The personal and professional characteristics of students who were successful in occupational therapy practice education: A scoping review

Abstract

Introduction

Practice education in occupational therapy can be a challenging learning experience for students, and not all students succeed. Research to date has explored some of the predictors for successful practice education. However, a consolidated description of an occupational therapy student who is successful in practice education is needed. This scoping review systematically searched, identified, and mapped available evidence describing personal and professional characteristics of occupational therapy students who were successful in practice education.

Methods

Using Joanna Briggs Institute methodology, APA PsychInfo, CINAHL, Scopus, Web of Science, Embase, Google Scholar, and ProQuest dissertations were searched. Records exploring characteristics of occupational therapy students who were successful in placement, defined by passing practice education, were included. Data describing characteristics of successful students were extracted and summarised.

Consumer and Community Involvement

This scoping review did not involve consumers or community members.

Findings

Thirty‐two records describing the personal and professional characteristics of a successful student were included. Regarding the professional characteristics, students with higher levels of prior academic success who had demonstrated attainment of knowledge and skills at university were more successful in practice education. Effective communication skills and professionalism were important requisite skills. Personal characteristics of resilience and emotional intelligence were linked to practice education success.

Conclusion

Students with professional characteristics of higher academic scores, specifically, occupational therapy practice skills and professionalism, as well as personal characteristics of resilience and emotional intelligence were more successful in practice education. These findings can inform strategies to prepare students for placement success. Explicit teaching of professional knowledge and skills and educational experiences that enable the development of resilience and emotional intelligence have the potential to enhance student success in practice education.

PLAIN LANGUAGE SUMMARY

Not all occupational therapy students go well on placement. Teachers need to know what helps students pass. We found 32 papers that described students who went well on placement. Who went well? Students who understood their feelings, were flexible, had good marks at university, and good skills. Teachers can prepare students to go well by teaching them good communication and therapy skills and how to cope in the workplace.

Key Points for Occupational Therapy.

• Successful students were found to have higher resiliency, emotional intelligence, interpersonal/communication, professionalism and knowledge, and better academic achievement.

• Education needs to include the explicit teaching of professional behaviours and interpersonal/communication skills required for practice education.

• Developing student awareness of their personal characteristics in the context of interprofessional/communication skills may be helpful.

1. INTRODUCTION

Practice education, also known as fieldwork, clinical placement, or work placement, is an integral component of all allied health training programs (Hills et al., 2019). Practice education is defined as supervised occupational therapy learning opportunities to apply and integrate theory to real‐life profession‐based settings, develop professional reasoning, and gain professional competencies in context settings (Bissett et al., 2023; Schell & Schell, 2018; Isbel et al., 2020; Overton et al., 2009) in line with relevant entry‐level competency standards (World Federation of Occupational Therapy [WFOT], 2016). Practice education is mandatory in Occupational Therapy Board of Australia approved occupational therapy training programs, with the WFOT requiring a minimum of 1000 h of practice education (Occupational Therapy Board of Australia, 2025).

The growing complexity in the timing of practice education, practice contexts, supervision models, student engagement, and financial stress accentuates the increasing need for students to be adequately prepared to succeed in practice education. Practice education timing and structure varies from university to university as well as from student to student. For example, occupational therapy programs may be offered as bachelor, master's, or doctorate programs with practice education varying in length and timing (Nowrouzi‐Kia et al., 2023). Each practice education context is distinct. Programs now engage a broad and diverse range of contexts for practice education, no longer limited to just large teaching hospitals. Programs are embracing new and emerging practice education opportunities (Deaves et al., 2024; Pigott et al., 2022) and have been doing so for some time. For example, since the early 2000s, increasingly diverse settings have been utilised, such as nursing homes, community health centres, schools, homes, and private practice (Rodger et al., 2008). Practice education innovation has continued, and today can include different models of placement, such as project placements in role emerging sites, the increased adoption of simulation experiences, telehealth placements, and placements that have a focus on leadership experiences or that are non‐clinical (Bhaskar et al., 2020; Hynes et al., 2023; MacKenzie et al., 2025). Practice education challenges exacerbated by the COVID‐19 pandemic (MacKenzie et al., 2025; William et al., 2024) worked to reinforce the need for innovation, and many ‘innovative’ models of placement are now seen as ‘business as usual’ within occupational therapy practice education. More students are requiring practice placements (Baldry et al., 2000; McBride et al., 2020; McMeeken et al., 2015), which is a challenge given increasing occupational therapy staff shortages, part‐time therapists, and the casualisation and burnout of staff (Casares et al., 2003; MacKenzie et al., 2025; Prigg & Mackenzie, 2002; Thomas et al., 2007). This in turn impacts the type of practice education contexts and supervision models students are exposed to and has reinforced the adoption of innovative models of practice education. (Bhaskar et al., 2020). Adapting to these changes, while maintaining high standards of care, imposes additional complexity for students and their supervisors (Robinson et al., 2021).

Financial stress, also known as placement poverty, is well documented in Australia, impacting the personal well‐being and learning outcomes of students (Lambert et al., 2025; Morley et al., 2024; William et al., 2024). Failing placement is costly for students, and in addition, the need to save up for long block placements can lead to high work commitments during standard university semesters, potentially impacting student engagement at university. For over 20 years, university student engagement in classes has positively influenced learning and academic outcomes (Karnik et al., 2020; Rodgers & Rodgers, 2003). However, student engagement, both attendance and active participation in learning activities (Millican et al., 2023; Moores et al., 2019), has decreased (Lucey & Grydaki, 2023). Reduced engagement can adversely affect students' experience and success on practice education. Responsibility for success in practice education is equally shared by the university program and the student. Therefore, success in practice education is multifaceted and complex (Milgate et al., 2024). While most students' performance in practice education is deemed successful by practice educators, not all students are successful, rendering an understanding of what influences success vital. Understanding the specific contribution of university‐based education to student success on placement is a necessary element of this complex area.

Measuring student success in practice education is, typically, formally evaluated by a qualified occupational therapist using a standardised performance measurement tool that has been selected by their university (Milgate et al., 2024). Despite many evaluation tools existing globally, the evaluation of practice skills and professional behaviours remains a consistent element of most tools. The Student Practice Evaluation Form (SPEF‐R2) (University of Queensland, 2020) is widely used in Australia and has been for many years (Rodger et al., 2013). Around the world, other examples include the Competency‐Based Fieldwork Evaluation for Occupational Therapists (CBFE‐OT) (Bossers et al., 1998) in Canada, Ireland, and England (Holmes et al., 2010) and the American Occupational Therapy Association (AOTA) Fieldwork Performance Evaluation for the Occupational Therapy Student (FWPE) (America Occupational Therapy Association (AOTA), 2025) in the United States. Successful performance denotes students achieving a pass or satisfactory score on the evaluation tool at the completion of their practice education (Horwitz et al., 2023).

Practice education is known as a time of transition for students, challenging assumptions about one's self and the world (Evenson & Hanson, 2019). Understanding the factors shaping student success on placement is multifaceted. To date, there has been no consolidation of student characteristics related to successful practice education performance. To ensure a comprehensive understanding is gained, both professional and personal characteristics of successful students should be examined. Schell and Schell (2018) in their substantial contributions to occupational therapy professional reasoning knowledge (Schell & Cervero, 1993; Schell & Schell, 2008), have provided definitions of personal and professional characteristics therapists bring to their work, as these have a direct impact on client interactions and therapeutic outcomes. Arguably, these definitions can also guide an understanding of relevant personal and professional characteristics of student therapists who bring both their personal self to placement, as well as their emerging professional self. Personal characteristics, known as the ‘personal self’ by Schell and Schell (2018), consist of intelligences, personality, physical and emotional capacities, mind–body experiences, and preferences, as well as life experiences, world views, values, beliefs, and culture. Professional characteristics, known as the ‘professional self’, refer to professional identity and an understanding of what it means to be an occupational therapist (Schell & Schell, 2018). Professional characteristics include professional knowledge, practice theories and beliefs, and practice skills and experiences (Schell & Schell, 2018). While occupational therapy programs directly develop the professional self, it remains unclear as to the extent to which personal characteristics impact success in practice education. For example, a landmark Australian study by Chipchase et al. (2012) asked allied health clinicians to describe the most desired attributes of health students for successful performance in practice education. These included communication skills, self‐directed learning, time management, and organisational skills. Combining these desirable attributes with learning styles, coping strategies, behaviours, and values, provides an important understanding of what attributes and abilities students require to succeed in allied health practice placements. These attributes, or characteristics, may be professional characteristics, learnt within the educational program and/or personal characteristics, shaped by a student's previous life experiences, culture, or worldview.

Students enrolled across Australia in undergraduate programs have diverse social and demographic backgrounds. For example, students vary in race (Goodman et al., 2019), gender, age, socio‐economic status, disability, and the length of time between completing school and studying at university (Australian Government Department of Education, 2024). Some are the first‐in‐family to attend any university program (Larkin & Watchorn, 2012; McKenzie & Schweitzer, 2001; Norton & Cakitaki, 2016; Willcoxson et al., 2011). Student success in academic outcomes is well documented, with grade point average (GPA) and standard intelligence measures being the strongest predictors of academic success in higher education (Richardson et al., 2012; Schneider & Preckel, 2017). Characteristics such as age at entry, gender, and socio‐economic background have predicted academic success in occupational therapy, with male or students from lower socio‐economic backgrounds having poorer outcomes (Wang et al., 2023; Watson, 2013). Factors, such as GPA, age, interpersonal attributes, and experiences, both historically and currently, are known to influence performance on practice education (Bell et al., 2014; Kale et al., 2020; Karp, 2020; Kirchner et al., 2001; Tan et al., 2004). Academic and practice education success is also dependent on the social and demographic experiences of students (McKenzie & Schweitzer, 2001; Willcoxson et al., 2011). Whether these determinants impact practice education success in occupational therapy is unknown.

In Australia, since the early 2000s, research has attempted to understand the impact of some student characteristics of successful practice education. While studies have explored desirable attributes of students (Chipchase et al., 2012) and predictors of performance (Wang et al., 2023), a detailed description of the personal and professional characteristics, as defined above by Schell and Schell (2018), of occupational therapy students who are successful in practice education, is yet to be pooled and described. This scoping review aimed to systematically search, locate, and map current evidence describing the personal and professional characteristics of occupational therapy students who were successful in practice education. Describing characteristics that influence practice education success is an important first step in understanding how students themselves and universities can prepare for success in practice education.

2. METHOD

2.1. Study design

A scoping review was conducted using Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) methodology (Peters et al., 2024) and reported in line with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta‐analyses extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA‐ScR) (Tricco et al., 2018). A scoping review aims to identify key characteristics or factors related to a concept and is known to address broader research questions than those found in a systematic review (Pollock et al., 2023). The protocol paper for this study is published on Open Science Framework at https://osf.io/wmh2u, noting modification to the overarching review question since protocol publication. Preliminary searches revealed literature answering two distinct review questions; one question centred around describing students who had been successful in their practice education, and the second, describing strategies preparing students for successful practice education. This scoping review answers the first question, changing the original review question to a narrower focus on identifying characteristics of students who succeed in practice education.

2.2. Eligibility criteria

The Participant, Concept, Context (PCC) framework is commonly used to construct scoping reviews (Peters et al., 2024) and was utilised to define the inclusion criteria.

2.2.1. Participants

Participants were occupational therapy students enrolled in any occupational therapy program at a tertiary institution.

2.2.2. Concept

The main concept of interest was student characteristics, both personal and professional, related to successful performance on practice education.

2.2.3. Context

The context of interest was occupational therapy practice education. There were no limitations to geographical location.

Records published in English since 1990 were included. The index date aligns with initial reports on practice education in occupational therapy published in the late 1990s (Hills et al., 2019). This timeframe provides insight into practice education over time, highlighting changes as well as constants.

This review considered both experimental and quasi‐experimental study designs, including randomised and non‐randomised controlled trials, before and after studies, interrupted time series, analytical observational studies, including prospective and retrospective cohort studies, case–control studies, and cross‐sectional studies. Descriptive observational study designs, including case series, individual case reports, and descriptive cross‐sectional studies, were considered for inclusion. Qualitative studies and text and opinion papers were also considered.

2.3. Exclusion criteria

Papers published in languages other than English and conference abstracts without full papers were excluded. Review methodologies were excluded in favour of including original research. Reviews located in the search were manually screened for relevant references to assess eligibility.

3. SEARCH STRATEGY

A comprehensive search strategy was developed in collaboration with a Health Science Librarian (Peters et al., 2024).

3.1. Information sources and strategy

The databases searched included CINAHL (EBSCO), APA PsychInfo (EBSCO), Web of Science, Scopus (including ERIC), and Embase (OVIDSP). Sources of unpublished records/grey literature included ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Abstract & Index and Google Scholar. The search was conducted on 07 May 2024.

An initial limited search of APA PsychInfo and CINAHL was undertaken to identify relevant records. The free‐text words contained in the titles and abstracts of relevant records, and the index terms used to describe the records with the inclusion of Boolean and truncation operators, were used to develop a full search strategy for Web of Science, Scopus, Google Scholar, Embase, and ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Abstract & Index (Table 1).

TABLE 1.

Search strategy for CINAHL (EBSCO).

S1	(MH “Student Placement”) OR (MH “Student Supervision”) OR (MH “Fieldwork”)
S2	“practice education” OR Fieldwork OR “student placement” OR “student supervision” OR “clinical placement” OR practicum
S3	(MH “Behavior and Behavior Mechanisms+”) OR (MH “Family”) OR (MH “Social Values+”) OR (MH “Culture+”) OR (MH “Professional Knowledge+”) OR (MH “Education+”) OR (MH “Interpersonal Relations+”) OR (MH “Population Characteristics+”) OR (MH “Predictive Validity”)
S4	intelligen* OR personality OR Attitude* OR experience* OR prepar* OR culture OR knowledge OR education OR relation* OR characteristic* OR performance OR predict*
S5	(MH “Students, Occupational Therapy”)
S6	“occupational therap*” AND student
S7	S5 OR S6
S8	S1 OR S2
S9	S3 OR S4
S10	S7 AND S8 AND S9
S11	Limiters—publication date: 01/01/1990–07/05/2024

Abbreviation: MH = Medical Subject Headings.

Bramer et al. (2017) in their study on optimal database combinations limited Google Scholar results to the first 200 references as sorted by relevance ranking, and this approach was adopted for this search. The reference lists of all included records of evidence were manually screened for additional records. Manual screening identified the Journal of Occupational Therapy Education as a source not included in any database searched. A hand search of the Journal of Occupational Therapy Education was completed.

3.2. Selection of sources of evidence

Following the searches, all identified citations were collated and uploaded into Endnote (X9, 2018) then Covidence (2024) where duplicates were removed. Authors were contacted as needed to request records, missing or additional data to facilitate screening. Two independent researchers screened titles and abstracts (A.G., K.C., or R.A.B.) and then full‐text records (A.G. and K.C.) against the inclusion criteria. Reasons for exclusion of records at full‐text screening were recorded. Disagreements between the researchers (A.G. and K.C.) were resolved with the consensus or assistance of an additional researcher (R.A.B.).

3.3. Data extraction, analysis, and presentation of findings

Data were extracted independently by two researchers (A.G. and K.C.), using a data extraction tool in Excel developed and piloted by the researchers. Data extracted included country of origin, participant characteristics, context, study methods, and key findings relevant to the review question (Table 2). Analysis was guided by the work of Arksey and O'Malley (2005) who note that scoping review analysis is absent of synthesis or aggregation. Descriptive content analysis as outlined by Peters et al. (2024) was used to categorise findings, using the personal and professional characteristics as defined by Schell and Schell (2018). Data from included records were presented in evidence maps (Figure 3).

TABLE 2.

Characteristics and key findings of included records.

Author(s)	Article title	Year	Type of evidence/method	Aim/purpose	Country	Participants (cohort, year of study, institution program of study, number)	Context setting	Voice	Attributes explored/variables (including measures used)/perspectives	Outcome(s) (including measured used)	Statistical process	Key findings related to student success	Characteristics of students who were successful in practice education
Andonian, L.	Emotional intelligence, self‐efficacy, and occupational therapy students' fieldwork performance	2013	Quantitative cross‐sectional correlational study	To explore the relationship of emotional intelligence level and self‐efficacy to fieldwork performance in occupational therapy students.	United States	199 OT students from 36 universities in the United States prior to competing fieldwork in 2009 or 2010. 93% female, 8% Asia, 1.5% Africa American, 1.5% Latino, 82.9% European American, 69.8% nonprofessional experience, and 30.2% professional experience in related setting.	Not specified	Quantitative empirical evidence	• Emotional intelligence measured by Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test • Perceived self‐efficacy measured by the Student Confidence Questionnaire • Demographics, including age, past professional experience, and program level	Fieldwork Performance Evaluation for the Occupational Therapy Student (FWPE)	Student completed measures correlated (r) with performance evaluated by supervisor	• No significant relationship between emotional intelligence total score or skill branches and total FWPE scores, but students who had a higher emotional intelligence branch score in understanding emotions were more likely to have higher scores in intervention skills in the FWPE and students who had a higher emotional intelligence branch score for managing emotions were more likely to have higher scores in communication in the FWPE. • No significant relationships between occupational therapy students' perceived self‐efficacy and their FWPE total scores or sub scores. • Having professional experience in a related setting was positively associated to higher FWPE scores. • Gender, number of fieldwork completed, or practice setting did not influence fieldwork performance scores.	A successful student had emotional intelligence in understanding and managing emotions and/or experience in a related setting.
Bathje, M., Ozelie, R., and Deavila, E.	The relationship between admission criteria and fieldwork performance in a masters‐level OT program: Implications for admissions	2014	Quantitative retrospective correlational pilot study	To determine if a relationship exists among undergraduate CGPA (cumulative), GRE scores, and student performance in FW placements.	United States	108 students from a private university in the United States who completed a Master of Science degree in OT between 2008 and 2012 and completed a Level II placement.	Mixed context setting (data collected)	Quantitative empirical evidence	• Graduate record examination (GRE) scores • Undergraduate cumulative GPA (CGPA) scores	FWPE	Student admission data correlated (r) with performance evaluated by supervisor	• Undergraduate CGPA was correlated but not a significant predictor of FWPE IIA placement scores. • A one‐point improvement in GRE‐written scores predicted improvement in FWPE IIB scores. • Commonly used admission criteria, including undergraduate CGPA and certain subsections of the GRE, were shown not to be predictive of FW performance.	A successful student in Level II fieldwork had higher GRE‐written scores on admission.
Best, C. E.	A prediction model of performance in level II fieldwork in physical disabilities	1994	Quantitative retrospective correlational study	To investigate predictors for performance in Level II fieldwork in physical disabilities from the didactic and clinical courses.	United States	257 graduated OT students from 1987 to 1992 at University of Puget Sound.	Physical disabilities	Quantitative empirical evidence	Academic performance measured by grade scores from courses, including functional anatomy, neuroanatomy, physical disabilities lecture, physical disabilities clinic and prerequisite anatomy, and physiology courses.	The Fieldwork Evaluation for the Occupational Therapist (1986)	Student coursework grades correlated (r) with performance evaluated by supervisor	• Weak significant correlation between grades in the clinic course and both the performance and judgement subscales of the fieldwork evaluation. • Higher scores in a clinic course in physical disabilities resulted in higher performance on fieldwork. • Anatomy and physiology course scores were not related to performance on placement.	A successful student in physical disabilities practice education had higher scores in a physical disabilities course.
Bondoc, S., Arabit, L., Lashgari, D., Finnen, L., and Alexander, H.	Fieldwork education in physical disabilities settings	2009	Opinion piece	To identify common challenges that fieldwork educators and students experience within physical disability settings.	United States	Not applicable	Physical disabilities	Fieldwork educator/supervisor	Knowledge and professional behaviours for practice education according to fieldwork educator/supervisor expectations.	Not applicable	Not applicable	• Fieldwork educators expect students to have a solid foundation in medical‐based skills and knowledge, including pathophysiology, musculoskeletal anatomy, and biomechanics and neuroscience, and understand how the OT process interfaces with the medical model for placement in physical settings.	A successful student in physical disabilities practice education had medical‐based skills and knowledge, including pathophysiology, musculoskeletal anatomy, and biomechanics and neuroscience, as well as an understanding of how the OT process interfaces with the medical model, as well as professional behaviours, such as interpersonal and communication skills.
Brown, T., Williams, B., and Etherington, J.	Emotional intelligence and personality traits as predictors of occupational therapy students' practice education performance: A cross‐sectional study	2016	Quantitative cross‐sectional correlational study	To explore whether measures of emotional intelligence and personality traits in occupational therapy students can be used to predict fieldwork performance.	Australia	114 bachelor OT students enrolled in the 4‐year Bachelor of OccupationalTherapy (Honours) course at Monash University in Australia. 88.9% female, 84.6% aged between 20 and 24.	Not specified	Quantitative empirical evidence	• Emotional intelligence measured by the Genos Emotional Intelligence inventory (Genos EI) • Personality traits measured by the 10‐item personality inventory (TIPI) • Demographic information, including year level, gender, and age	Student Practice Evaluation Form—Revised (SPEF‐R)	Student completed measures correlated (r) with performance evaluated by supervisor	• Personality traits were not related to fieldwork practice performance. • Higher Emotional Awareness of Others and Emotional Reasoning were associated with higher communication skills scores on the SPEF‐R. • Higher Emotional Management of Others, Emotional Awareness of Others, Emotional Expression, and Emotional Reasoning were associated with higher documentation skills scores on the SPEF‐R. • Higher Emotional Management of Others was associated with higher professional behaviour scores on the SPEF‐R.	A successful student had skills in emotional reasoning, emotional management of others, and emotional awareness of others.
Brown, T., Yu, M., Hewitt, A. E., Isbel, S. T., Bevitt, T., and Etherington, J.	Exploring the relationship between resilience and practice education placement success in occupational therapy students	2020	Quantitative cross‐sectional study	To investigate the relationship between occupational therapy students' self‐reported levels of resilience and their practice education performance.	Australia	149, including 135 third‐ and fourth‐year bachelor OT students at Monash University and 14 second‐year master's students from University of Canberra. 91.3% female, 87.2 aged between 20 and 24, 19% international students, 47% school leaver, and 22.8% ESL.	Not specified	Quantitative empirical evidence	Resilience measured by Resilience at University (RAU) and Resilience Scale for Adults (RSA)	SPEF‐R	Student completed measures correlated (r) with performance evaluated by supervisor	Resilience factors of managing stress, finding your calling, and living authentically were positively associated with several SPEF‐R domains.	A successful student had higher levels of resiliency.
Brown, T., Yu. M., Hewitt. A., and Etherington, J.	Professionalism as a predictor of fieldwork performance in undergraduate occupational therapy students: An exploratory study	2020	Quantitative correlational study	To investigate the relationship between professionalism factors and undergraduate occupational therapy students' fieldwork performance as measured by the SPEF‐R.	Australia	135 undergraduate occupational therapy students, third‐ and fourth‐year students at an Australian University. 86.7% female, 85.6% aged 20–24, 20% international student, 25.2% ESL, and 51.9% school leaver.	Not specified	Quantitative empirical evidence	Professionalism measures by the Penn State College of Medicine Professional Questionnaire (PSCOPQ) (seven identifiable elements of professionalism: Accountability, Enrichment, Equity, Honour and Integrity, Altruism, Duty, and Respect)	SPEF‐R	Student completed measures correlated (r) with performance evaluated by supervisor	• PSCOPQ Equity made a unique contribution to the overall variance of SPEF‐R Self‐management Skills midway score. • PSCOPQ Enrichment and PSCOPQ Altruism made a unique contribution to the overall variance of SPEF‐R Co‐worker Communication midway score. • PSCOPQ Altruism made a unique contribution to the overall variance of SPEF‐R Communication Skills midway score. • No professionalism variables predicted end SPEF‐R scores.	A prepared student for successful practice education had higher scores in professionalism.
Brown, T., Yu, M.‐L., Hewitt, A., Cousland, R., Etherington, J.	Professionalism, resilience and reflective thinking: How do these influence occupational therapy student fieldwork outcomes?	2022	Quantitative cross‐sectional correlational study	To examine the relationship between entry‐level, undergraduate occupational therapy students' fieldwork performance and measures of professionalism, reflective thinking, and resilience.	Australia	135 third‐ and fourth‐year students enrolled in BOT (Honours) at Monash University. 85.9% female, 78.5% aged between 20 and 24, 28% international student, and 54.1% ESL.	Not specified	Quantitative empirical evidence	• Professionalism measured by the Professional Assessment Tool (PAT) • Resilience measured the RAU • Reflective skills measured by the Reflective Thinking Scale (RTS)	SPEF‐R	Student completed measures correlated (r) with performance evaluated by supervisor	• The resilience variable, staying healthy had a unique impact on student's performance on measures of professional behaviours. • The professionalism domain, relationships with others had a unique impact on student performance in both the self‐management and information gathering domains of the SPEF‐R. • No component of the reflective‐thinking instrument was found to have made a unique contribution to student's fieldwork performance.	A successful student had higher scores in resiliency and professionalism.
Campbell, M. K., Corpus, K., Wussow, T. M., Plummer, T., Gibbs, D., and Hix, S.	Fieldwork educators' perspectives: Professional behaviour attributes of level II fieldwork students	2015	Quantitative Delphi study	To obtain a consensus of perspectives of Level II fieldwork educators by asking, ‘What are the essential professional behaviour attributes for Level II fieldwork students?’	United States	49 fieldwork educators Round 1: 85% female and 72% aged 30–49. 53 Round 2: 90% female and 66% aged 30–49.	Not specified	Fieldwork educator/supervisor	Professional and clinical skills for practice education according to fieldwork educator/supervisor expectations	Not applicable	Not applicable	• 5 attributes were marked as ‘essential’ by 100% of the survey respondents: adaptable, clinically competent, communication skills, ethical, responsible, and time efficient. • The participants currently working with the paediatric population chose creative, empathetic, independent, initiator, organised, and personable as essential attributes more frequently than those that work with adult and geriatric populations.	• A successful student had the following attributes: adaptability, clinically competence, communication skills, ethical, responsible, and time efficient. • A successful student in paediatric practice education had creativity, empathy, independence, initiative, organisational skills, and was personable.
Chiariello, B., Obler, D. R., and Avi‐Itzhak, T. E.	The classroom to clinic gap: Evidence of supervisors' and students' level II clinical competence evaluations and relationship to didactic competence	2005	Quantitative correlational study	To assess the effect of didactic competence (course grades) on clinical competence.	Israel	68 graduate and undergraduate Level II psychosocial OT students. >90% female, 75% aged 21 and 35. And 69 supervisors.	Psychosocial	Quantitative empirical evidence	Course grades • THEORY: OT Theories 1 and 2, growth, and developments 1 and 2 • INTERVENTION: community health, psychosocial OTs 1 and 2, and group process • SCIENCE‐BASED: Kinesiology, gross anatomy, pathos physiology, and neuroscience	Fieldwork Evaluation Form (FWE)	Student coursework scores correlated (r) with performance evaluated by supervisor	• No consistent pattern of positive correlation was found between course grades and FWE scores.	Not applicable
Gordon‐Handler, L.	The relationship between emotional intelligence and clinical performance in an occupational therapy training program	2010	Quantitative correlational study	To investigate the relationship between emotional intelligence and fieldwork performance in an occupational therapy training program.	United States	45 graduate OT students at the New York Institute of Technology. 89% female. States diverse ethic, SES, education backgrounds, job levels, and experience backgrounds without data. And their clinical supervisors (45).	Not specified	Quantitative empirical evidence	Emotional intelligence measured by the Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI‐2.0)	AOTA fieldwork performance evaluation	Student completed measures correlated (r) with performance evaluated by supervisor	• No significant relationship was found between student self‐ratings of emotional intelligence and clinical performance. • An average to low strength relationship was found between supervisors' ratings of student's emotional intelligence and fieldwork performance. • Students rated themselves consistently higher than supervisors on the ECI on areas of self‐awareness, self‐management, social awareness, and relationship management.	A successful student had higher emotional intelligence skills as evaluated by their supervisor.
Howard, L. and Jerosch‐Herold, C.	Can entry qualifications be used to predict fieldwork and academic outcomes in occupational therapy and physiotherapy students?	2000	Quantitative correlational study	1. To examine whether entry qualifications correlate with final degree score and fieldwork score. 2. To compare the differences in fieldwork score and academic score between students who enter with A‐levels and those with other entry qualifications. 3. To examine whether there is a relationship between fieldwork score and academic score in Year 3.	England	79 OT students 1993–1998.	Not specified	Quantitative empirical evidence	• Type of qualification on admission • A‐level scores on admission • Final degree score • The average score for the two final year clinical placements • The average score for the final year academic work	Clinical placement scores	Student admission data, coursework, and placement scores correlated (r) with performance evaluated by supervisor	• A moderately strong and statistically significant relationship between the fieldwork score and the academic score in year three for occupational therapy students.	A successful student had higher academic scores in third year.
Iliff, S. L.	Student conceptions of self‐reflection and its relationship to occupational competence and clinical performance in level II fieldwork	2017	Mixed methods: quantitative correlational and qualitative phenomenographic inquiry	To explore the relationship between self‐reflection, occupational competence, and clinical performance during Level II fieldwork.	United States	24 entry‐level MOT from University of New Mexico having completed all academic coursework and starting Level II placement. 79% female, mean age of 30.3, and 34% Hispanic background.	Not specified	Quantitative empirical evidence and student	• Self‐reflection measures by the Groningen Reflection Ability Scale (GRAS)	FWPE	Student completed measures correlated (r) with performance evaluated by supervisor. Phenomenographic analysis of student interviews.	• Self‐reflection (GRAS score) did not predict clinical performance (FWPE). • Students consider self‐reflection beneficial and a vehicle for strengthening performance skills when preparing for Level II fieldwork.	A successful student perceived self‐reflection beneficial for strengthening performance skills.
Kale, S., Wadnerkar Kamble, M., and Spalding, N.	Predictive validity of multiple mini‐interview scores for future academic and clinical placement performance in physiotherapy, occupational therapy and speech and language therapy programmes	2020	Quantitative retrospective correlational study	To evaluate the predictive validity of multiple mini‐interviews for predicting future academic and clinical performance of first‐ and second‐year preregistration students on the occupational therapy, physiotherapy, and speech and language therapy programs.	England	76 students enrolled BSc occupational therapy from September 2014–2015 (mean age 20 years) and September 2015–2016 (mean age of 26 years). 95% female.	Not specified	Quantitative empirical evidence	• Admissions scores consisting of mini‐interviews scores and entry tariff • Age on entry	Clinical placement performance assessed on a pass/fail basis	Student admission data correlated (r) with performance evaluated by supervisor	• Multiple mini‐interviews and entry tariff did not predict placement performance for any cohort. • Younger age was a significant predictor of placement performance in Year 2 for the occupational therapy 2014–2015 cohort.	A successful student in second‐year practice education was younger in age.
Karp, P.	Occupational therapy student readiness for transition to the fieldwork environment: A pilot case study	2020	Qualitative thematic analysis	To explicate educator perspectives on student readiness for transition from the classroom to the clinical learning environment.	United States	9 fieldwork or teaching academics completed an interview (8 female), with 7 also participating in a focus group.	Mixed context settings	Fieldwork educators and academics	Student knowledge and skills for placement success according to fieldwork educator/supervisor expectations.	Not applicable	Thematic analysis of fieldwork educator and academic interviews	• Fieldwork educators described need for factual knowledge such as range of motion, manual muscle testing, and knowledge of developmental milestones. They stressed the value of interpersonal skills as they relate to clinical expectations. • Academic educators described need for factual knowledge such as a strong understanding of major diagnoses, precautions and contraindications, patient safety awareness, and medical terminology and minimised the importance of theory as a necessary component of practice.	• A successful student from the perspective of a supervisor possessed interpersonal skills and factual knowledge in range of motion, manual muscle testing, and developmental milestones. • A successful student from the perspective of an academic possessed an understanding of major diagnoses, precautions and contraindications, patient safety awareness, and medical terminology.
Kirchner, G. L., Stone, R. G., and Holm, M. B.	Use of admission criteria to predict performance of students in an entry‐level master's program on fieldwork placements and in academic courses	2001	Quantitative correlational study	To explore the relationships among clinical outcomes, academic success, and predictors used to screen applicants for entrance into a Master's in Occupational Therapy Program (MOT).	United States	63 MOT students between graduating 1994–1997 from Puget Sound in Tacoma, Washington. 89% female, aged between 23 and 49.	Not specified	Quantitative empirical evidence	• Undergraduate GPA • Scores on the verbal quantitative and analytical sections of the GRE • Scores on a written essay	• AOTA fieldwork evaluation scores • OT GPA • Client therapy outcomes achieved	Student admission data correlated (r) with performance evaluated by supervisor	• Fieldwork ratings were positively correlated with the GRE scores and undergraduate GPA; however, only correlations between the analytical section of the GRE and the fieldwork evaluation were statistically significant.	A successful student had higher GRE scores on the analytical section on admission.
Koenig, K. P.	Academic and clinical success in the field of occupational therapy: Predictors of entry‐level professional competence	2003	Quantitative retrospective study	To determine the utility of cognitive versus non‐cognitive variables in predicting performance in a full‐time Level II fieldwork rotation.	United States	314 bachelor and MOT OT students from four urban universities between 1999 and 2002. 90% female, 80% White, 2% ESL, 22% aged 23–29, and 62% aged less than 23.	Not specified	Quantitative empirical evidence	Cognitive skills measured by • CGPA • English as second language Professional skills measured by • Level I Fieldwork Evaluation scores—Philadelphia Region Fieldwork Consortium (PRFC) • Level II Fieldwork Evaluation scores (PRFC) • Contact with supervisor and academic and coding of issues Demographic data: • Age • Ethnicity • Degree program • Institution	Pass/fail of Fieldwork II and fieldwork evaluation for occupational therapists (FWE)	Student admission data, coursework scores, and fieldwork scores correlated (r) with performance evaluated by supervisor	ESL, OT GPA, and FW I average all displayed statistically significant correlations with the criterion variable of pass/fail status on Fieldwork Level II ESL status was significantly (p < 0.05) correlated with Fieldwork Level II status. OT GPA and FW I average had significant (p < 0.01) correlations with Fieldwork Level II status, indicating the higher the OT GPA and FW I average the more likely the student was to pass the Fieldwork Level II rotation. There were no statistically significant findings on gender, age, and ethnicity.	A successful student had higher OT GPA scores, higher Level I fieldwork scores and spoke English as their first language.
Landa‐Gonzalez, B., Velis, E., and Greg, K.	Learning styles as predictors of fieldwork performance and learning adaptability of graduate non‐traditional occupational therapy students	2015	Non‐experimental mixed methods correlational study	To examine the relationship between learning styles and fieldwork performance in non‐traditional occupational therapy students. To explore how this unique population adapts their learning approach for success in the fieldwork context.	United States	84 non‐traditional MOT students in an urban university in south‐eastern United States. 85.7% female, White 44%, Hispanic 22.6%, Black 21.4%, and Asian 8.3%, with a mean age of 31.5 years.	Not specified	Quantitative empirical evidence	• Learning styles measured by the Kolb's Learning Style Inventory (LSI, 3.1) • Age • Gender • Ethnicity	FWPE	Student completed measures correlated (r) with performance evaluated by supervisor	• There were no significant differences between the learning styles and overall FW scores, but there were significant differences between the learning styles and FW subsection scores. • The factors of ethnicity and age did not significantly contribute to the variance. However, females performed better on all subsections of the first FW, but with no differences detected for the second FW experience.	A successful student for their first practice education was more likely to be female.
Lloyd, C. and Maas, F.	The relationship between Carkhuff's helping dimensions and occupational therapy	1992	Quantitative ex post facto correlational	To determine the relationships between Carkhuff's four core dimensions (empathy, respect, genuineness, and concreteness), with the total mark on a modified American Fieldwork Performance Reports (FWPR), total score on the communication section of the FWPR, score on a single item of ‘Communication with Clients’ on the FWPR.	Australia	46 final year OT students at an Australian University. 91% female.	(Physical and psychosocial and paediatrics) mixed	Quantitative empirical evidence	• Empathy, respect, genuineness, concreteness as measured by Carkhuff's Scales for the Assessment of Interpersonal Functioning (Carkhuff) • Personality measured by the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF)	American FWPR	Student completed measures correlated (r) with performance evaluated by supervisor	• No significant links between Carkhuff's helping dimensions and total mark of FWPR or on the communication fieldwork subsection. • No relationship between 16PF and FWPR variables was found. • A positive relationship exists between 16PF subscale assertiveness and the FWPR subscale of communication with clients in psychosocial settings.	A successful student in communication with clients in psychosocial practice education had the personality trait of assertiveness.
Mason, J., Hayden, C. L., and Causey‐Upton, R.	Fieldwork educators' expectations of level II occupational therapy students' professional and technical skills	2020	Convergent parallel mixed method (survey)	To explore perceptions held by Level II fieldwork educators of occupational therapy students' professional and technical skills at the beginning of Level II fieldwork.	United States	54 fieldwork educators.	Physical dysfunction	Fieldwork educator/supervisor	Professional and technical skills according to fieldwork educator/supervisor expectations.	Not applicable	Fieldwork supervisor perspective through descriptive statistical analysis and coding of surveys	The necessary practice skills for successful Level II fieldwork were assessment, intervention, positioning/mobility, professionalism, and medical knowledge.	A successful student in physical dysfunction practice education will possess a range of skills in assessment, intervention, medical knowledge, positioning/mobility, and professional skills.
Mickan, S. M.	Student preparation for paediatric fieldwork	1995	Qualitative content analysis	To investigate the importance of theoretical knowledge within student preparation for paediatric fieldwork.	Australia	5 third‐year OT students who had just completed a third‐year paediatrics placement. 100% female, aged 20–45.	Paediatrics	Student	Knowledge and skills according to student expectations.	Not applicable	Student perspectives through content analysis of interviews	• Students need to be self‐directed in their learning and motivated. • All students identified needing to know about normal child development. • Students agreed that their preparation reading was helpful but that there was a limit to the amount of knowledge that could be understood initially. • Reflection in practice is required. • All students reported lacking specialist skills in both personal and professional interaction with children. Three students linked this to confidence. • All students agreed that the skills of interacting with children are vital.	A successful student in paediatric practice education had knowledge of child development, was self‐directed and motivated in their learning and completed pre‐readings. Students possessed skills in reflection, personal, and professional interaction with children.
Posthuma, B. and Noh, S.	Interview scores and academic grades as selection criteria for admission to an occupational therapy program	1990	Quantitative correlational study	To investigate the relationship of previous academic performance and selection interview results to the academic and fieldwork performance of students during 4 years of study, in occupational therapy.	Canada	32 OT students admitted to an OT program.	Not specified	Quantitative empirical evidence	• Admission interview scores • Previous Academic Performance (PAP)	• Competence level in fieldwork performance assessed by the Performance Evaluation of Occupational Therapy Students (PEOTS) (cumulative scores of 5 placements over 5 years)	Student admission data correlated (r) with performance evaluated by supervisor	• Students admitted based on interview scores appeared to perform better on placement than those selected on the basis of academic grades.	A successful student had performed higher on admission interviews.
Roberts, M. R., Alves, C. B., and Werther, K.	Examining the associations between objective structured clinical examination (OSCE) scores and fieldwork performance	2019	Quantitative correlational study	To explore the associations between scores obtained on objective structured clinical examinations (OSCEs) and on fieldwork placements within an occupational therapy program.	Canada	95 Master's of Science OT students.	Mixed (physical, mental health, and community)	Quantitative empirical evidence	• OSCE scores—summative of 4 subjects	• Mean score of four fieldwork placement performance evaluated using the Competency‐Based Fieldwork Evaluation (CBFE) Tool—summative	Student coursework scores correlated (r) with performance evaluated by supervisor	• A significant correlation was found between overall mean student performance in the OSCE and mean fieldwork score.	A successful student had higher mean OSCE scores.
Stier, J., Nowrouzi‐Kia, B., Ott, M., and Mohamed, A.	Admission factors that predict Canadian occupational therapy students' practicum success	2021	Quantitative quasi‐experimental ex post facto design	To explore scored components of admission packages to determine if they represented factors predictive of practicum performance for applicants admitted into a Canadian MScOT program	Canada	446 successful applicants from to a Canadian MScOT program from 2010 to 2014, inclusive. 93% female, aged 21–35 years, mean 23.68, SD: 1.92 (432 applicants were included in the analysis).	Mixed (physical health, mental health, and physical/psychosocial)	Quantitative empirical evidence	• Demographic factors—age and gender • Undergraduate GPAs • Overall written submission scores for MScOT admission packages • Individual scores from two confidential assessment forms	CBFE for Occupational Therapists (CBFE‐OT)	Student admission data correlated (r) with performance evaluated by supervisor	Higher overall written submission scores were predictive of higher CBFE‐OT scores for final evaluations of students in physical health settings during fourth practicum placements. Higher uGPAs were predictive of lower CBFE‐OT scores for final evaluations of those in physical health settings during fourth practicum placements.	A successful student in physical health settings had higher overall submission scores on admission to the program.
Swift., S. D.	Relationship of select admissions criteria to pre‐licensure requirements in a graduate degree program in occupational therapy	2012	Quantitative ex post facto correlational study	To examine whether select cognitive and non‐cognitive admission variables could be used to predict graduate performance on pre‐licensure requirements (fieldwork performance scores, first time pass rate a national board examination, and scores on a comprehensive departmental exit exam).	United States	129 OT students 2006–2011 enrolled at a health science university located in the south‐eastern United States. 93% female. Aged 20–50. Mean: 23.43.	Not specified	Quantitative empirical evidence	• Overall GPA • Math/Science GPA • GRE scores • College credit hours • Prior college attended • College majors • Age • Gender	• FWPE	Student admission data correlated (r) with performance evaluated by supervisor	• There were no statistically significant associations between previous collegiate performance (GPA or M/S GPA) and the first FWPE. • As GPA increased by one unit, several second FWPE section scores also increased. • For every one‐point increase in the GRE math score, the second FWPE total score increased. • Previous experiences in healthcare or with OT resulted in lower FWPE scores.	A successful student in their second practice education had higher college GPA and Math/Science GPA.
Tan, K. P., Meredith, P., and McKenna, K.	Predictors of occupational therapy student's clinical performance: An exploratory study	2004	Quantitative correlational study	To examine the ability of grade point average, trait anxiety, the completion of an elective preclinical practical course, and age to predict the clinical performance of occupational therapy students.	Australia	48 undergraduate OT 3 years prior to commencing first of 4 placements. 98% female. 19–28 years.	Not specified	Quantitative empirical evidence	• Age • Trait anxiety measured by the anxiety Sten score on the 16PF fifth edition • CGPA • Course grade (paediatric elective)	SPEF‐R	Student completed measures and coursework scores correlated (r) with performance evaluated by supervisor	• CGPA was a positive predictor of all areas of student clinical performance examined, as well as overall performance. • Trait anxiety positively predicted some areas of student clinical performance. • The completion of OT306, the elective preclinical practical course, corresponded to a decrease in mean score. • Older students were rated by their supervisors as being better at communicating with clients and significant others than their younger counterparts.	A successful student had higher CGPA scores. A successful student in communications aspects of practice education was older in age.
Thew, M. M. and Harkness, D.	Predictors of practice placement and academic outcomes in master's‐level pre‐registration occupational therapy students	2018	Quantitative correlational study	To determine whether a student's prior academic degree classification, demographic variables and academic outcome on an MSc occupational therapy course positively correlates with practice placement performance.	England	153 master's OT (preregistration) (2007–2015). 82% female, aged 22–51 (mean‐27 years), dominated by the White British ethnic group.	Not specified	Quantitative empirical evidence	• Age • Gender • Ethnicity • Previous degree subject • Previous degree classification • MSc occupational therapy (preregistration) program final percentage	CBFE	Student admission data correlated (r) with performance evaluated by supervisor	• Age, gender, and ethnicity did not significantly influence student practice placement outcomes. • Previous degree type does not appear to significantly influence student practice placement outcomes • Prior academic ability did not result in superior practice placement performance. • There was no significant correlation between previous degree outcome and practice placement final (PP4) score. • The higher the academic score in academic work (MScOT final %), the higher the practice placement performance (PP4).	A successful student had higher final OT coursework grades.
Tickle‐Degnen, L.	Working well with others: The prediction of students' clinical performance	1998	Quantitative descriptive and correlational study	To determine whether multivariate measurement at the initiation of student's training in OT could predict clinical performance in Level II fieldwork.	United States	45 OT students videotaped in first year and then compared with fieldwork scores 2 years later. 98% female, aged 19–46 years (mean = 24.1, SD: 6.74).	Mixed (physical rehabilitation, paediatric, and psychosocial)	Quantitative empirical evidence	Personality factors measured by • The Big 5 factor model Emotional expressiveness measured by • The Affective Communication Test • The Self‐Monitoring Scale Interpersonal attributes measured by • The Face and Body Profile of Nonverbal Sensitivity • Interpersonal Reactivity Index • A 9‐point scale of behaviour (visual only) scored by untrained judge	Composite scores of FWE (quality of student performance, judgement, and general attitude).	Student completed measures correlated (r) with performance evaluated by supervisor	• Personal and interpersonal attributes measured early in a student's training were highly predictive of fieldwork performance rating 2 years later in all placement settings. A conscientious student was more likely to be highly rated on the FWE. • Physical rehab—A conventional, quietly concerned profile had an 84% probability of being rated high in clinical skills. • Paediatrics—The more sensitive the student was to body cues of emotions the higher they were rated on the FWE. • Students with entry‐level undergrad training were rated higher than entry‐level graduate students. • Students with an autonomous profile had an 87% probability of being rated high in clinical skills. • Students with and interdependent, less perceptive profile had an 87% probability of being rated low in clinical skills. • Psychosocial—Students were rated higher when they were more sensitive to facial cues of emotion and personally distressed in response to other's distress.	A successful student in physical rehabilitation practice education was, conventional, quiet yet concerned in approach. A successful student in paediatric practice education had completed undergraduate studies and was autonomous, sensitive to body cues of emotion, conventional and quietly concerned. A successful student in psychosocial practice education was sensitive to emotional cues, agreeable, and self‐monitoring.
Trivinia, B.	Facilitating student success in the home setting	2009	Opinion piece	Nil identified	United States	Not applicable	Home health setting	Fieldwork educator/supervisor	Student characteristics according to fieldwork educator/supervisor expectations.	Not applicable	Not applicable	• Prospective students must be autonomous, with good basic clinical skills, time management, organisation, and flexibility.	A successful student was autonomous with good basic clinical, time management, organisational skills, and flexible.
Whisner, S. M., Geddie, A., Sechrist, D., and Wang, E.	Examination of potential factors to predict fieldwork performance: A program evaluation project	2019	Quantitative prediction study using structural equation modelling.	To present the results of a program evaluation project that evaluated the validity of a hypothesised predictor model for identifying students at risk for poor fieldwork performance.	United States	121 OT master's students enrolled between 2008 and 2011. 88% female. 79% White, 13% Hispanic, and 6% Black.	Not specified	Quantitative empirical evidence	• Personality measured through the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator • Gross Anatomy grades • Admission Science GPA • Admission GPA • Admission interview scores • Observation hours.	• FWPE	Student admission data and student completed measures and performance evaluated by supervisor to develop a predictive model using sequential exploratory factor analyses, confirmatory factor analysis, and structural equation modelling	Gross anatomy course grade and admission science GPA emerged as significant predictors of fieldwork performance. Admission Science GPA had a negative predictive relationship with Factor 3 (Evaluation Skills). Admission overall GPA was not predictive of fieldwork performance. Likewise, the competency exam risk indicator was not predictive of fieldwork performance. Personality—Of the four dimensions of the MBTI, only the Thinking/Feeling variable emerged as a predictor of fieldwork performance for Factor 3 (Evaluation Skills). Observation hour range variable had a negative predictive relationship with fieldwork performance. Larger numbers of observation hours were associated with lower fieldwork performance for Factor 3 (Evaluation Skills). Admission interview scores were not significant predictors of fieldwork performance.	A successful student had higher gross anatomy, have the MBTI trait of thinker, and have less observation hours completed.
Yu, M., Brown, T., and Thyer, L.	The association between undergraduate occupational therapy students' listening and interpersonal skills and performance on practice education placements	2019	Quantitative correlational study	To investigate if interpersonal skills taught to undergraduate occupational therapy students predict their practice performance.	Australia	132 second‐, third‐, and fourth‐year undergraduate OT students at an Australian university. 89% female, 74% aged 20–24, 54% high school leaver, 17% ESL, and 14% international student.	Not specified	Quantitative empirical evidence	Listening and interpersonal skills measure by the • Active‐Empathetic Listening Scale (AELS) • Listening Styles Profile—Revised (LSP‐R) • Interpersonal Communication Competence Scale (ICCS) Age, ESL, and international students	SPEF‐R	Student completed measures correlated (r) with performance evaluated by supervisor	• AEL's Sensing subscale score was predictive of better Self‐Management Skills at the final point of evaluation and feedback that students receive at the end of a practice education placement. • Results also found a positive statistically significant relationship between students' fourth‐year level of enrolment and all six domains of the SPEF‐R.	A successful student utilised the sensing stage of listening and were in later years of study.
Yu, M., Brown, T., White, C., Marston, C., and Thyer, L.	The impact of undergraduate occupational therapy students' interpersonal skills on their practice education performance: A pilot study	2018	Quantitative correlational study	To investigate whether interpersonal skills are predictive of occupational therapy students' practice performance	Australia	70 third‐ (27) and fourth‐ (43) year undergrad OT students. 90% female, 84% aged 20–24, 14% international student, and 15% ESL.	Not specified	Quantitative empirical evidence	Interpersonal skills measured by the • ICCS • LSP‐R • AELS Demographic data, including • Age • Gender • Year level • Entry pathway • Language spoken at home • Domestic/international student status	SPEF‐R	Student completed measures correlated (r) with performance evaluated by supervisor	• The ICCS's Interaction Management subscale scores were predictive of better SPEF‐R Self‐Management Skills at midway and SPEF‐R Professional Behaviour and SPEF‐R Service Evaluation at final evaluation. • Students who self‐reported higher levels of empathy had less favourable performance in documentation in clinical settings. • Higher scores on the ICCS Supportiveness subscale were predictive of lower half‐way Service Provision SPEF‐R scores.	A successful student had higher interaction management skills.

FIGURE 3.

Evidence map of the personal and professional characteristics of students who were successful in practice education.

4. POSITIONALITY STATEMENT

The first author, A.G., is an Aboriginal Woman with over 20 years' experience working as an occupational therapist in metropolitan, rural, and remote areas and more than 15 years as a clinical supervisor. A.G. is a PhD student with more than 8 years' experience teaching at a metropolitan university. The second and third authors, K.C. and R.A.B., are A.G.'s PhD supervisors and are White, Australian‐born full‐time occupational therapy academics at the same university with wide‐ranging experience leading occupational therapy education programs. All three authors studied within Australia and approach this research through an academic educator's lens, determined to provide all students with the best opportunity to succeed in their learning, through inclusive and equitable education.

5. FINDINGS

A total of 4876 records were retrieved from searching under the broader research focus. After 2211 duplicates were removed, the remaining 2659 were screened by title and abstract, and 2392 records were excluded. The remaining 267 records underwent full‐text screening, and 190 did not meet inclusion criteria and were excluded, leaving 77 included records (Figure 1). As noted previously, the extraction process revealed that the included records answered two distinct questions, firstly, the characteristics of a successful student (32 records) and secondly, how students are being prepared (52 records). Some of the records answered both questions. It was therefore decided that the scoping review would be divided, and this paper presents findings related to the first question on the characteristics of success. Table 2 reveals the extracted data, including country of origin, participant characteristics, context, study methods, and key findings describing the personal and professional characteristics of occupational therapy students who were successful in practice education.

FIGURE 1.

PRISMA flowchart.

5.1. Characteristics of included records

5.1.1. Record type, date, and origin

Over three quarters of included records employed quantitative methodologies only (79%, n = 25/32). The remainder were mixed methods (9%, n = 3/32), qualitative (9%, n = 2/32), and opinion pieces (6%, n = 2/32). Nearly one third of the records were recently published since 2020 (31%, n = 10/32) and just over a quarter (28%, n = 9/32) were published in the 2010s. The remainder were published in the 2000s (19%, n = 6) and 1990s (22%, n = 7). Half (50%, n = 16/32) of the records originated from the United States, approximately one quarter were from Australia (28%, n = 9/32), with the remainder from England (9%, n = 3/32), Canada (9%, n = 3/32), and Israel (3%, n = 1/32).

5.1.2. Participant voice

Including records with mixed methods, 86% collected quantitative empirical evidence (n = 28/32) and, therefore, did not represent a participant voice. Of records collecting qualitative or opinion piece data (19%, n = 6/32), four records represented the voice of fieldwork educators/supervisors or academics (13%, n = 4/32), with even less representing the voice of students (6%, n = 2/32).

5.1.3. Context settings

Most records (63%, n = 20/32) did not identify the practice education context setting of their study. Studies identifying context settings were physical (9%, n = 3/32), paediatrics (3%, n = 1/32), psychosocial (3%, n = 1/32), home health (3%, n = 1/32), and multiple contexts (19%, n = 6/32).

5.1.4. Use of standardised measures of student performance

Of the 28 records, including quantitative data, 24 utilised standardised measures of assessing student performance in practice education, these being, the SPEF‐R (n = 7/24) in Australia, the FWPE (n = 6/24) in the United States, the CBFE‐OT (n = 3/24) in England and Canada, a version of Fieldwork Evaluation Form (FWE) (n = 4/24) in the United States and Israel, the AOTA fieldwork performance evaluation (n = 2/24) in the United States, the Performance Evaluation of Occupational Therapy Students (PEOTS) (n = 1/24) in Canada, and the American Fieldwork Performance Reports (FWPR) (n = 1/24) in Australia (Table 1). Of the remaining four records, including quantitative data, two records utilised placement scores (n = 2/28) not specifying a standardised evaluation tool and two records collected other quantitative data from fieldwork supervisors (n = 2/28).

5.1.5. Participants

A total of 3158 occupational therapy students participated in included studies. Most records (n = 29/32) included student participants, of which almost half did not report their enrolled degree type (n = 14/29). Of those reported, students were enrolled in master's degrees (n = 8/29), bachelor's degrees (n = 6/29), and both master's and bachelor's degrees (n = 1/29). A small number of records (n = 10/29) specified the year level of students, ranging from first year through to fourth/final years.

Two thirds of records (69%, n = 22/32) reported student demographics. More than 86% of student participants identified as female. Where the age range of participants was specified (n = 18/32), students were predominantly aged between 20 and 24 years. A small number of records detailed the ethnicity of participants (n = 6/32), with the majority of students reporting White Western backgrounds with small representations from Hispanic, Asian, African American, or Latino backgrounds. International students were noted in a small number of records (n = 5/32), ranging from 14% to 29% of students. Participants who spoke English as a second language (ESL) (n = 6/32) represented between 2% and 24% of students in their respective studies.

A total of 201 fieldwork educators/supervisors and nine academic staff members participated in six included studies. Of the nine academic staff, eight identified as female. Only one record provided demographic data for fieldwork supervisors, in which 88% of participants were female, with 69% aged between 30 and 49 years.

5.1.6. Student characteristics measured in the records

Quantitative data attempted to determine factors underpinning student success in practice education (n = 28/32). The following student characteristics as seen in Figure 2 were included (records often measure more than one variable): age (n = 11/28), admissions data (other than GPA and graduate records examination [GRE]) (n = 9/28), GPA (n = 7/28), course (subjects or units) grades (n = 6/28), gender (n = 5/28), personality (n = 5/28), interpersonal skills (n = 4/28), emotional intelligence (n = 4/28), professionalism (n = 3/28), ethnicity (n = 3/28), GRE (n = 3/28), ESL (n = 3/28), resilience (n = 2/28), reflective thinking (n = 2/28), program level (n = 2/28), domestic/international student status (n = 2/28) and objective structured clinical exam (OSCE) scores (n = 1/28), observation hours (n = 1/28), previous placement grades (n = 1/28), past experience (n = 1/28), institution (n = 1/28), and self‐efficacy (n = 1/28).

FIGURE 2.

Student characteristics measured in the records.

Qualitative records explored participants' perspectives via open‐ended questions. These records included findings that contained personal and professional characteristics of students who were successful in their placements.

6. DESCRIPTION OF OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY STUDENTS WHO WERE SUCCESSFUL IN PRACTICE EDUCATION

Extracted data from included records were categorised into the personal and professional characteristics. Four categories emerged pertaining to the personal and two categories emerged pertaining to the professional characteristics.

6.1. Personal characteristics

Personal characteristics were found in 20 of the included records (Table 2), including emotional intelligence, resilience, student demographics, and personality (refer to Figure 3).

6.1.1. Emotional intelligence

A successful student was described as having higher emotional intelligence scores (Gordon‐Handler, 2009). These scores included higher emotional awareness (Brown et al., 2016), sensitivity to emotional cues (Tickle‐Degnen, 1998), empathy (Tickle‐Degnen, 1998), emotional intelligence in managing others (Andonian, 2013) or emotional management (Brown et al., 2016), and/or emotional reasoning (Brown et al., 2016).

6.1.2. Resilience

Higher student resiliency was associated with success in practice education (Brown et al., 2022; Brown, Yu, Hewitt, & Etherington, 2020). In particular, the resiliency factors of managing stress, finding your calling, living authentically (Brown et al., 2022), and staying healthy (Brown, Yu, Hewitt, & Etherington, 2020) were associated with successful performance.

6.1.3. Student demographics

Two records explored language and gender. In one study, students whose first language matched the language of course delivery in English were found to be more successful in practice education (Koenig, 2003). In the other study, students identifying as female were more successful in practice education (Landa‐Gonzalez et al., 2015) than students not identifying as female. Conflicting findings on age were found: one study finding students of younger age (Kale et al., 2020) and one older age (Tan et al., 2004) were more successful in practice education.

6.1.4. Personality

Personality descriptors or traits were found to describe students who were successful, such as students who were creative and personable (Campbell et al., 2015), assertive (Lloyd & Maas, 1992), flexible (Trivinia, 2009), and who fit the Myers–Briggs personality type of ‘thinker’ (Whisner et al., 2019). Tickle‐Degnen (1998) also described autonomous, conventional, quietly concerned, extraverted, conscientious, agreeable, and self‐monitoring as traits associated with successful students.

6.2. The professional self

Extracted data from 21 included records (Table 2) revealed two categories and four subcategories (two subcategories for each category) for professional characteristics. The categories described a temporal aspect to students' development of the professional self: (1) attained prior to occupational therapy university study and (2) prepared via the occupational therapy curriculum.

6.2.1. Prior to occupational therapy study

The category, prior to occupational therapy study, had two subcategories of (1) prior academic achievement and (2) limited experience with the profession (refer to Figure 3). Experiences and academic achievements prior to university were measured by university admission processes.

Of the included records, six ascribed higher prior academic achievement to students who were successful in practice education. Students who were successful had higher GRE scores (Bathje et al., 2014; Kirchner et al., 2001), higher GPA scores (Swift, 2012), completed undergraduate studies (Tickle‐Degnen, 1998), higher overall admission scores (Stier et al., 2021), and/or higher admission interview scores on entry (Posthuma & Noh, 1990). Incompatibly, lower college scores prior to study in occupational therapy were found to be associated with students who were successful in practice education in one study (Swift, 2012).

Interestingly, two records found students with limited experience with health professions performed better in practice education than students with experience. Both being correlational studies, one record found students with no prior experience in health or the profession scored higher on their placement evaluation (Swift, 2012). The other record found that students who spent less time observing the profession (Whisner et al., 2019) scored higher.

6.2.2. Prepared via occupational therapy curriculum

Included records revealed students acquired knowledge and developed skills and professional behaviours via their occupational therapy curriculum.

Professional knowledge acquired at university was found to be higher in students who were successful in practice education in four records. Students who were successful in practice education acquired knowledge, measured by course grades, in pathophysiology, musculoskeletal anatomy, biomechanics, and neuroscience, and how occupational therapy interfaces with the medical model (Bondoc et al., 2009), manual muscle testing, range of motion and developmental milestones (Karp, 2020), medical knowledge (Mason et al., 2020), and child development (Mickan, 1995). Students who scored higher in occupational therapy coursework (Best, 1994; Howard & Jerosch‐Herold, 2000; Koenig, 2003; Tan et al., 2004; Thew & Harkness, 2018) were more successful in practice education as evidenced by practice education evaluation scores.

Twelve records revealed professional skills and behaviours developed throughout their course were higher in students who were more successful in practice education. Half of the records indicated students with higher interpersonal and communication skills were more successful in practice education (Bondoc et al., 2009; Brown et al., 2022; Campbell et al., 2015; Karp, 2020; Mickan, 1995; Yu et al., 2018, 2019). Students with professional skills/professionalism (Brown et al., 2022; Brown, Yu, Hewitt, & Etherington, 2020; Mason et al., 2020) and who were autonomous or self‐directed in practice (Campbell et al., 2015; Mickan, 1995; Trivinia, 2009) were more successful in practice education. Reflective skills (Iliff, 2017; Mickan, 1995), organisational skills (Campbell et al., 2015; Trivinia, 2009), time management skills (Campbell et al., 2015; Trivinia, 2009), medical‐based skills (Bondoc et al., 2009), taking initiative, and being adaptable and ethical (Campbell et al., 2015) and motivated in learning (Mickan, 1995) were identified skills acquired for success. Students with occupational therapy assessment and intervention skills, including positioning and mobility skills (Mason et al., 2020) and basic clinical skills (Trivinia, 2009), were described as being more successful in practice education.

Two records measured skills and behaviours acquired during the occupational therapy curriculum. Students with higher OSCE scores (Roberts et al., 2019) and higher scores in previous fieldwork (Koenig, 2003) were more successful in practice education than those with lower scores.

7. DISCUSSION

Since 1990, only 32 occupational therapy records have described students who were successful in practice education. Records were primarily from Western, high‐income countries, consisting mostly of isolated correlational studies, and included some conflicting findings. Most evidence described students who were successful as possessing specific personal characteristics (20 records) such as personality traits or targeted university‐taught professional skills and behaviours (21 records) such as communication and professionalism. Few studies championed the voice and experience of success in practice education from the perspective of occupational therapy students (n = 2) (Iliff, 2017; Mickan, 1995) or placement supervisors (n = 5) (Bondoc et al., 2009; Campbell et al., 2015; Karp, 2020; Mason et al., 2020; Trivinia, 2009). The findings in this paper can be used to inform universities on the preparation of students for practice education success through explicit teaching of professional skills and behaviours. Students with acquired professional skills and behaviours explicitly taught through curriculum were more successful in practice education (Campbell et al., 2015; Koenig, 2003; Mason et al., 2020; Roberts et al., 2019). Our findings corroborate previous literature asserting interpersonal/communication skills and professional behaviours, such as self‐directed learning, time management, and organisational skills, are highly valued by fieldwork educators (Chipchase et al., 2012). Further to this, students who had acquired skills in occupational therapy assessment and intervention, communication, and safety (including basic positioning and mobility) at university were more successful in practice education. Explicit instruction and assessment of skills aligned to occupational therapy competency standards, such as the Australian occupational therapy competency standards (Occupational Therapy Board of Australia, 2018), was found to be beneficial in preparing students for practice education.

Additionally, the findings showed that knowledge acquired at university, measured through academic performance, related to successful practice education, with higher course grades being associated with higher practice education performance ratings (Best, 1994; Howard & Jerosch‐Herold, 2000; Koenig, 2003; Tan et al., 2004). Desirable knowledge, however, was context dependent, with knowledge of range of motion, and anatomy and physiology, highly regarded by some practice education supervisors (Karp, 2020; Mickan, 1995) but not a requirement for success in all practice contexts. Academics, working in partnership with practice educators, and employing partnership pedagogy (Engel‐Hills et al., 2023; Marjadi et al., 2022; Patey et al., 2023), may use these findings to co‐develop university preparation programs for specific context settings that could in turn enhance student success during practice education and be followed up by further on‐site, context‐specific orientation and training by their supervisor once placements commence. Further research on this shared responsibility to prepare students for practice education success is necessary. Additional research to understand how occupational therapy curriculum is already preparing students for success in practice education is also necessary and is being undertaken by this paper's authors. In addition to understanding essential knowledge and skills for preparation, the role of the vast array of learning and instruction methods now employed in university learning and teaching (Gustafsson, 2020; MacKenzie et al., 2025), and which are best suited to preparing students for placement success, would be worthwhile. For example, the use of simulation (Grant et al., 2021; MacKenzie et al., 2025; Ozelie et al., 2016; Sibbald & MacKenzie, 2023) and virtual reality (Collins et al., 2026) could be further explored.

More recently, students in higher education experience substantially higher rates of depression, anxiety, and stress than the general population (Steiner‐Hofbauer & Holzinger, 2020). Housing instability, financial strain, and social or cultural adjustment difficulties can hinder academic success for university students (van Kessel et al., 2025). Records included in this research consider academic performance over the last 20 years, and it is acknowledged that earlier papers may not capture the current complexity surrounding university student learning. It would be beneficial for contemporary research to re‐examine whether the link between academic performance and practice education success remains in the current context.

Students who were successful in practice education had prior knowledge, measured through admission processes. Interestingly, having less experience or no experience with the profession prior to university was associated with greater success in practice education. This appears inconsistent with research suggesting life and work experience, confidence, interpersonal skills, and teamwork skills contribute to greater competence in practice education (Bell et al., 2014). Echoed by Karp (2020), both professional behaviours and students' values were strong indicators of students' practice education success. The extent to which students' prior work and life experiences contribute to the development of professionalism and interpersonal skills for successful practice education remains unknown and requires further investigation.

This review provides valuable insights into the personal characteristics of students who were successful in practice education. Students with higher resiliency (Brown et al., 2022; Brown, Yu, Hewitt, Isbel, et al., 2020) and emotional intelligence (Andonian, 2013; Brown et al., 2016; Gordon‐Handler, 2009; Yu et al., 2018) were more successful in practice education than other students. Higher scores in resiliency and emotional intelligence are known predictors of practice education performance (Wang et al., 2023), consistent with the findings. Taking an ability‐based approach, emotional intelligence is considered an innate characteristic of a person; however, people can develop interpersonal skills to heighten their emotional awareness and responses (Mayer & Cobb, 2000). Resiliency is considered a dynamic, contextual process focused on positive adaptation to stress or change (Brewer et al., 2019; Luthar et al., 2000), which often results from experiencing and managing previous adverse life experiences (Vanhove et al., 2016). Occupational therapy students commence university with diverse life experiences with corresponding varying levels of resiliency and emotional intelligence. This underscores the importance of including targeted learning activities in occupational therapy curriculum (Connell et al., 2021) to increase awareness of students' own resiliency and emotional intelligence and explicitly teach coping strategies. Skill development to heighten emotional intelligence needs to focus on improving relationships with others, not only in client–therapist relationships but all interprofessional relationships (Andonian, 2017). Such deliberate instruction will benefit student performance during practice education.

Students identifying as female in one study, and students whose first language was the same as the curriculum (Koenig, 2003) in another study, were linked to successful performance in practice education. Findings of this review reveal a gap in measuring the success of students with diverse backgrounds. Fitting with occupational therapy student cohorts worldwide, occupational therapy student participants in this review were homogeneous, described as predominantly female, aged between 20 and 24 years, English speaking from White Western backgrounds, and studying locally (Table 1). It is possible English‐speaking female students were better prepared to enter a demographically homogenous profession that is, as reported by the Australian, US, and UK regulatory bodies, predominantly White Western, and female dominated (Health and Care Professions Council, 2024; Occupational Therapy Board AHPRA, 2023; United States Department of Labor, 2023). Multiculturalism, however, continues to grow in countries such as Australia, United States and Europe (Australian Government Department of Home Affairs, 2024; Torres & Tarozzi, 2020), accompanied by greater diversity of both clients and occupational therapy student cohorts. More research is needed to understand the practice education success of diverse student populations to ensure preparation for successful practice education is inclusive for all students. Essential to this work is the need for research that gives primacy to the student voice.

A range of personality traits were found to describe successful students. This is consistent with findings from a systematic review where personality traits of extraversion and emotional stability predicted successful performance in occupational therapy practice education (Wang et al., 2023). While personality is typically considered to have a biological basis, it may be shaped over time by life events (Agronick & Duncan, 1998; Nelson, 1999) and culture (McCrae et al., 1998). Students entering occupational therapy programs, in the early stages of adulthood or later, come with well‐formed personalities. Increasing student awareness of their own personality traits in the context of interprofessional and communication skills (Daly & McCroskey, 1987; Juhász, 2010; Sims, 2017), as well as reflecting on these traits in relation to desired professional behaviours (Byrne, 2018; Erdenk & Altuntaş, 2017), may be key to preparing all students for successful practice education.

7.1. Limitations

Heterogeneity in degree types, accreditation standards, program structure, stage of study, and timing of practice education within the occupational therapy profession worldwide limited the ability of the researchers to pool findings. Preparation in early stages of occupational therapy programs differs to preparation in later or final stages and may impact on practice education success at various stages in a student's journey. It is acknowledged that studies explored both early and late‐stage students, where differences may be apparent. Preparation in early stages is more likely to be introductory and focus on professional behaviours, while later stage preparation is more targeted and skill focused. This research was approached through the lens of understanding student success and in turn reflects upon the review findings in relation to how university experiences can prepare students for placement. It is acknowledged that success on placement may also be influenced by the placement experience, including, but not limited to, further preparatory activities that occur once a student commences their placement. This has not been captured in this paper and warrants further investigation. However, this review adds a broad, important description of students who were successful that is foundational to all practice education.

7.2. Implications for occupational therapy practice

This research provides a more comprehensive and complete understanding of what defines a successful student through the lens of Schell and Schell's (2018) personal and professional characteristics. Preparation for practice education needs to firstly afford opportunity for student reflection of their personal characteristics, such as resilience, personality types, and emotional intelligence. And secondly, develop skills and strategies to succeed in practice education. Deliberate instruction in key knowledge and skills can assist all students, regardless of academic performance, cultural diversity, or personal attributes, to develop requisite skills and behaviours to succeed in practice education. Findings suggest focusing on interpersonal and communication skills, professionalism, and assessment and intervention skills in occupational therapy curriculum to promote practice education preparedness and success.

8. CONCLUSIONS

This research described characteristics of occupational therapy students successful in practice education. The personal characteristics of successful students were higher levels of resiliency and emotional intelligence than their peers. Students who were successful acquired knowledge, dependent on the practice education context setting, alongside broad interpersonal/communication skills and professionalism. Findings prompt educators to include student reflection on their personal characteristics and deliberate instruction and assessment of interpersonal and occupational therapy practice skills and behaviours in their preparation for practice education.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

All authors contributed to the conception or design of the work or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the work; drafting the work or reviewing it critically for important intellectual content; final approval of the version to be published; and agreement is accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT

The authors have no conflict of interest to declare.

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.