023. World Health. 2013 Organization. [Google Scholar]
  39. World Health Organization. (2022). World Health Organization expert meeting on evaluation of traditional Chinese medicine in the treatment of COVID-19.
  40. Wu J.Q., Lv T.T., Liu Y., Liu Y.F., Han Y.K., Liu X., et al. The role of quercetin in NLRP3-associated inflammation. Inflammopharmacology. 2024;32(6):3585–3610. doi: 10.1007/s10787-024-01566-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Wu S., Wang C.C., Bai D., Chen N.J., Hu J.Q., Zhang J.H. Perspectives of international multi-center clinical trials on traditional Chinese herbal medicine. Frontiers in Pharmacology. 2023;14 doi: 10.3389/fphar.2023.1195364. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Wang X.B., Yao J.T., Wang X.T., Yang F., Zhao T.Y., Wang H.B., et al. Lysimachia christinae polysaccharides dampen pseudorabies viral infection by downregulating adsorption and exert antioxidant activity. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2025;306 doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2025.141158. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Wu Z.S., Sui C.L., Xu B., Ai L., Ma Q., Shi X.Y., et al. Multivariate detection limits of on-line NIR model for extraction process of chlorogenic acid from Lonicera japonica. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis. 2013;77:16–20. doi: 10.1016/j.jpba.2012.12.026. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Xiong Y., Zhu G.H., Wang H.N., Hu Q., Chen L.L., Guan X.Q., et al. Discovery of naturally occurring inhibitors against SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro from Ginkgo biloba leaves via large-scale screening. Fitoterapia. 2021;152 doi: 10.1016/j.fitote.2021.104909. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Xu Q., Song K.C., Clifford S.P., Kong M.Y., Huang J.P. Meta-analysis of traditional Chinese medicine Lianhua Qingwen in the treatment of coronavirus disease 2019. Journal of Anesthesia and Translational Medicine. 2023;2(2):20–27. doi: 10.58888/2957-3912-2023-06-21. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Yamashita A., Kasai H., Maekawa S., Tanaka T., Akaike Y., Ryo A., et al. Berberine promotes K48-linked polyubiquitination of HNF4α, leading to the inhibition of HBV replication. Antiviral Research. 2024;232 doi: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2024.106027. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Yang L.F., Wang H.Y., Zhu Z.Y., Yang Y., Xiong Y., Cui X.M., et al. Network pharmacology-driven sustainability: AI and multi-omics synergy for drug discovery in traditional chinese medicine. Pharmaceuticals. 2025;18(7):1074. doi: 10.3390/ph18071074. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Yeo Y.H., Ho H.J., Yang H.I., Tseng T.C., Hosaka T., Trinh H.N., et al. Factors associated with rates of HBsAg seroclearance in adults with chronic HBV infection: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Gastroenterology. 2019;156(3):635–646.e9. doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2018.10.027. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Zheng H., Yao Q., Liu Q., Tai B., Ye Y., Li L., et al. Efficient tanshinone metabolic engineering in Salvia miltiorrhiza through modified multiplex CRISPR/Cas9 system. Chemical Engineering Journal. 2025;523 [Google Scholar]
  50. Zheng J.P., Ling Y., Jiang L.S., Mootsikapun P., Lu H.Z., Chayakulkeeree M., et al. Effects of Lianhuaqingwen Capsules in adults with mild-to-moderate coronavirus disease 2019: An international, multicenter, double-blind, randomized controlled trial. Virology Journal. 2023;20(1):277. doi: 10.1186/s12985-023-02144-6. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Zheng S.H., Xue T.Y., Wang B., Guo H.L., Liu Q.Q. Application of network pharmacology in the study of the mechanism of action of traditional chinese medicine in the treatment of COVID-19. Frontiers in Pharmacology. 2022;13 doi: 10.3389/fphar.2022.926901. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Zhou E., Shen Q., Hou Y. Integrating artificial intelligence into the modernization of traditional Chinese medicine industry: A review. Frontiers in Pharmacology. 2024;15 doi: 10.3389/fphar.2024.1181183. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Zhuang J.Q., Dai X.Z., Wu Q.H., Cai H.R., Fu X., Zhang W.Z., et al. A meta-analysis for Lianhua Qingwen on the treatment of Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) Complementary Therapies in Medicine. 2021;60 doi: 10.1016/j.ctim.2021.102754. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Chinese Herbal Medicines are provided here courtesy of Elsevier

RESOURCES