Parent-to-child intergenerational influence of perceived alienation towards parents: mediation of children’s life-events, and moderation of children’s gender and left-behind status

Abstract

Background

Parent-child bond especially the alienation towards parents, significantly influences an individual’s lifetime mental health. This study, grounded in intergenerational transmission theory, aims to reveal the influence of less-attended parents’ perceived alienation towards their own parents on children’s to-parent alienation and potential mediators (children’s life-events) and moderators (children’s gender and left-behind status).

Methods

782 Chinese parent-child pairs were surveyed using the Inventory of Alienation towards Parents and the Adolescent Self-Rating Life-events Checklist. Children (aged between 8 and 14 years old) were surveyed 6-months after parents’ survey.

Results

Parents’ to-parent and to-child alienation as well as children’s to-mother and to-father alienation were moderately to highly correlated (r = 0.50–0.91), while parents and children’s alienation were mildly correlated (r = 0.14–0.23). Structural equation modeling showed that mother’s to-parent alienation predicted children’s to-mother alienation, which was fully mediated by mother’s to-child alienation and children’s life-events. Father’s to-father alienation indirectly predicted children’s to-father alienation through children’s life-events. Moderation model showed that girls had a stronger correlation between parent’s to-mother and to-father alienation. The prediction of father’s to-father alienation on children’s life-events was weaker when the father was leaving home for more than six months.

Conclusions

The findings are among the first to reveal the prediction of parents’ perceived alienation on children’s alienation, with stronger effect from the same-gender parent. The intergenerational transmission of perceived alienation is mediated by children’s life-events and moderated by children’s gender and left-behind status. To interrupt the transmission of perceived alienation between generations, more attention should be paid to parents’ perceived alienation first, while children’s status (e.g., life-events and left-behind status) should also be considered to develop psychological interventions in schools and families.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40359-026-04284-0.

Introduction

Parent-child bond profoundly affects an individual’s lifetime mental health and plays an important role in shaping children’s deviant behavior [1–4]. For example, studies indicate that alienation towards parents played an important role in depression [5] or social maladaptation [2]. This complex bond encompasses multiple dimensions, such as attachment, alienation, trust, communication, and conflict resolution [6]. A substantial body of literature conceptualizes key aspects of this bond through the lenses of parent-child attachment [7] and parent-child alienation [1, 8]. The former represents the special affectionate bond between the child and the mother or other primary caregivers before two-years of age, and this bond can be ranked according to the level of intimacy [7]. The latter is represented by negative feelings, such as emotional distance, possessiveness, and even control, during the interaction between parents and children [8] and comprises both child-to-parent (the child’s feelings of detachment towards parent) [9] and parent-to-child alienation (the parent’s feelings of detachment towards child) [10]. To date, most studies have focused on attachment, with less attention paid to parent-child alienation. However, an increasing body of evidence suggests that perceived alienation towards parents impacts children’s well-being [7, 11]. Specifically, retrospective research has shown that exposure to alienation towards parents during childhood correlated with decreased quality of life and increased depressive symptoms in adulthood [12]. Such effect has also been confirmed during adolescence, with findings showing that adolescents with stronger alienation towards parents were at a higher risk for depressive symptoms [13]. In our previous work, we developed the Inventory of Alienation towards Parents (IAP) [1] and used it in a longitudinal survey and confirmed the predictive power of children’s perceived alienation towards parents on their depression [5]. Nevertheless, parent-child alienation remains relatively understudied, particularly in children of late childhood to early adolescence (approximately 8–14 years old), a developmental stage characterized by the pursuit of autonomy, heightened sensitivity to social evaluation, and the reorganization of parent-child relationships [14–16].

To prevent alienation towards parents effectively, the potential mechanism underlying its development must be fully uncovered. Previous studies have primarily explored the influential predictors of the parent-child bond from several perspectives: family conditions such as marital status and economic conditions [1, 17], children’s personal issues including emotional status and personality [1, 17, 18], and parental variables like mental health status [17] and rearing style [19]. However, the influential predictors of perceived alienation towards parents, especially through the lens of intergenerational transmission, are not fully understood. Notably, research has shown that parents who reported more insecure attachment to their own parents also reported more non-optimal parenting styles towards their children [20], suggesting an intergenerational link between relational experiences within family. This pattern aligns with the concept of intergenerational transmission, which posits that relational patterns and behaviors can be passed across generations, possibly through parenting practices and emotional climate within a family [21–24]. Based on this concept, parents’ early-life interactions with their own parents might shape their parenting style and further influence their relationship with their children [25]. Specifically, children’s risk for adverse childhood events may be linked to their parents’ early-childrearing experiences, which can carry forward into their own parenting practice [21]. For example, an individual who was physically abused during childhood may be inclined to physically abuse their own children, thereby perpetuating the cycle of trauma [26]. Theoretically, secure attachment with one’s parents might result in a more harmonious relationship with their own children, while family trauma may reoccur during the upbringing of the next generation [27]. However, the prediction of children’s perceived alienation from parents’ perceived alienation (both towards their own parents and children, abbreviated as “to-parent” and “to-child”) has not been extensively studied. To avoid ambiguity, parents’ to-mother/father alienation specifically refers to the parent’s perceived alienation towards their own parents (i.e., toward the child’s grandparents), as well as to-child alienation represents alienation towards their child. Thus, guided by the intergenerational transmission theoretical framework, parents’ to-parent alienation may associate with their to-child alienation (Hypothesis 1), and their perceived alienation may predict children’s to-parent alienation (Hypothesis 2). The knowledge helps to reveal and further interrupt the intergenerational mechanism underlying the development of children’s to-parent alienation, potentially informing more targeted interventions towards the alienation of children in family and school.

Within intergenerational transmission, family system theory emphasizes the importance of family as a system [28] and further suggests the existence of potential mediators in the effect of parents’ perceived alienation on children’s perceived alienation. Among which, the life-events experienced by children might be important to the development of children’s alienation, as these experiences often lead to a greater need for parental support during the transition to adolescence, when children are facing new academic, social, and identity challenges [16]. For example, one study found that psychopathic traits moderated the relationship between the number of early life-events and later attachment towards parents in adolescents [29]. Another study indicated that fewer stressful life-events predicted optimal mother-child interaction in single-parent families with school-aged children [30]. Further research showed that children’s life-events significantly predicted their perceived alienation towards parents [1], confirming the effect of life-events on their alienation towards parents in the pre-teenage years. Drawing on intergenerational transmission and family system theory [28], parents’ to-parent and to-child alienation may increase children’s exposure to family-related negative life-events by carrying out suboptimal parenting behaviors and creating a stressful family environment [14], which may associate with the development of children’s perceived alienation, indicating an intergenerational transmission. Simultaneously, negative life-events generated from or out of family may challenge the parent-child relationship especially timely support that parents provide to help children cope with life-events [31]. Perceived alienation in parents may lead to insufficient communication and less timely support for their children, fostering the development of alienation in children [32]. It thus could be proposed that children’s life-events may serve as a mediator in the association between parents’ perceived alienation (both to-parent and to-child) and children’s to-parent alienation (Hypothesis 3), which has remained unexplored. Examining this mediating pathway will help clarify the process of transmission.

Notably, the degree of intergenerational transmission may vary based on the circumstances and individual characteristics of children. In the Chinese context, since that Chinese economic development has led many people to leave homes to work in larger cities. As a result, there were 65 million rural left-behind children (whose one or both parents have left home for more than six months) in 2020, an increase of 12.02 million since 2010 [33]. Importantly, in the absence of parental companionship at home, our previous work found that left-behind children reported higher levels of alienation towards parents compared to non-left-behind children [1]. Moreover, one study confirmed that early parental loss or prolonged separation (i.e., lasting one year or longer) led to depression following lower levels of life stress, suggesting a significant impact of parental separation on children’s mental health [34]. Therefore, it could be supposed that left-behind status may moderate (increase) the association between parents’ alienation and children’s alienation (Hypothesis 4a). However, this has not been tested directly.

Besides, the gender of children may also moderate this intergenerational transmission. A study showed that affective responsiveness was a protective factor in father-son relationships, while verbal affection similarly protected mother-daughter relationships [35]. Another investigation further confirmed that boys experienced higher alienation towards parents [36], suggesting a potential gender effect, with boys being more susceptible to higher alienation towards parents. Consequently, it was supposed that the associations between parents’ alienation and children’s alienation will be moderated by child gender (Hypothesis 4b), i.e., boys may report stronger associations, which has not yet been tested. This is a potentially critical factor in recognizing the population at risk for high levels of perceived alienation towards parents.

Thus, based on intergenerational transmission theory [37], this study aimed to reveal the effects of parents’ perceived to-parent and to-child alienation on their children’s to-parent alienation and potential mediator (children’s life-events) and moderators (children’s gender and left-behind status). Our hypotheses were: (1) Parents’ to-parent alienation may be positively associated with their to-child alienation. (2) Parents’ to-parent and to-child alienation may increase their children’s to-parent alienation. (3) Children’s life-events may positively mediate the effect of parent’s alienation on their perceived alienation. (4) Children’s left-behind status and boy gender may moderate (amplify) the effect of parent’s to-parent alienation on children’s to-parent alienation.

Methods

Subjects

Children and their parents were eligible for this study if the children were in four to six grades at a primary school in Chongqing, China, and could read and write in Chinese. Exclusion criterion: Orphans or their parents disagreed to participate this two-stage survey. From July 2022 to June 2023, potential participants were invited verbally and in writing from primary schools in rural areas of Chongqing, China. Initially, 920 students (aged between 8 and 15) and their parents were invited. Of these, 782 families agreed to participate and completed the questionnaire, resulting in 782 pairs of parent-child data. Of these children, 79% were left-behind children (aged between 8 and 14 years old), with 420 boys and 362 girls, their parents (aged between 29 and 47) comprised of 316 fathers and 466 mothers. Among them, 148 (19%) were divorced.

Among 615 left-behind children, 131 (21%) had divorced parents; 28 (5%) were mother-left, 103 (17%) were father-left, 484 (79%) were both-parent-left; when mother left, the mean left-behind age was 4.54 years old; when father left, the mean left-behind age was 4.67 years old. The primary home-caregivers for these left-behind children varied: one of the parents (n = 141, 23%), grandparents (n = 431, 70%), relatives or neighbors (n = 24, 4%), siblings or none (n = 19, 3%).

Instruments

Socio-demographic information

Socio-demographic information was collected using a self-designed scale, including gender, age, grade, and left-behind status of children, as well as parents’ gender, age, and years of education.

Questionnaires about alienation and life-events

We included the Chinese version of the Inventory of Alienation towards Parents (IAP) to investigate perceived alienation towards parents (i.e., child’s to-parent alienation, parents’ to-parent alienation), which was developed in our previous work [1]. It consists of paternal and maternal forms (9 items for each, and 18 items in total). The total perceived to-parent alienation score was calculated by summing the responses to all 18 items, resulting in a range of 18–90 based on the 5-point Likert scale. A higher score represents higher perceived alienation towards parents. For children, the coefficients were 0.855 for the maternal form and 0.886 for the paternal form. For parents, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were 0.830 for the maternal form, 0.856 for the paternal form.

In this study, we revised the IAP to evaluate parents’ perceived alienation towards their children. We reworded each of the 18 items from a child’s perspective to a parent’s perspective. For example, “I feel that I cannot communicate with mother” was changed to “I feel that I cannot communicate with my child.” Three professors and seven post-graduate students majoring in psychology validated the revision. The exploratory factor analysis (EFA) indicated an expected two-component structure (communication and emotional distance) [1] with item factor-loading above 0.5, the correlation coefficients between items and total score were between 0.40 and 0.77. The KMO coefficient was 0.862, which accounted for as much as 59.714% of total variance. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.846. With a two-component structure, Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) showed satisfactory model fits of the child form (CMIN/DF = 2.701, NFI = 0.900, IFI = 0.932, TLI = 0.920, CFI = 0.932, RMSEA = 0.073).

We used the Adolescent Self-Rating Life-events Checklist (ASLEC) [38], to assess stress levels in adolescents. This scale assesses the severity and frequency of life-events experienced over the last six months through 27 items, each scored on a five-point scale ranging from 1 ( “no influence”) to 5 (“severe influence”). In this study, the ASLEC’s Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0. 850.

Procedures

This study obtained necessary permission from the Bureau of Education and Primary School. This study was sanctioned by the Human Research Ethics Committee of the Army Medical University (Approval Number: 2021-28-03). The researchers explained the study to children (in classroom) and their parents (in classroom and via WeChat). Both parents and children who are willing to participate signed on the online (parents)/written (children) informed consent. Subsequently, the investigation (only IAP) was conducted in primary school classroom and remotely via the internet for the parents. Six months later, children were surveyed in classroom with IAP and ASLEC. Children and parents were debriefed and received incentives after completing the survey.

Statistics

Through collaboration between school and families, all 782 valid questionnaires from children were collected without sample loss. To address item-level missing data, such as unanswered questions, the mean imputation method was used for data processing [39]. To test hypotheses, we used theχχ²²test and independent t-test to compare the demographic differences of participants. A Pearson correlation was conducted to examine the relationships between perceived alienation, life-events, and demographic variables (Spearman’s rank-order correlation for education level). Furthermore, a multiple stepwise regression was utilized to observe the predictors of children’s perceived alienation. We also applied a structural equation model using AMOS 24.0 to test the mediation of children’s life-events (controlling for children’s age, gender, grade, parents’ leaving status) and the moderation of children’s gender and left-behind status (multi-group analysis), with bias-corrected 95% confidence intervals calculated via bootstrapping (k = 5,000 samples) [40–42]. A 95% CI that did not include zero indicated a significant mediation or moderation effect. Post-hoc sensitivity analyses were further carried out to address statistical power of models.

Results

Demographic differences on basic information (table 1)

Table 1.

Demographic differences on basic information

			Parent						Child
			Age	Education level	TMoA	TFaA	TPaA	TChA	Gender (M/F)	Age	Grade	TMoA	TFaA	TPaA	Mabs (home/absent)	Fabs (home/absent)
Parent	Father	M	40.63	52/195/56/13	15.83	15.00	30.83	16.08	171/145	10.93	4.89	15.32	15.11	30.43	112/204	83/233
	(n = 316)	S.D.	7.36	/	5.69	5.13	9.76	5.85	/	1.02	0.83	6.33	6.44	11.64	/	/
	Mother	M	38.99	126/264/59/17	15.34	15.50	30.85	15.51	249/217	11.00	4.92	14.92	15.31	30.23	184/282	97/369
	(n = 466)	S.D.	7.16	/	5.77	6.21	10.59	5.95	/	1.00	0.82	6.23	7.59	12.18	/	/
		t/χ2	3.109	13.471	1.166	-1.237	-0.022	1.322	0.035	-1.005	-0.54	0.875	-0.393	0.233	1.308	3.157
		p	0.002	0.004	0.244	0.216	0.983	0.187	0.884	0.315	0.589	0.40	0.695	0.815	0.253	0.046
Child	Male	M	40.08	94/251/55/20	15.73	15.79	31.52	16.05	/	11.06	4.94	15.20	15.41	30.61	157/263	97/323
	(n = 420)	S.D.	7.18	/	6.23	6.40	11.47	6.40	/	1.01	0.84	6.40	7.16	12.21	/	/
	Female	M	39.17	84/208/60/10	15.31	14.74	30.05	15.38	/	10.87	4.88	14.94	15.02	29.97	139/223	83/279
	(n = 362)	S.D.	7.37	/	5.11	4.97	8.59	5.29	/	1.00	0.80	6.12	7.14	11.67	/	/
		t/χ2	1.749	3.86	1.01	2.574	2.036	1.612	/	2.621	0.962	0.578	0.751	0.752	0.085	0.003
		p	0.081	0.277	0.313	0.01	0.042	0.107	/	0.009	0.336	0.563	0.453	0.452	0.77	0.956
	Mother home	M	41.36	67//174/43/12	14.58	14.88	29.46	14.85	157/139	11.07	5.04	14.68	15.07	29.75	/	165/131
	(n = 296)	S.D.	7.01	/	5.07	5.81	9.44	5.30	/	1.01	0.83	6.09	7.50	11.84	/	/
	Mother absent	M	38.62	111/285/72/18	16.12	15.56	31.68	16.29	263/223	10.92	4.83	15.33	15.33	30.65	/	15/471
	(n = 486)	S.D.	7.25	/	6.05	5.79	10.65	6.20	/	1.00	0.81	6.17	6.93	12.03	/	/
		t/χ22	5.195	0.073	-3.813	-1.602	-2.949	-3.44	0.085	2.018	3.432	-2.40	-0.482	-1.022	/	287.856
		p	< 0.001	0.995	< 0.001	0.11	0.003	0.001	0.824	0.044	0.001	0.015	0.63	0.307	/	< 0.001
	Father home	M	40.56	30/109/35/6	14.96	15.04	30.00	14.67	97/83	11.14	5.16	14.95	15.43	30.38	165/15	/
	(n = 180)	S.D.	7.18	/	5.62	5.78	10.03	4.87	/	1.01	0.80	6.37	7.92	12.30	/	/
	Father absent	M	39.39	148/350/80/24	15.71	15.38	31.09	16.06	323/279	10.92	4.84	15.12	15.17	30.29	131/471	/
	(n = 602)	S.D.	7.29	/	5.77	5.81	10.32	6.16	/	1.00	0.82	6.24	6.91	11.86	/	/
		t/χ2	1.896	7.679	-1.538	0.689	-1.251	-3.15	0.003	2.581	4.579	-0.328	0.437	0.089	287.856	/
		p	0.058	0.039	0.124	0.491	0.211	0.002	0.956	0.01	< 0.001	0.743	0.662	0.929	< 0.001	/

Education level = Primary school or lower/ Middle school /College / Postgraduate or higher

TMoA To-mother Alienation, TFaA To-father Alienation, TPaA To-parent Alienation, TChA To-child Alienation, Mabs Mother absent, Fabs Father absent

Compared to fathers, mothers were younger (t (780) = 3.109, p = 0.002), with lower educational level (χ²(3, 782) = 13.471, p = 0.004) and leaving home less often (χ²(1, 782) = 3.157, p = 0.046). Among children, boys were elder (t (780) = 2.621, p = 0.009), and their parents reported higher to-father alienation (t (780) = 2.574, p = 0.010).

Compared to at-home counterparts, mothers who left home were younger (t (780) = 5.195, p < 0.001), possessed a higher level of to-mother alienation (t (780) = -2.949, p = 0.003) and to-children alienation (t (780) = -3.440, p = 0.001), with spouses leaving home more likely (χ²(1, 782) = 287.856, p < 0.001). Their children were younger (t (780) = 2.018, p = 0.044), had lower grades (t (780) = 3.432, p = 0.001), and had a higher level of to-mother alienation (t (780) = -2.400, p = 0.015).

Compared to at-home counterparts, fathers who left home were younger (t (780) = 1.896, p = 0.058), with lower educational levels (χ²(3, 782) = 7.679, p = 0.039), and possessed a higher level of to-children alienation (t (780) = -3.150, p = 0.002), with spouses leaving home more likely (χ²(1, 782) = 287.856, p < 0.001). Their children were younger (t (780) = 2.581, p = 0.010) and in lower grades (t (780) = 4.579, p < 0.001).

Correlation between parents’ and children’s perceived alienation (table 2)

Table 2.

Correlation between parent’s perceived alienation and children’s to-parent alienation

	Parent							Child
	Role (Father/Mother)	Age	Education level a	TMoA	TFaA	TPaA	TChA	Gender (M/F)	Age	Grade	TMoA	TFaA	TPaA	life-events	Mabs (home/absent)	Fabs (home/absent))
Role	1.00
Age	-0.11**	1.00
Education level	0.11**	0.18**	1.00
TMoA	-0.04	0.00	-0.03	1.00
TFaA	0.04	0.01	-0.01	0.58**	1.00
TPaA	0.00	0.00	-0.02	0.89**	0.89**	1.00
TChA	-0.05	0.02	-0.01	0.58**	0.50**	0.61**	1.00
Gender	0.01	-0.06	0.00	-0.04	-0.09*	-0.07*	-0.06	1.00
Age	0.04	0.09*	0.00	-0.01	0.02	0.01	0.02	-0.09*	1.00
Grade	0.02	0.13**	0.07*	0.01	0.02	0.02	0.02	-0.03	0.74**	1.00
TMoA	-0.03	-0.03	-0.01	0.23**	0.13**	0.20**	0.20**	-0.02	0.08*	0.10**	1.00
TFaA	0.01	0.01	0.01	0.14**	0.18**	0.18**	0.15**	-0.03	0.07*	0.09*	0.59**	1.00
TPaA	-0.01	-0.01	-0.01	0.20**	0.18**	0.21**	0.19**	-0.03	0.08*	0.11**	0.88**	0.91**	1.00
children’s life-events	-0.03	-0.05	0.04	0.15**	0.18**	0.19**	0.14**	-0.05	-0.007	-0.09*	0.31**	0.25**	0.32**	1.00
Mabs	-0.04	-0.18**	0.00	0.13**	0.06	0.11**	0.12**	-0.01	-0.07*	-0.12**	0.05	0.02	0.04	0.17**	1.00
Fabs	0.06	-0.07*	0.08**	0.06	0.02	0.04	0.10**	0.00	-0.09*	-0.16**	0.01	-0.02	0.00	0.13**	0.61**	1.00

^aSpearman’s rank-order correlation

*p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01

Pearson correlation analysis showed that moderate to high correlations emerged between parents’ to-parent and to-child alienation (r = 0.50–0.89), as well as between children’s to-mother and to-father alienation (r = 0.59–0.91), and a high correlation emerged in leaving home status of fathers and mothers (r = 0.61). Moreover, low to moderate positive correlations were found between parents’ alienation and children’s alienation (r = 0.14–0.23). Children’s life-events mildly correlated with both parents’ perceived alienation (r = 0.14–0.19) and their leaving status(r = 0.13–0.17), and moderately correlated with children’s perceived alienation (r = 0.25–0.32). Furthermore, parents’ leaving status was positively correlated with their to-parent alienation (r = 0.11–0.13) and to-children alienation (r = 0.10–0.12), as well as with the father’s education level (r = 0.08) (Spearman’s rank-order correlation), but negatively correlated with their age (r= -0.07- -0.18). The female gender of both parents and children was correlated with younger age. Additionally, the younger age of children was correlated with more leaving of parents, and a female child was associated with a lower level of alienation towards parents.

Stepwise regression for children’s to-parent alienation (table 3)

Table 3.

Stepwise regression for children’s alienation

Dependent variable	Independent variables	B	Beta	t	p	F	Standard R square
Alienation towards mother	Alienation towards father	0.396	0.482	12.315	< 0.001	83.931	0.349
	children’s life-events	0.047	0.169	4.310	< 0.001
	Mother’s to-child alienation	0.151	0.145	3.810	< 0.001
Alienation towards father	Alienation towards mother	0.66	0.649	15.268	< 0.001	126.069	0.443
	Paternal to-father alienation	0.117	0.093	2.200	0.029*

Note: * p <0.05

A stepwise regression analysis was conducted using children’s to-mother and to-father alienation as dependent variables, demographic variables, life-events, and alienation scores of parents as independent variables. The results showed that children’s to-father alienation, mother’s to-child alienation, and children’s life-events emerged as positive predictors of children’s to-mother alienation (F = 89.931, standard R² = 0.349, p < 0.001). Similarly, the model for children’s to-father alienation identified children’s to-mother and father’s to-father alienation as significant positive predictors (F = 126.069, standard R² = 0.443, p < 0.001).

Model test about the effect of parents’ alienation on children’s alienation: mediation mechanism (fig. 1 and table S1)

Fig. 1.

Prediction of mother’s and father’s alienation on children’s to-parent alienation

Based on the regression results, a hypothesis-driven model test was conducted on children’s to-mother alienation, with mother’s to-parent as independent variable and mother’s to-child alienation and children’s life-events as mediating variables. Children’s age, gender, grade, and parents’ leaving status were set as covariates. The model’s fit was good, indicated by CMIN/DF = 1.802, NFI = 0.961, RFI = 0.930, IFI = 0.982, CFI = 0.982, and RMSEA = 0.042. The path model showed that mother’s to-mother alienation (β = 0.58, p < 0.001) and to-father alienation (β = 0.13, p = 0.002) were positively associated with mother’s to-child alienation, while mother’s to-father alienation directly impacted children’s life-events (β = 0.16, p < 0.001). The direct effect paths from mother’s to-mother alienation (β = 0.07, 95%CI [-0.018, 0.113], p = 0.347) and to-father alienation (β = -0.022, 95%CI [-0.059, 0.015], p = 0.694) to children’s to-mother alienation were not significant. Notably, mother’s to-father and to-mother alienation were positively correlated (r = 0.56, p < 0.001), and both factors indirectly affected children’s to-mother alienation through mother’s to-child alienation (to-mother alienation: indirect effect = 0.096, 95%CI [0.075, 0.124], p = 0.010, accounted for 45.2% of the total effect; to-father alienation: indirect effect = 0.020, 95%CI [0.014, 0.031], p = 0.010, representing 9.5% of the total effect). Mother’s to-father alienation also indirectly predicted children’s to-mother alienation through children’s life-events (indirect effect = 0.047, 95%CI [0.038, 0.062], p = 0.002), accounted for 22.3% of the total effect. Children’s life-events were the strongest direct predictor of children’s to-mother alienation (β = 0.30, p < 0.001).

Another hypothesis-driven model test was conducted on children’s to-father alienation, with father’s to-parent as independent variable and father’s to-child alienation and children’s life-events as mediating variables. Children’s age, gender, grade, and parents’ leaving status were set as covariates. The model’s fit was good, indicated by CMIN/DF = 2.076, NFI = 0.937, IFI = 0.967, CFI = 0.966, and RMSEA = 0.058. The path model showed that father’s to-father (β = 0.48, p < 0.001) and to-mother alienation (β = 0.18, p = 0.001) was directly associated with father’s to-child alienation, and father’s to-father alienation had a direct effect on children’s life-events (β = 0.23, p < 0.001). Father’s to-father and to-mother alienation were highly correlated (r = 0.63, p < 0.001). However, father’s to-mother alienation did not directly affected (β = 0.14, p = 0.058) children’s to-father alienation. Father’s to-father alienation did not have a significant direct effect (β = 0.008, 95%CI [-0.072, 0.080], p = 0.967) but an indirect effect on children’s to-father alienation, which was fully mediated by children’s life-events (indirect effect = 0.046, 95%CI [0.036, 0.064], p = 0.002).

Moderation of children’s gender and left-behind status on the prediction of parent’s alienation on children’s alienation

Based on the correlation results, we included children’s gender as a moderator in the model test. Analysis indicated satisfactory model fit for children’s to-mother alienation(Δχ² = 13.205, Δdf = 1, ΔNFI = 0.025, ΔIFI = 0.025, ΔRFI = 0.091, ΔTLI = 0.095, p < 0.001) and children’s to-father alienation (Δχ² = 18.653, Δdf = 1,ΔNFI = 0.053, ΔIFI = 0.054, ΔRFI = 0.203, ΔTLI = 0.215, p < 0.001). Multi-group analysis revealed that children’s gender moderated the effect of parent’s perceived alienation on children’s alienation (p < 0.001). Girls had a stronger correlation between mother’s (p < 0.001) and father’s (p < 0.001) to-mother and to-father alienation. See Fig. 2 and Table S1.

Fig. 2.

Moderation effect of children’s gender on the prediction of parent’s perceived alienation on children’s alienation

Similarly, parents’ leaving status was included as moderator in the model test. Analysis indicated satisfactory model fit for children’s to-father alienation (Δχ² = 4.732, Δdf = 1, p = 0.030, ΔNFI = 0.013, ΔIFI = 0.013, ΔRFI = 0.050, ΔTLI = 0.050, p = 0.030). Multi-group analysis revealed the father’s leaving status moderated the relationship between the father’s to-father alienation and experienced life-event of children. Children with leaving-father reported a weaker effect of father’s to-father alienation on children’s life-events (p < 0.001). Surprisingly, maternal alienation’s effect on children’s alienation was not moderated by the mother’s leaving status (p = 0.484). See Fig. 3 and Table S1.

Fig. 3.

Moderation effect of father’s leaving status on the prediction of father’s perceived alienation on children’s alienation

Sensitivity Analysis: Post-hoc sensitivity analyses addressed statistical power of models. We selected the two complex models using multi-group analysis. For the gender model (Fig. 2A), the minimum detectable effect size (MDES) was calculated with a two-group design. With N = 782 (male = 420, female = 362), alpha of 0.05, and power of 0.80, the study detected effect size was Cohen’s d = 0.261. All examined paths surpassed this threshold, with effect sizes ranging from 0.34 to 0.90, corresponding to statistical power exceeding 95.95%. For the father’s leaving status model (Fig. 3), the MDES was also computed using a two-group design (leaving vs. no-leaving). With N = 349 (leaving group = 293, no-leaving group = 56), alpha of 0.05, and power of 0.80, the detectable effect size was Cohen’s d = 0.42. All examined paths exceeded this threshold, with effect sizes ranging from 0.45 to 1.71, corresponding to power estimates between 91.2% and 99.0%.

Discussion

Based on the intergenerational transmission theory [37], this study was among the first to confirm the effect of parents’ perceived alienation on children’s alienation. Notably, the study found that parents’ to-mother and to-father alienation had different pathways linking to the children’s to-parent alienation, with parents’ to-child alienation and children’s life-events serving as mediators. Additionally, girls reported stronger association between parents’ to-father and to-mother alienation and father’s leaving status reduced the predictive link between father’s to-father alienation and children’s life-events.

Demographic analysis showed that parents, especially fathers who were younger and with lower educational levels, were more likely to leave home. Moreover, the leaving-home status of couples was significantly correlated. The results indicated that couples highly influenced each other’s “leaving home status”, a trend more prevalent among younger people with lower educational level [43]. Parents who are leaving home for work tended to report greater to-parent and to-child alienation. Correspondingly, their younger children, who were in lower grades, reported higher level of to-mother alienation. The findings further revealed that the leaving status of parents was correlated with their perceived alienation towards their own parents and kids, subsequently impacting their children’s alienation towards them. Together, these results reveal the profile of migrant parents (younger, lower education, higher to-parent and to-child alienation) and establish a correlation between family structure (parental absence) and process of perceived alienation within family system. Consistent with family system theory [28], these findings show how family structural factors like labor migration interact with emotional and relational processes within a family, and associate with transmission of alienation between generations.

Correlation analysis showed that to-mother and to-father alienation were highly correlated in parents and children. This suggested a significant co-occurrence of alienation feelings towards father and mother. One possible explanation is that in intact families (81% in our sample), couple’s rearing attitudes tend to be aligned [44], a finding consistent with the interdependence within family system theory [45]. Thus, children’s feelings towards their parents are significantly correlated. Parents’ perceived alienation status was less strongly, yet significantly correlated with children’s perceived alienation. Similarly, children’s life-events were correlated with the alienation levels of both generations. Our findings further indicated a correlation between parents’ leaving status and theirs to-parent alienation, as well as between children’s gender and their to-parent alienation. This suggested that parents’ leaving status and children’s gender may potentially moderate these relationships. The observed correlations establish the foundational relational context necessary for exploring the specific transmission pathways from parents’ perceived alienation to children’s alienation towards parent.

Regression and structural equation modeling provided support for our hypotheses, and importantly, revealed differential transmission mechanisms from mothers’ and fathers’ alienation, thereby refining the application of intergenerational transmission theory. For mothers’ alienation, the model showed that mother’s to-parent alienation was indirectly affected children’s to-mother alienation through mother’s to-child alienation and children’s life-events, while father’s to-father alienation was indirectly affected children’s to-father alienation solely through children’s life-events. The results suggested an intergenerational association between parent’s to-parent alienation and children’s to-parent alienation. The findings clearly confirmed our main hypothesis: parents’ to-parent alienation affects their to-child alienation (Hypothesis 1), and their’ children’s to-parent alienation (Hypothesis 2), revealing patterns aligned with intergenerational transmission of perceived alienation. This reveals distinct intergenerational transmission mechanisms: Mother’s alienation affects children through their interaction with children during daily rearing, since mothers are more likely to be the main caregiver in a Chinese family [46], while father’s alienation affects children through child experienced life-events since fathers might represent a source of power in a Chinese family when child facing a life-event, consistent with family system theory [28]. These findings confirmed and extended intergenerational transmission theory [21] by applying it to the specific domain of parent-child alienation, a critical yet understudied facet of family relationships. Thus, to reduce to-parent alienation in children, parents’ to-parent alienation should be evaluated first. The findings enrich our understanding for the intergenerational associations in parent and child within a family system.

Moreover, the transmission pathways revealed important role differences that refine theoretical understanding. Parents’ alienation towards same-gender parent influenced their to-children alienation and children’s to-parent (same-gender) alienation most. This same-gender preference was consistent with previous reporting, indicating that mothers often prefer daughters as sources of emotional support [47, 48] and behave differently in cross-gender versus same-gender parent-child interactions [49].This finding suggests that parents who experienced high alienation towards mother may increase emotionally distant of children towards their mother subconsciously. Our result broadened the knowledge about same-gender preference to parent-child alienation. Thus, to reduce children’s to-parent alienation, parental to-same-gender-parent alienation should be extensively focused, which helps to form more effective interventions in schools and families.

Mediation analysis elucidates mechanism in the intergenerational transmission process. Specifically, children’s life-events consistently mediated the prediction of parental to-father alienation on children’s to-father alienation; to-child alienation mediated the prediction of mother’s to-mother alienation on children’s to-mother alienation. The results indicated that life-event was a mediator of parent’s to-father alienation on children’s to-parent alienation, while to-child alienation was a mediator of mother’s to-mother alienation on children’s to-mother alienation. This differential mediation shows that alienation transmits not only through emotional contagion or modeling but by influencing the child’s social-ecological environment: Parents’ unresolved alienation may create a family atmosphere that causes negative life-events for the child or reduces parental support in managing these event s [31]. Thus, children who experienced more negative life-events should be considered to reduce the negative impact of parent’s to-father alienation [1, 50](Hypothesis 3). In contrast, mother’s to-child alienation should be evaluated to prevent the negative influence of mother’s to-mother alienation (Hypothesis 1). Based on family system theory [28], the mediation pathway operationalizes a core tenet of intergenerational transmission theory: the parental relational traumas may transmit in a family by altering the child’s psychosocial environment. The knowledge helps to understand the intergenerational mechanism of children’s to-parent alienation and further gives evidence to parent-child intervention in schools and families. Notably, the relationship between life-events and parent-child alienation could be bidirectional; that is, parent-child alienation might increase the experience of various life-events, and difficult life-events could improve or endanger the parent-child relationship, which remains unconfirmed [31]. Thus, the causal relationship between life-events and parents-child alienation needs more exploration to confirm.

Moderation analysis further contextualizes the differences in intergenerational transmission process by specifying for whom and under what conditions transmission is most potent. For both fathers and mothers, children’s gender moderated the effect of parents’ perceived alienation on children’s to-parent alienation. Specifically, girls had a stronger correlation between mother’s and father’s to-father and to-mother alienation, inconsistent with Hypothesis 4. The results suggested that children’s girl gender affects parents’ perceived alienation [51], highlighting girls’ greater emotional sensitivity to family dynamics, pointing to potential avenues for intervention. Moreover, the left-behind status of the father emerged as a critical contextual reducer. Children with a leaving father had a weaker prediction of father’s to-father alienation on children’s life-event. Father’s absence may limit father-child interaction which may induce a disharmony relationship between father and child since that father is viewed as less patient and less sensitive to child’s need [52]. However, a conclusion that father’s absence is benefit to father-child relationship might be inaccurate, since that father’s absence may reduce children’s attachment towards them simultaneously [53], a sort of double-edged. Together, to reduce children’s to-parent alienation, girl gender should be considered [1], while to reduce children’s to-father alienation, the father’s leaving status should be evaluated (Hypothesis 4). Interestingly, mother’s leaving status did not significantly moderate the effect of mother’s perceived alienation on children’s to-mother alienation. The reason might be that the interaction and connection between mother and children during the mothers’ leaving are varied, with heterogeneity in communication with mothers in frequency, time duration, content, and coming home frequency of mothers [54, 55], these factors count together to the non-significant moderation of mother’s leaving. Notably, in China, due to the previous one-child policy and traditional beliefs about family, parents may indoctrinate the child to dislike, fear, or avoid contact with the other parent, especially when the couple is in trouble or one of the couple is absent from home. Thus, the reason for the development of a child’s to-parent alienation is really complex and multi-sources.

Limitations and implications

First, this study only observed one-parent’s perceived alienation due to the prevalence of parental migration, thereby limiting the comprehensiveness of the data. Second, both parents and children were surveyed once, which constrained the predictive power of results. Nonetheless, the findings extend the intergenerational transmission theory to encompass parent-child alienation, emphasizing same-gender pathways and mediation of children’s life-events. Practically, effective prevention requires mitigating parental alienation in adults (with attention to same-gender dynamics) and building resilience in children exposed to negative life-events, a key high-risk context. Future research should include longitudinal and dyadic studies.

Conclusions

This study provides pioneering evidence for the intergenerational transmission of parent-child alienation. It advances intergenerational transmission theory by mapping specific, gendered pathway and identifying contextual moderator. The intergenerational influence of parent-child alienation gives valuable suggestions for future family interventions. Findings about mediation of life-events and parents’ to-child alienation and moderation of girl gender and father’s left-behind status give further evidence supporting psychological interventions for specific subgroups of children who experiencing parent-child alienation. Results build on a growing knowledge referring to the intergenerational influence embedded within a family system and underscore the importance of parents’ perceived alienation in shaping their children’s to-parent alienation.

Authors’ contributions

Xiaoxiao Sun carried out the survey, analyzed the data and drafted the manuscript. Xingcong Zhao and Chun Cui took part in data analysis and revision of manuscript. Jieying Tan and Xuemei Qin revised the manuscript. Qin Dai supervised the survey, obtained the funding and revised the manuscript.

Funding

Doctor Dai claimed that this work was supported by the natural science funding of Chongqing (CSTB2025NSCQ-GPX0065), Social Science Foundation of Chongqing (2023NDYB94), and the education project of Army medical university (2023yjsB02).

Data availability

Data which analyzed in this study was available from corresponding author upon adequate requirement.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

The authors assert that all procedures contributing to this work comply with the ethical standards of the relevant national and institutional committees on human experimentation and with the Helsinki Declaration of 1975, as revised in 2013. All procedures involving human subjects/patients were approved by the Ethics Committee of Human Research of the Army Medical University (2021-28-03). The researchers explained the study to children (in classroom) and their parents (in classroom and via WeChat). Both parents and children who are willing to participate signed on the online (parents)/written (children) informed consent.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.