Skip to main content
NCBI home page
The Western Journal of Medicine logoLink to The Western Journal of Medicine
. 1987 Feb;146(2):200–206.

Physical Activity and Health Maintenance—Exactly What Is Known?

James R Phelps 1
PMCID: PMC1307239  PMID: 3548070

Abstract

Broad claims have been made regarding the health benefits of physical activity. In analyzing the data on which these claims are based, including those on the risks of exercise, 5 of 13 proposed health benefits were found to have strong support in the literature. For the remainder the evidence is less conclusive or equivocal. Data regarding the risks of exercise are similarly varied. Proponents of physical activity should evaluate the documentation of its benefits and risks so as not to dilute the power of their remedy with unsubstantiated claims.

Full text

PDF
200

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Aloia J. F., Cohn S. H., Babu T., Abesamis C., Kalici N., Ellis K. Skeletal mass and body composition in marathon runners. Metabolism. 1978 Dec;27(12):1793–1796. doi: 10.1016/0026-0495(78)90265-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Aloia J. F., Cohn S. H., Ostuni J. A., Cane R., Ellis K. Prevention of involutional bone loss by exercise. Ann Intern Med. 1978 Sep;89(3):356–358. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-89-3-356. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Aloia J. F. Estrogen and exercise in prevention and treatment of osteoporosis. Geriatrics. 1982 Jun;37(6):81–85. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Blair S. N., Goodyear N. N., Gibbons L. W., Cooper K. H. Physical fitness and incidence of hypertension in healthy normotensive men and women. JAMA. 1984 Jul 27;252(4):487–490. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Blair S. N., Goodyear N. N., Wynne K. L., Saunders R. P. Comparison of dietary and smoking habit changes in physical fitness improvers and nonimprovers. Prev Med. 1984 Jul;13(4):411–420. doi: 10.1016/0091-7435(84)90032-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Blair S. N., Jacobs D. R., Jr, Powell K. E. Relationships between exercise or physical activity and other health behaviors. Public Health Rep. 1985 Mar-Apr;100(2):172–180. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Brewer V., Meyer B. M., Keele M. S., Upton S. J., Hagan R. D. Role of exercise in prevention of involutional bone loss. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1983;15(6):445–449. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Browman C. P. Physical activity as a therapy for psychopathology: a reappraisal. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 1981 Jun;21(2):192–197. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Brownell K. D. Obesity: understanding and treating a serious, prevalent, and refractory disorder. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1982 Dec;50(6):820–840. doi: 10.1037//0022-006x.50.6.820. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Bruce R. A., DeRouen T. A., Hossack K. F. Value of maximal exercise tests in risk assessment of primary coronary heart disease events in healthy men. Five years' experience of the Seattle heart watch study. Am J Cardiol. 1980 Sep;46(3):371–378. doi: 10.1016/0002-9149(80)90003-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Cann C. E., Martin M. C., Genant H. K., Jaffe R. B. Decreased spinal mineral content in amenorrheic women. JAMA. 1984 Feb 3;251(5):626–629. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Cohn S. H., Abesamis C., Yasumura S., Aloia J. F., Zanzi I., Ellis K. J. Comparative skeletal mass and radial bone mineral content in black and white women. Metabolism. 1977 Feb;26(2):171–178. doi: 10.1016/0026-0495(77)90052-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Cohn S. H., Vaswani A., Zanzi I., Ellis K. J. Effect of aging on bone mass in adult women. Am J Physiol. 1976 Jan;230(1):143–148. doi: 10.1152/ajplegacy.1976.230.1.143. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Cooper K. H., Gey G. O., Bottenberg R. A. Effects of cigarette smoking on endurance performance. JAMA. 1968 Jan 15;203(3):189–192. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Cooper K. H., Pollock M. L., Martin R. P., White S. R., Linnerud A. C., Jackson A. Physical fitness levels vs selected coronary risk factors. A cross-sectional study. JAMA. 1976 Jul 12;236(2):166–169. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Dalén N., Olsson K. E. Bone mineral content and physical activity. Acta Orthop Scand. 1974;45(2):170–174. doi: 10.3109/17453677408989136. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. De Vries H. A., Adams G. M. Electromyographic comparison of single doses of exercise and meprobamate as to effects on muscular relaxation. Am J Phys Med. 1972 Jun;51(3):130–141. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Dishman R. K. Medical psychology in exercise and sport. Med Clin North Am. 1985 Jan;69(1):123–143. doi: 10.1016/s0025-7125(16)31061-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Drinkwater B. L., Nilson K., Chesnut C. H., 3rd, Bremner W. J., Shainholtz S., Southworth M. B. Bone mineral content of amenorrheic and eumenorrheic athletes. N Engl J Med. 1984 Aug 2;311(5):277–281. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198408023110501. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Eichner E. R. Exercise and heart disease. Epidemiology of the "exercise hypothesis". Am J Med. 1983 Dec;75(6):1008–1023. doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(83)90882-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Epstein L. H., Wing R. R. Aerobic exercise and weight. Addict Behav. 1980;5(4):371–388. doi: 10.1016/0306-4603(80)90011-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Fogoros R. N. 'Runner's trots'. Gastrointestinal disturbances in runners. JAMA. 1980 May 2;243(17):1743–1744. doi: 10.1001/jama.243.17.1743. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Folkins C. H., Sime W. E. Physical fitness training and mental health. Am Psychol. 1981 Apr;36(4):373–389. doi: 10.1037//0003-066x.36.4.373. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Freedman-Akabas S., Colt E., Kissileff H. R., Pi-Sunyer F. X. Lack of sustained increase in VO2 following exercise in fit and unfit subjects. Am J Clin Nutr. 1985 Mar;41(3):545–549. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/41.3.545. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Garabrant D. H., Peters J. M., Mack T. M., Bernstein L. Job activity and colon cancer risk. Am J Epidemiol. 1984 Jun;119(6):1005–1014. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a113805. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Garcia-Palmieri M. R., Costas R., Jr, Cruz-Vidal M., Sorlie P. D., Havlik R. J. Increased physical activity: a protective factor against heart attacks in Puerto Rico. Am J Cardiol. 1982 Oct;50(4):749–755. doi: 10.1016/0002-9149(82)91229-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Gibbons L. W., Blair S. N., Cooper K. H., Smith M. Association between coronary heart disease risk factors and physical fitness in healthy adult women. Circulation. 1983 May;67(5):977–983. doi: 10.1161/01.cir.67.5.977. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Goldberg L., Elliot D. L. Prescribing exercise. West J Med. 1984 Sep;141(3):383–386. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Goldberg L., Elliot D. L. The effect of physical activity on lipid and lipoprotein levels. Med Clin North Am. 1985 Jan;69(1):41–55. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. González E. R. Premature bone loss found in some nonmenstruating sportswomen. JAMA. 1982 Aug 6;248(5):513–514. doi: 10.1001/jama.1982.03330050003001. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Haskell W. L. Exercise-induced changes in plasma lipids and lipoproteins. Prev Med. 1984 Jan;13(1):23–36. doi: 10.1016/0091-7435(84)90038-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Haskell W. L., Montoye H. J., Orenstein D. Physical activity and exercise to achieve health-related physical fitness components. Public Health Rep. 1985 Mar-Apr;100(2):202–212. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Haskell W. L. The influence of exercise on the concentrations of triglyceride and cholesterol in human plasma. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 1984;12:205–244. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Hickey N., Mulcahy R., Bourke G. J., Graham I., Wilson-Davis K. Study of coronary risk factors related to physical activity in 15 171 men. Br Med J. 1975 Aug 30;3(5982):507–509. doi: 10.1136/bmj.3.5982.507. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Holdstock D. J., Misiewicz J. J., Smith T., Rowlands E. N. Propulsion (mass movements) in the human colon and its relationship to meals and somatic activity. Gut. 1970 Feb;11(2):91–99. doi: 10.1136/gut.11.2.91. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Horne J. A. The effects of exercise upon sleep: a critical review. Biol Psychol. 1981 Jun;12(4):241–290. doi: 10.1016/0301-0511(81)90001-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Huddleston A. L., Rockwell D., Kulund D. N., Harrison R. B. Bone mass in lifetime tennis athletes. JAMA. 1980 Sep 5;244(10):1107–1109. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Hughes J. R. Psychological effects of habitual aerobic exercise: a critical review. Prev Med. 1984 Jan;13(1):66–78. doi: 10.1016/0091-7435(84)90041-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. KAMINER B., LUTZ W. P. Blood pressure in Bushmen of the Kalahari Desert. Circulation. 1960 Aug;22:289–295. doi: 10.1161/01.cir.22.2.289. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Kannel W. B., Doyle J. T., Ostfeld A. M., Jenkins C. D., Kuller L., Podell R. N., Stamler J. Optimal resources for primary prevention of atherosclerotic diseases. Atherosclerosis Study Group. Circulation. 1984 Jul;70(1):155A–205A. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Kannel W. B., Wilson P., Blair S. N. Epidemiological assessment of the role of physical activity and fitness in development of cardiovascular disease. Am Heart J. 1985 Apr;109(4):876–885. doi: 10.1016/0002-8703(85)90653-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. King H., Taylor R., Zimmet P., Pargeter K., Raper L. R., Beriki T., Tekanene J. Non-insulin-dependent diabetes (NIDDM) in a newly independent Pacific nation: the Republic of Kiribati. Diabetes Care. 1984 Sep-Oct;7(5):409–415. doi: 10.2337/diacare.7.5.409. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Koplan J. P., Powell K. E., Sikes R. K., Shirley R. W., Campbell C. C. An epidemiologic study of the benefits and risks of running. JAMA. 1982 Dec 17;248(23):3118–3121. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Koplan J. P., Siscovick D. S., Goldbaum G. M. The risks of exercise: a public health view of injuries and hazards. Public Health Rep. 1985 Mar-Apr;100(2):189–195. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Krølner B., Toft B., Pors Nielsen S., Tøndevold E. Physical exercise as prophylaxis against involutional vertebral bone loss: a controlled trial. Clin Sci (Lond) 1983 May;64(5):541–546. doi: 10.1042/cs0640541. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. LeBlanc J., Nadeau A., Boulay M., Rousseau-Migneron S. Effects of physical training and adiposity on glucose metabolism and 125I-insulin binding. J Appl Physiol Respir Environ Exerc Physiol. 1979 Feb;46(2):235–239. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1979.46.2.235. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Leon A. S., Jacobs D. R., Jr, DeBacker G., Taylor H. L. Relationship of physical characteristics and life habits to treadmill exercise capacity. Am J Epidemiol. 1981 Jun;113(6):653–660. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a113144. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Leon A. S. Physical activity levels and coronary heart disease. Analysis of epidemiologic and supporting studies. Med Clin North Am. 1985 Jan;69(1):3–20. doi: 10.1016/s0025-7125(16)31055-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Linnell S. L., Stager J. M., Blue P. W., Oyster N., Robertshaw D. Bone mineral content and menstrual regularity in female runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1984 Aug;16(4):343–348. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. MASTER A. M., DUBLIN L. I., MARKS H. H. The normal blood pressure range and its clinical implications. J Am Med Assoc. 1950 Aug 26;143(17):1464–1470. doi: 10.1001/jama.1950.02910520006004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Marcus R., Cann C., Madvig P., Minkoff J., Goddard M., Bayer M., Martin M., Gaudiani L., Haskell W., Genant H. Menstrual function and bone mass in elite women distance runners. Endocrine and metabolic features. Ann Intern Med. 1985 Feb;102(2):158–163. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-102-2-158. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Markoff R. A., Ryan P., Young T. Endorphins and mood changes in long-distance running. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1982;14(1):11–15. doi: 10.1249/00005768-198201000-00002. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Mazess R. B., Whedon G. D. Immobilization and bone. Calcif Tissue Int. 1983 May;35(3):265–267. doi: 10.1007/BF02405043. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Montgomery I., Trinder J., Paxton S. J. Energy expenditure and total sleep time: effect of physical exercise. Sleep. 1982;5(2):159–168. doi: 10.1093/sleep/5.2.159. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Montoye H. J., Metzner H. L., Keller J. B., Johnson B. C., Epstein F. H. Habitual physical activity and blood pressure. Med Sci Sports. 1972 Winter;4(4):175–181. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Morgan W. P. Affective beneficence of vigorous physical activity. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1985 Feb;17(1):94–100. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Nilsson B. E., Westlin N. E. Bone density in athletes. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1971;77:179–182. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Noakes T. D., Opie L. H., Rose A. G., Kleynhans P. H., Schepers N. J., Dowdeswell R. Autopsy-proved coronary atherosclerosis in marathon runners. N Engl J Med. 1979 Jul 12;301(2):86–89. doi: 10.1056/NEJM197907123010205. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Oberman A. Healthy exercise. West J Med. 1984 Dec;141(6):864–871. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Paffenbarger R. S., Jr, Hyde R. T. Exercise in the prevention of coronary heart disease. Prev Med. 1984 Jan;13(1):3–22. doi: 10.1016/0091-7435(84)90037-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Paffenbarger R. S., Jr, Hyde R. T., Wing A. L., Steinmetz C. H. A natural history of athleticism and cardiovascular health. JAMA. 1984 Jul 27;252(4):491–495. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Paxton S. J., Trinder J., Montgomery I. Does aerobic fitness affect sleep? Psychophysiology. 1983 May;20(3):320–324. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.1983.tb02162.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Pedersen O., Beck-Nielsen H., Heding L. Increased insulin receptors after exercise in patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med. 1980 Apr 17;302(16):886–892. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198004173021603. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Peters R. K., Cady L. D., Jr, Bischoff D. P., Bernstein L., Pike M. C. Physical fitness and subsequent myocardial infarction in healthy workers. JAMA. 1983 Jun 10;249(22):3052–3056. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Porter J. M., Horne J. A. Exercise and sleep behaviour. A questionnaire approach. Ergonomics. 1981 Jul;24(7):511–521. doi: 10.1080/00140138108924872. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Ransford C. P. A role for amines in the antidepressant effect of exercise: a review. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1982;14(1):1–10. doi: 10.1249/00005768-198201000-00001. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Rauramaa R. Relationship of physical activity, glucose tolerance, and weight management. Prev Med. 1984 Jan;13(1):37–46. doi: 10.1016/0091-7435(84)90039-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Rennie D., Hollenberg N. K. Cardiomythology and marathons. N Engl J Med. 1979 Jul 12;301(2):103–104. doi: 10.1056/NEJM197907123010210. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Roberts W. C. An agent with lipid-lowering, antihypertensive, positive inotropic, negative chronotropic, vasodilating, diuretic, anorexigenic, weight-reducing, cathartic, hypoglycemic, tranquilizing, hypnotic and antidepressive qualities. Am J Cardiol. 1984 Jan 1;53(1):261–262. doi: 10.1016/0002-9149(84)90725-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Rosenthal M., Haskell W. L., Solomon R., Widstrom A., Reaven G. M. Demonstration of a relationship between level of physical training and insulin-stimulated glucose utilization in normal humans. Diabetes. 1983 May;32(5):408–411. doi: 10.2337/diab.32.5.408. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Sedgwick A. W., Brotherhood J. R., Harris-Davidson A., Taplin R. E., Thomas D. W. Long-term effects of physical training programme on risk factors for coronary heart disease in otherwise sedentary men. Br Med J. 1980 Jul 5;281(6232):7–10. doi: 10.1136/bmj.281.6232.7. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Seltzer H. S. Are insulin receptors clinically significant? J Lab Clin Med. 1982 Dec;100(6):815–821. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. Serfass R. C., Gerberich S. G. Exercise for optimal health: strategies and motivational considerations. Prev Med. 1984 Jan;13(1):79–99. doi: 10.1016/0091-7435(84)90042-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Shangold M. M. Causes, evaluation, and management of athletic oligo-/amenorrhea. Med Clin North Am. 1985 Jan;69(1):83–95. doi: 10.1016/s0025-7125(16)31058-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. Siscovick D. S., LaPorte R. E., Newman J. M. The disease-specific benefits and risks of physical activity and exercise. Public Health Rep. 1985 Mar-Apr;100(2):180–188. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. Siscovick D. S., Weiss N. S., Fletcher R. H., Lasky T. The incidence of primary cardiac arrest during vigorous exercise. N Engl J Med. 1984 Oct 4;311(14):874–877. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198410043111402. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. Siscovick D. S., Weiss N. S., Fletcher R. H., Schoenbach V. J., Wagner E. H. Habitual vigorous exercise and primary cardiac arrest: effect of other risk factors on the relationship. J Chronic Dis. 1984;37(8):625–631. doi: 10.1016/0021-9681(84)90112-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  78. Smith E. L., Jr, Reddan W., Smith P. E. Physical activity and calcium modalities for bone mineral increase in aged women. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1981;13(1):60–64. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  79. Smith E. L., Reddan W. Proceedings: Physical activity--a modality for bone accretion in the aged. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1976 Jun;126(6):1297–1297. doi: 10.2214/ajr.126.6.1297. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  80. Soman V. R., Koivisto V. A., Deibert D., Felig P., DeFronzo R. A. Increased insulin sensitivity and insulin binding to monocytes after physical training. N Engl J Med. 1979 Nov 29;301(22):1200–1204. doi: 10.1056/NEJM197911293012203. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  81. Sonstroem R. J. Exercise and self-esteem. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 1984;12:123–155. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  82. Stephens T., Jacobs D. R., Jr, White C. C. A descriptive epidemiology of leisure-time physical activity. Public Health Rep. 1985 Mar-Apr;100(2):147–158. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  83. Stratton J. W., Mackeigan J. M. Treating constipation. Am Fam Physician. 1982 Jun;25(6):139–142. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  84. Taylor C. B., Sallis J. F., Needle R. The relation of physical activity and exercise to mental health. Public Health Rep. 1985 Mar-Apr;100(2):195–202. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  85. Thompson J. K., Jarvie G. J., Lahey B. B., Cureton K. J. Exercise and obesity: etiology, physiology, and intervention. Psychol Bull. 1982 Jan;91(1):55–79. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  86. Thompson P. D., Funk E. J., Carleton R. A., Sturner W. Q. Incidence of death during jogging in Rhode Island from 1975 through 1980. JAMA. 1982 May 14;247(18):2535–2538. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  87. Tipton C. M. Exercise, training, and hypertension. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 1984;12:245–306. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  88. Vena J. E., Graham S., Zielezny M., Swanson M. K., Barnes R. E., Nolan J. Lifetime occupational exercise and colon cancer. Am J Epidemiol. 1985 Sep;122(3):357–365. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a114116. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  89. Vogel J. M., Whittle M. W. Proceedings: Bone mineral content changes in the Skylab astronauts. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1976 Jun;126(6):1296–1297. doi: 10.2214/ajr.126.6.1296. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  90. Vranic M., Berger M. Exercise and diabetes mellitus. Diabetes. 1979 Feb;28(2):147–163. doi: 10.2337/diab.28.2.147. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  91. Wheeler G. D., Wall S. R., Belcastro A. N., Cumming D. C. Reduced serum testosterone and prolactin levels in male distance runners. JAMA. 1984 Jul 27;252(4):514–516. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  92. Wilmore J. H. Body composition in sport and exercise: directions for future research. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1983;15(1):21–31. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  93. Woo R., Garrow J. S., Pi-Sunyer F. X. Effect of exercise on spontaneous calorie intake in obesity. Am J Clin Nutr. 1982 Sep;36(3):470–477. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/36.3.470. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  94. Wood P. D., Haskell W. L., Blair S. N., Williams P. T., Krauss R. M., Lindgren F. T., Albers J. J., Ho P. H., Farquhar J. W. Increased exercise level and plasma lipoprotein concentrations: a one-year, randomized, controlled study in sedentary, middle-aged men. Metabolism. 1983 Jan;32(1):31–39. doi: 10.1016/0026-0495(83)90152-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  95. Yates A., Leehey K., Shisslak C. M. Running--an analogue of anorexia? N Engl J Med. 1983 Feb 3;308(5):251–255. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198302033080504. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  96. Yeater R. A., Ullrich I. H. The role of physical activity in disease prevention and treatment. W V Med J. 1985 Feb;81(2):35–39. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  97. Zimmet P., Faaiuso S., Ainuu J., Whitehouse S., Milne B., DeBoer W. The prevalence of diabetes in the rural and urban Polynesian population of Western Samoa. Diabetes. 1981 Jan;30(1):45–51. doi: 10.2337/diab.30.1.45. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  98. Zinman B., Vranic M. Diabetes and exercise. Med Clin North Am. 1985 Jan;69(1):145–157. doi: 10.1016/s0025-7125(16)31062-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Western Journal of Medicine are provided here courtesy of BMJ Publishing Group

RESOURCES